Optimization of image texture descriptors for recognition of wheat mill fractions. Digital image texture analysis was utilized to identify mill fractions from different mill streams and to assess wheat hardness differences. The study was conducted using a SRW wheat (Terra SR-87) and a HRW wheat (Thunderbird). Black and white images were acquired in a 256 x 256 pixel format to examine samples of coarse and fine mill fractions. Sixteen 64 x 64 pixel subimages per image were evaluated using texture analysis. Software was developed to calculate the image textural features used in the mill stream and hardness classification models. Several models based on image textural features were computed for different sets of subimages belonging to wheat of different hardness or mill stream. Recognition of hard wheat vs. soft wheat was achieved with 100 % correct recognition rate for each mill fraction when a three-feature model was used for pairwise analysis. Different mill fractions of the same wheat, coarse vs. fine, were discriminated similarly with 100 % accuracy for each pairwise comparison. All mill fractions were recognized successfully by a three-feature model with 100 % correct recognition rate when a mill fraction was considered as four classes. The wheat class and mill fraction discriminations were achieved with less than 3 g (~ 0.2 g per subimage) of material.

Comparison of bread-making factors assessed by digital imaging from scanner and camera. A study was conducted to evaluate bread crumb grain differences using digital image analysis applied to images acquired by scanner and CCD camera. The objective of the study was to develop an image texture-based model that recognized the effect of different technological factors on bread crumb grain. Co-occurrence matrix evaluations of 18 image texture features from 64 x 64 pixel subimages within bread slice images produced the database used for image texture feature analysis. Shape and size features of each slice also were included. Comparison of image texture features extracted from images acquired by a scanner and camera was done to assess sensitivity of the two methods. The commercially baked bread slices represented breads with two levels of formulation, five levels of water content and five different mixing times. The study showed that the shape, size, and texture features of the slices were sensitive to the formulation, water, and mixing time treatments. Image features were used to differentiate slices related to the technological factors shared. Correlation analyses were made between the image features and expert scores.

Development and evaluation of aeration-control strategies for maintaining stored grain quality. A grain temperature and moisture content model was used to simulate and evaluate the temperature and moisture conditions of grain during storage with different aeration-control strategies. By aeration, the entire grain mass was cooled during the winter months to below 5 C, and grain 2 m below the top surface and away from the bin wall maintained a temperature below 25 C through the summer months.

Modeling of moisture content of grain during storage with aeration. Two steel grain bins filled with wheat were used for observing seasonal variations in grain temperature and moisture content. A model was developed to predict grain moisture content and its distribution within the grain mass during storage. Predicted and measured grain moisture contents were in close agreement for a storage period of 15 months.

Development and evaluation of a single kernel wheat characterization system. The objective of this study was to evaluate commercial prototypes of the SKWCS and determine the accuracy, precision, and reproducibility of the systems in measuring SK wheat hardness, moisture content, weight, and size. The first six commercial prototypes were returned in January 1994 to the USGMRL after finishing the 1993 FGIS field location study. Results from the field study, approximately 1,000 samples for each system location, provided a database for FGIS performance evaluation and specifications. The systems were inspected by representatives from Perten Instruments and ARS to assess wear and correct problems that were discovered during the field study. Two additional commercial prototypes (P9 and P10) were received by USGMRL in February. USGMRL added computers and software to the systems and completed calibration and normalization. Two prototype systems were returned to FGIS in March for a sample life study. Two more systems were delivered to FGIS in April for the 1993 field crop survey. Four systems were delivered to the four ARS regional wheat laboratories in May to be included in routine studies of regional wheat samples. An operation and procedure manual was written to accompany the systems, and a training program was conducted for regional laboratory staff. One system was modified to segregate kilogram quantities of wheat kernels by kernel weight. Perten Instruments of North America introduced the production model 4100 at the combined GEAPS and NC-213 in February. Performance of the production model 4100 units was evaluated in late 1994. Delivery of the first production model 4100 system was made in December to the Grain Science Dept., Kansas State University. Collaborative investigations continued with the Grain Science Department regarding the potential of the SKWCS measurements to predict millability of wheat.

Assessment of wheat grain hardness using friabilin, a biochemical marker, and a single kernel crushing device. Endosperm texture is a major determinant of wheat grain quality. The gene that controls this trait (Ha) is located on the short arm of chromosome 5D and is associated with friabilin, a 15 kD protein, in soft wheat starch. Using homozygous recombinant substitution lines for 5D from the soft genotype Chinese Spring and hard genotype Cheyenne, the biochemical-genetic control of endosperm texture was studied. Grain hardness was measured using NIR and a SK crushing device (SKWCS). Preliminary results showed that NIR and SKWCS are highly correlated (R = 0.92). SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis was used to detect the presence of friabilin.

Acoustical monitoring of stored-grain insects: an automated system. An automated system for monitoring insect populations in stored grain with acoustical sensors was tested in six bins storing 65 to 110 t of newly harvested wheat on four farms in Kansas during 1992 and 1993. During both years, sounds were detected more frequently as insect density increased during the storage period, and the acoustical sensors detected insects 16 to 31 days earlier than grain trier samples. The number of times that acoustical sensors detected insects was correlated with insect densities in grain samples over the range of 0.5 to 7.5 insects per kg of grain. Acoustical detection increased by 1 each time insect density increased by 0.305 insects per kg of grain. The correlation between acoustical detection and insect density will enable us to estimate insect density without taking grain samples. Insects were detected at only 5 to 15 of the 56 sensor locations at which grain samples were taken. These locations were generally near the grain surface in the center of the bin.

Early detection of insects in stored wheat using sticky traps. Insect populations in 14 bins of newly harvested wheat on eight farms in Kansas were monitored with sticky traps in the bin headspace and with grain samples. Sticky trap catches during the first 3 weeks of storage were used to provide an estimate of the species and densities of insects that were present in the headspace. Grain samples were taken every 2 weeks during the first 3 months of storage to provide an estimate of population growth under the grain temperature and moisture conditions in the bins. The sticky traps correctly predicted whether lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), and rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), would be found in the grain samples in 85.8 and 87.6 % of the bins, respectively. Traps were less reliable for foreign grain beetle, Ahasverus advena (Waltl), and hairy fungus beetle, Typhaea stercorea (L.), with correct predictions in 57.1 and 42.9 % of bins, respectively. Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Huebner), was found in both traps and grain samples in only one bin, and red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), and sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.), were not found in either traps or grain samples in any of the bins. The traps in the center of the bin caught 4.7-14.2 times more beetles than those on the bin walls, but only 1.3 times more P. interpunctella adults. The total numbers of C. ferrugineus adults in the grain samples could be predicted better from the product of mean grain temperature x maximum grain moisture than from sticky trap catch.

Reduction of pesticide usage in stored commodities through application of biological control techniques. One aspect of this research is to find parasites that have some natural resistance to commonly used protectants, so that they can be used in an integrated manner with reduced levels of pesticide to control a given pest insect. The stability of malathion resistance is documented in a field strain of Anisopteromalus calandrae, an important parasite of grain weevils. After about 1.5 years of laboratory rearing, the malathion resistance in this strain has not declined. The parasite is about 2,800-fold resistant relative to the laboratory strain, making it the most naturally resistant parasitoid ever documented. We could not develop higher resistance levels against chlorpyrifos-methyl through laboratory selection procedures, even though there is some natural resistance to this organophosphate insecticide in the field strain.

Seasonal activity of stored-product insects in and around farm-stored wheat. The development of effective stored-product insect management programs requires an understanding of the risk of storing grain in a particular location. Managers need the ability to anticipate when, where, and to what extent infestations are likely to develop. We have a poor understanding of insect migration into storage facilities. The study was conducted to examine the relationship between the activity of stored-product insects outside bins and development of populations within the grain mass. We found a good relationship between outside population levels and the development of infestations in small experimental bins for several species. However, the relationship was not as good with farm bins, probably because of the use of grain protectants. This study demonstrates a potential for using outside monitoring to predict infestations in bins, but it is likely to be most effective where grain protectants are not used. Grain protectants, presence of livestock, and other factors strongly influence movement of insects into the grain.

The need for high-quality grain by both export buyers and domestic grain processors. Insect infestation is a major concern in the grain marketing system, because stored grain insects cause extensive damage to cereals and their milled products. This research project is investigating whether certain types of proteins (chemical defense proteins) inhibit stored grain insect growth and development when they are administered externally in the diet or internally by microbial biological control agents. When a potential chemical defense protein is identified, its gene will be cloned and manipulated in transformed cereals and/or entomopathogens for insect control purposes. The identification, testing, target sites, and development of proteinaceous materials for insect pest management were reviewed. The literature data support the hypothesis that genes for chemical defense proteins will be useful tools in host-plant resistance and biological control programs. This information can be used to help develop new `food-safe' methods of controlling stored grain insects without the application of environmentally unsafe and toxic chemicals.

Extensive damage of cereals and their milled products by stored grain insects. This project is investigating whether certain types of inhibitors of insect digestive enzymes, the amylases, are active enough to inhibit stored grain insect growth when they are administered in the diet. In a collaboration with plant biologists at University of California, San Diego, and biochemists at Kansas State University and University of Durham, England, we identified and characterized proteins from red kidney bean and wheat that are selective inhibitors for insect amylases and also demonstrated that the proteins are insect growth inhibitors when administered orally. This information is being used to develop new `food-safe' methods of controlling insects without the use of environmentally unsafe chemicals. The results indicate that the genes for these inhibitors can be manipulated in insect pest management programs using host-plant resistance and genetic engineering.

Review of computer models developed for simulating the population dynamics and management of stored-product pests. Computer models have not been developed for microorganism pests of stored grain, presumably because insects generally are considered to be the major pests of grain and because conditions that limit insect growth generally also limit growth of microorganisms in grain. Presumably for the same reasons, population dynamics models have been developed for only one mite pest. Ecological models have been developed for simulating the population dynamics of seven insect pests of stored grain. Most of these models describe population dynamics in limited environmental conditions and, thus, are not directly applicable to storage ecosystems. Models for optimizing management strategies have been developed for eight stored-grain insect pests. Data required to develop models for simulating control measures are generally lacking. Computer models that aid in managing stored-grain pests currently are not available commercially. Lack of economic studies on the costs and benefits of control strategies in grain storage probably will impede acceptance of these models. The major area where further research is required is collection of high-quality, quantitative data for describing the effects of abiotic factors (over the entire range of conditions at which grain is stored) on the life history of stored-grain pests and their natural enemies and the effects of protectant chemicals and fumigants on stored-grain pests.

News at the U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory and Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory (HWWQL) in the Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit. We at the HWWQL have evaluated intrinsic quality parameters of thousands of hard winter wheats from 31 federal, state, and private nurseries and completed and provided 31 reports for breeders for the 1993 crop samples and 6 special reports for collaborative studies on wheat quality. This was the first time we conducted microtesting on both Kansas Winter Wheat Performance Nursery and Southern Regional Performance Nursery samples from each individual location. Microtesting included physical and chemical characteristics by NIR and SKWCS, micromilling properties, and dough characteristics by a computerized mixograph. We could study the effects of growing locations of varieties on those wheat quality parameters. Reports are available upon request. This is also the first time we compiled pup loaf data on the Wheat Quality Council 1993 Crop Samples. We prepared reports including baking data of the 6 laboratories for the 9 large-scale samples and those of the 4 laboratories for the 24 small-scale samples. Reports were distributed at the Wheat Quality Council Meeting in March 1994 at Kansas City. During the period from October through December 1994, five scientists have relocated from Savannah, GA, to the Biological Research Unit at the USGMRL. The ARS lab at Savannah, GA, was one of the locations closed. The additional scientists are warmly welcomed and are expected to actively collaborate with the HWWQL. On November 1, 1994, Dr. Virgil W. Smail resigned from the Director's position at the USGMRL and began his new career as Acting President of the American Institute of Baking (AIB). Upon the retirement of Dr. William J. Hoover in January 1995, Dr. Smail was named as President of AIB. We wish him the best. Until a new Director is hired, Dr. John D. Crouse, Assistant Director of the Northern Plains Area, Fort Collins, CO, is graciously serving as Acting Director. The position application period ended January 31, 1995; conventional interview trips will be scheduled soon for candidates. Since the retirement of Mr. Lerance C. Bolte in May 1993, our Milling Lab has operated without a full time ARS miller but with a few hourly-waged students and one temporary Research Assistant who has just left us to join a commercial rice milling company in San Francisco, CA. The Federal Food Technologist (Miller) position was opened on February 6 and will be closed on March 6, 1995. We are very anxious to fill this position as soon as possible. Ms. Cristina E. Lang, Food Technologist (Baking Scientist), is leaving us in April to go to Montana State University to be in charge of their state quality testing laboratory. Ms. Lang has been with us since February 1993. We wish her the best of luck. Dr. Okkyung Kim Chung was appointed as the U.S. delegate to the International Association for Cereal Science and Technology (ICC). Dr. George L. Lookhart is a Co-chair of the Protein Working Group, and Dr. Chung is Chair of the Lipid Working Group of the ICC.

Publications. Bechtel DB and Wilson JD. 1994. Development of an automated digital image analysis system for the study of starch size distributions in wheat. Cereal Foods World 39:588 (Abstract). Bietz JA. and Lookhart GL. 1994. Wheat varietal identification by capillary electrophoresis: an inter-laboratory comparison of methods. Cereal Foods World 39:603 (Abstract). Chang C-Y, Seitz LM, and Chambers IV, Edgar. 1994. Volatile flavor components of breads made from hard red winter wheat and hard white winter wheat. Cereal Chem (In press). Chang CS., Converse HH. and Steele JL. 1994. Modeling of moisture content of grain during storage with aeration. Trans ASAE 37:(In press). Chang CS, Converse HH, and Steele JL. 1994. Modeling of moisture content of grain during storage with aeration. Proceedings of the Food Processing Automation III Conference. Pp. 200-212. Chang CS, and Steele JL. 1994. Development and evaluation of aeration control strategies for maintaining stored grain quality. ASAE Paper No. 94-6044. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI 49085. 26 pp. Chung OK, Finney PL, Martin CR, Steele JL, Seabourn BW, and Smail VW. 1994. Relationship between single kernel characteristics and end use quality. II Soft wheats. Cereal Foods World 39:604 (Abstract). Chung OK, Lookhart GL, Smail VW, Steele JL, McGaughey WH, Zayas IY, Bechtel DB, Dowdy AK, Hagstrum DW, Martin CR, Tilley KA, Wilson JD, Dempster RE, Finney KF, Sauer DB, Seitz LM, Brabec DL, Chang C, Converse HH, Cox TS, Flinn PW, Howard RW, Rousser R, Walker DE, Lin WDA, Kim HS, and Kim YS. 1994. Wheat research in the U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory. Ann Wheat Newslet 40:238-251 (Review). Chung OK, Ohm JB, Martin CR, Steele JL, Lookhart GL, and Smail VW. 1994. Relationship between single kernel characteristics and end use quality. I. Hard wheats. Cereal Foods World 39:603-604 (Abstract). Chung OK, Ohm JB, Martin CR, Steele JL, Lookhart GL, and Smail VW. 1994. Relationship between single kernel characteristics and end use quality of hard wheats. In: Quality Cereals in a Changing World. 14th Congress of the International Assoc for Cereal Science and Technology (ICC), The Hague, Netherlands, June 5-9, 1994. Poster 2.14 (Abstract). Chung OK and Pomeranz Y. 1994. Cereal Processing. In: Food Proteins: Properties and Applications, (Nakai S and Moddler HW eds). VCH Publishers, New York. Vol. II. (In press). Demacon VL, Morris CF, Martin CR., and Steele JL. 1994. Assessment of wheat grain hardness using friabilin, a biochemical marker, and a single kernel crushing device. Agron Abstr:194. Dowdy AK and McGaughey WH. 1994. Seasonal activity of stored-product insects in and around farm-stored wheat. J Econ Ent 87(5):1351-1358. Feng GH, Richardson M, Chen MS, Kramer KJ, Morgan TD, and Reeck GR. 1994. Alpha-amylase inhibitors from wheat: amino acid sequences and patterns of inhibition of insect alpha-amylases. Insect Biochem Molec Biol (In press). Hagstrum DW, Dowdy AK, and Lippert GE. 1994. Early detection of insects in stored wheat using sticky traps in bin headspace and prediction of infestation level. Environ Ent 23(5):1241-1244. Hagstrum DW, Flinn PW, and Shuman D. 1994. Acoustical monitoring of stored-grain insects: an automated system. Proc 6th Inter Working Conf Stored-Product Protection 1:403-405. Huebner FR, Nelsen TC, Chung OK, and Bietz JA. 1994. Protein distributions among hard red winter wheat varieties as related to environment and baking quality. Cereal Foods World 39:595 (Abstract). Jun WJ, Seib PA, and Chung OK. 1994. Non-starch lipids in wheat flours suitable for noodlemaking. Cereal Foods World 39:632 (Abstract). Kim YS, Flores RA, Deyoe LW, and Chung OK. 1995. Relation of physical characteristics of wheat blends and experimental milling performance to some commercial milling performance parameters. Appl Engin in Agric (In press). Lookhart GL, Bean SR, and Akkina SK. 1994. Rapid wheat cultivar differentiation by capillary zone electrophoresis. Cereal Foods World 39:603 (Abstract). Lookhart GL, Bean SR, and Akkina SK. 1994. High performance capillary electrophoresis optimization for wheat gliadin analyses and comparison of individual protein peak positions to high performance liquid chromatograph peaks. Cereal Foods World 39:627 (Abstract). Lookhart GL and Chung OK. 1994. Environmental effects on protein components, chemical and physical properties, and milling and bread-making data for Karl wheats grown at 6 locations in Kansas and harvested in 1993. In: Proc '94 International Symposium and Exhibition (ISE'94) on New Approaches in the Production of Food Stuffs and Intermediate Products from Cereal Grains and Oil Seeds. Pp. 611-615. Martin TJ, Harvey TL, Seifers DL, Cox TS, Sears RG, Bequette RK, Curran SP, Hatchett JH, Chung OK, and Witt MD. 1994. Registration of `Ike' wheat. Crop Sci (In press). Ohm JB, Chung OK, Guo AM, Deyoe CW, Lookhart GL, and Ponte JG Jr. 1994. Free lipids in straight grade flours and their air-classified high-protein fractions. Cereal Foods World 39:632 (Abstract). Oppert B, Kramer KJ, Johnson DE, MacIntosh SC, McGaughey WH, Pueyo JJ, Morgan TD, Ameenuddin N, Liang C, Reeck GR, and Chrispeels MJ. 1994. Effects of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and hard red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) alpha-amylase inhibitors on FONT SIZE=2 FACE="WP Greek Century""-amylase activity and growth of stored product insects. Entomol Exper Appl (In press). Park HS, Seib PA, and Chung OK. 1994. Stabilities of several forms of vitamin C during making and storage of pup-loaves of white pan bread. Cereal Chem 71:412-417. Park HS, Seib PA, Chung OK, and Seitz LM. 1994. Fortification of bread with beta-carotene. Cereal Foods World 39:627 (Abstract). Seabourn BW, Chung OK, and Seib PA. 1994. Rapid identification of some U.S. wheat lines by near infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Cereal Foods World 39:642 (Abstract). Seitz LM. 1994. Volatile compounds in wheat cultivars from several locations in Kansas. Proc 8th Inter Flavor Conference, Cos, Greece. (In press). Seitz LM and Sauer DB. 1994. Detection of specific compounds that indicate off-odors in grains. Cereal Foods World 39:604 (Abstract). Shomer I, Salomon R, Lookhart G, Vasiliver R, and Bean S. 1994. Heat coagulation of wheat flour albumins and globulins, their structure and temperature fractionation. J Cereal Sci (In press). Smail VW, Chung OK, and Steele JL. 1994. Recent efforts to develop technologies needed to implement a `total quality grain marketing system'. In: Proceedings of U.S.-Japan Protein Resource Panel. (In press). (Review). Throne JE. 1995. Computer modeling of the population dynamics of stored-product pests. In: Stored Grain Ecosystems (Jayas DS, White NGD, and Muir WE eds). Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. Pp. 169-195. Wilson JD, Bechtel DB, and Wetzel DL. 1994. Microstructural and chemical examination of soft, hard and durum wheats using Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy. Cereal Foods World 39:628 (Abstract). Zayas IY. 1994. Image analysis applications for grain science at USGMRL. Proc Inter Seminar on Nondestructive Methods of Quality Inspection of Grain, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Pp. 1-31. Zayas IY, Bechtel DB, Wilson JD, and Dempster RE. 1994. Distinguishing hard red and soft red winter wheats by image analysis of starch granules. Cereal Chem 71:82-86. Zayas IY and Steele JL. 1994. Optimization of image texture descriptors for recognition of wheat mill fractions. Cereal Foods World 39:588-589. (Abstract). Zayas IY, Steele JL, and Walker DE. 1994. Comparison of breadmaking factors assessed by digital imaging from scanner and camera. ASAE 1994 Inter Summer Meeting, Kansas City, KS, paper no. 94-3082.