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Part A Concepts and Techniques 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Light 3 1.2 Recording Light 4 1.3 The Beginnings of Photographic Optics 5 1.4 Photography and Imaging 6 1.5 Cameras, Lenses, and Theory 6 2 Films and Emulsions 9 2.1 The Daguerreotype 9 2.2 The Calotype 9 2.3 The Collodion Wet-Plate 10 2.4 The Gelatin Dry-Plate 10 2.5 How a Photographic Emulsion Works 11 2.6 Spectral Sensitivity 12 2.7 Color Photography and Films 13 2.7.1 Autochrome 13 2.7.2 Technicolor 14 2.7.3 Kodachrome 14 2.7.4 Agfachrome and Ektachrome 15 2.8 Standard Film Format Sizes 16 3 Electronic Image Sensors 17 3.1 The Charge-Coupled Device 17 3.2 Types of CCDs 18 3.2.1 Full-frame 19 3.2.2 Frame-transfer 19 3.2.3 Interline-transfer 20 3.3 CMOS Image Sensors 20 3.4 Impactron CCD Sensors 21 3.5 Color Electronic Cameras 22 3.6 Coding Color in Video and Digital 23 3.7 Standard CCD/CMOS Format Sizes 24 3.8 Applications 25 4 Limiting Resolution of Image Sensors 27 4.1 Film Limiting Resolution 27 4.2 CCD/CMOS Limiting Resolution 28 4.3 Total Numbers of Pixels 30 5 Silver and Silicon 31 5.1 Film versus Electronic Image Sensors 31 5.1.1 Practical picture-taking 31 5.1.2 Machine vision 32 5.1.3 Grain, pixelation, and resolution 32 5.1.4 Quantum efficiency and speed 32 5.1.5 Reciprocity, fog, and dark current 33 5.1.6 Maximum detector size 33 5.1.7 Spectral response 34 5.1.8 Photometric response 34 5.1.9 Calibration 34 5.1.10 Output form 35 5.1.11 Image permanence 35 5.2 Matching Sensors to the Application 35 5.2.1 Snapshots 35 5.2.2 Advanced amateur cameras 36 5.2.3 News, sports, and action 36 5.2.4 Movie films 36 5.2.5 Portraits 37 5.2.6 Glossy magazines 37 5.2.7 Advertising photography 37 5.2.8 Museum conservation/documentation 37 5.2.9 Artistic photography 37 5.2.10 Scientific photography 38 5.3 Trends 38 6 Cameras as Systems 39 6.1 Defining System Parameters 39 6.2 Effect of Object Distance 40 6.3 Curved Field versus Flat Field 41 6.4 Fast and Slow Lenses and Detectors 41 6.5 Anti-Reflection Coatings 41 6.6 Single-Lens-Reflex versus Rangefinder-Viewfinder 42 6.7 Zoom Lenses 43 7 Basic Geometrical Optics 45 7.1 Geometrical and Physical Optics 45 7.2 Lenses and Mirrors 45 7.3 Objects and Images 46 7.3.1 Real and virtual objects and images 47 7.4 Optical Axis 47 7.5 Stops 47 7.6 Vignetting 48 7.7 Marginal and Chief Rays 48 7.8 Pupils 49 7.9 Focal Length 50 7.10 Focal Ratio 50 7.11 Surface Shapes 51 7.12 Paraxial Optics and First-Order Properties 52 8 Aberrations 53 8.1 The Major Ray Aberrations 53 8.1.1 Longitudinal chromatic aberration 53 8.1.2 Lateral chromatic aberration 54 8.1.3 Spherical aberration 54 8.1.4 Coma 54 8.1.5 Astigmatism and field curvature 54 8.1.6 Distortion 56 8.2 Petzval Curvature 57 8.3 Effective Focal Length and Back Focal Length 59 8.4 Aberrations in Terms of BFL and EFL 60 8.5 Blur Size Dependences 61 9 Basic Physical Optics 63 9.1 Wavefronts and Optical Path Differences 63 9.2 Diffraction 64 9.3 The Airy Disk 65 9.4 Diffraction Plus Aberrations 66 10 Designing Camera Lenses 69 10.1 The Design Process 69 10.2 Optimizing with Rays versus OPDs 70 10.3 Aspheric Lens Surfaces 71 10.4 The Symmetry Principle 72 10.5 Scaling the System 73 10.6 Optical Prescriptions 74 10.7 Optical Patents 74 11 How to Handle Vignetting 77 11.1 Delete Vignetted Rays 78 11.2 Vignetting Factors 78 11.3 User-Defined Constraints 79 12 Optical Glass 81 12.1 Refractive Index 81 12.2 Dispersion 82 12.3 Partial Dispersion 82 12.4 Color Correction 84 12.4.1 Singlets 84 12.4.2 Mirrors 84 12.4.3 Achromats 84 12.4.4 Apochromats 85 12.5 Glass Manufacturers 85 12.6 Environmentally Friendly Glasses 86 13 Evaluating Camera Lens Performance 87 13.1 Layout 87 13.2 Spot Diagrams 89 13.3 Ray Fan Plots 91 13.4 Optical Path Differences 93 13.5 Astigmatism and Field Curvature 93 13.6 Distortion 93 13.7 Relative Image Illumination 95 13.8 Point Spread Function 96 13.9 The Strehl Ratio 98 13.10 Encircled and Ensquared Energy 99 13.11 Ghost-Image Analysis 100 13.12 Tolerance Analysis 100 13.13 Further Considerations 100 14 Spatial Frequency Response of Lenses 101 14.1 Spatial Frequencies 101 14.2 Modulation Transfer Function 102 14.3 Spurious Resolution 105 14.4 Aliasing 105 15 How Camera Lenses Perform Stopped Down 107 15.1 The f/2 Double-Gauss 108 15.2 Other Examples 113 15.3 Vibrations and Tripods 114 16 Optics-Limited or Detector-Limited 115 16.1 Sharpest Images in Camera Lenses 115 16.2 Sampling the Point Spread Function 115 16.3 Small-Format Digital Cameras 116 16.4 An Example 117 16.5 35 mm and 645 Film and Digital Cameras 117 16.5.1 Film 117 16.5.2 Digital 118 16.6 Large-Format Film Cameras 118 16.7 Television 119 17 Choosing Your Camera 121 17.1 Film Cameras 121 17.2 Electronic Cameras 122 17.3 Cameras of the Future 123 Part B Lenses for Large-Format 4 3 5 Film Cameras 125 18 Pre-Anastigmatic Early Lenses 127 18.1 Singlet Landscape Lens 128 18.2 Achromatic Landscape Lenses 131 18.3 Petzval Portrait Lens 133 18.4 Rapid Rectilinear Lens 135 19 Symmetrical Anastigmats 139 19.1 Dagor 140 19.2 Reversed Dagor 143 19.3 Orthostigmat 143 19.4 Celor 143 20 Higher Performance and Modern Anastigmats 149 20.1 Cooke Triplet 149 20.2 Tessar 152 20.3 Heliar and Pentac 154 20.4 Planar 154 20.5 Plasmat 158 21 Wide-Angle Lenses 163 21.1 Hypergon 163 21.2 Topogon 166 21.3 Biogon 169 Part C Lenses for Small-Format 35 mm Film and Digital Cameras 173 22 Moderate-Speed Standard Lenses 175 22.1 Cooke Triplet, f/3.5 177 22.2 Tessar, f/3.5 179 22.3 Tessar, f/2.8 182 23 High-Speed Standard Lenses 183 23.1 Double-Gauss, f/2.0 184 23.2 Sonnar, f/2.0 186 23.3 Double-Gauss, f/1.4 188 24 Wide-Angle Lenses 191 24.1 Double-Gauss, 35 mm, f/2.8 191 24.2 Biogon, 21 mm, f/3.5 193 24.3 Hologon, 15 mm, f/8.0 195 24.4 Retrofocus Lenses, 21 mm, f/3.5 198 24.4.1 Negative-in-front 199 24.4.2 Positive-in-front 199 24.5 Full-Frame Fisheye, 14 mm, f/2.8 202 24.5.1 Elliptical distortion 203 25 Tele Lenses 207 25.1 Double-Gauss, 105 mm, f/2.8 207 25.2 Sonnar, 105 mm, f/2.8 209 25.3 True Telephoto, 300 mm, f/4.0 210 25.4 Catadioptric Telescope, 1200 mm, f/8.0 212 26 Zoom Lenses 215 Part D Special-Purpose Optics 223 27 Astrocameras 225 27.1 Schmidt Camera 225 27.2 Wright Camera 229 27.3 Wynne Camera 231 28 Telecentric Machine-Vision Metrology Lens 235 29 Ultraviolet and Infrared Lenses 239 29.1 Ultraviolet Celor Lens 239 29.2 Mid-Wave Infrared Petzval Lens 241 29.3 Mid-Wave Infrared Double-Gauss Lens 244 29.4 Mid-Wave Infrared Hologon Lens 244 29.5 Long-Wave Infrared Double-Gauss Lens 247 30 Widescreen Movie Systems 249 30.1 Anamorphic Afocal Attachment 250 30.2 360-Scope 252 31 The Mars Rover Camera Lenses 255 31.1 The Cameras 256 31.2 PanCams 256 31.3 NavCams 258 31.4 HazCams 260 31.5 Microscopic Imager 260 31.6 SunCam and Descent Camera 264 31.7 Acknowledgments 265 31.8 For Further Reading 266 Part E Timeline of Advances and Milestones 267 Appendix of Optical Prescriptions Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Photographic lenses.