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PREFACE xvii Unit 1 Levels of Organization CHAPTER 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1 1-1 INTRODUCTION: STUDYING THE HUMAN BODY 2 The Sciences of Anatomy and Physiology 2 Anatomy 2 Physiology 3 1-2 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION 3 1-3 HOMEOSTASIS 5 Negative Feedback 8 Positive Feedback 10 Systems Integration 10 1-4 A FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR ANATOMICAL STUDIES 10 Superficial Anatomy 11 Sectional Anatomy 15 Body Cavities 15 REVIEW QUESTIONS 19 CHAPTER 2 THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION 20 2-1 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND BONDS 21 Atomic Structure 21 Chemical Bonds 23 2-2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS 27 Basic Energy Concepts 27 Types of Reactions 28 Reversible Reactions 28 Enzymes, Energy, and Chemical Reactions 29 2-3 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 29 Water and Its Properties 30 Inorganic Acids and Bases 33 Salts 33 Buffers and pH Control 33 2-4 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 33 Carbohydrates 34 Lipids 35 Proteins 38 Nucleic Acids 43 High-Energy Compounds 45 REVIEW QUESTIONS 46 CHAPTER 3 THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION 48 3-1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CELLS 49 3-2 THE CELL MEMBRANE 49 Membrane Lipids 50 Membrane Proteins 52 Membrane Carbohydrates 53 3-3 THE CYTOPLASM 53 The Cytosol 54 The Organelles 54 3-4 THE NUCLEUS 62 Contents of the Nucleus 62 Information Storage in the Nucleus 63 Gene Activation and Protein Synthesis 64 How the Nucleus Controls Cell Structure and Function 67 3-5 HOW THINGS GET INTO AND OUT OF CELLS 68 Diffusion 68 Carrier-Mediated Transport 71 Vesicular Transport 73 The Transmembrane Potential 75 3-6 THE CELL LIFE CYCLE 77 Interphase 77 Mitosis 79 Cytokinesis 80 The Mitotic Rate and Energetics 80 Regulation of the Cell Life Cycle 80 REVIEW QUESTIONS 81 CHAPTER 4 THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION 83 4-1 TISSUES OF THE BODY: AN INTRODUCTION 84 4-2 EPITHELIAL TISSUE 84 Functions of Epithelial Tissue 84 Specializations of Epithelial Cells 84 Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia 85 Classification of Epithelia 87 Glandular Epithelia 89 4-3 CONNECTIVE TISSUES 94 Classification of Connective Tissues 94 Connective Tissue Proper 94 Fluid Connective Tissues 97 Supporting Connective Tissues 99 4-4 MEMBRANES 103 Mucous Membranes 103 Serous Membranes 103 The Cutaneous Membrane 103 Synovial Membranes 104 4-5 THE CONNECTIVE TISSUE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 104 4-6 MUSCLE TISSUE 105 Skeletal Muscle Tissue 105 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 107 Smooth Muscle Tissue 107 4-7 NEURAL TISSUE 107 4-8 INFLAMMATION AND REGENERATION 107 REVIEW QUESTIONS 110 Unit 2 Covering, Support, and Movement CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 111 5-1 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW 112 5-2 THE EPIDERMIS 113 Layers of the Epidermis 113 Skin Color 115 The Epidermis and Vitamin 117 Epidermal Growth Factor 117 5-3 THE DERMIS 117 Dermal Organization 117 Dermal Circulation and Innervation 118 5-4 THE SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER 119 5-5 ACCESSORY STRUCTURES 119 Hair Follicles and Hair 119 Glands in the Skin 121 Nails 123 5-6 INJURY AND REPAIR 124 5-7 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 124 REVIEW QUESTIONS 127 CHAPTER 6 OSSEOUS TISSUE AND SKELETAL STRUCTURE 128 6-1 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION 129 6-2 A CLASSIFICATION OF BONES 129 Bone Shapes 129 Bone Structure 129 6-3 BONE HISTOLOGY 131 The Matrix of Bone 131 Cells in Bone 132 Compact Bone and Spongy Bone 133 The Periosteum and Endosteum 135 D3 6-4 BONE DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH 136 Endochondral Ossification 136 Intramembranous Ossification 138 The Blood and Nerve Supplies 140 6-5 THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF BONE 141 Effects of Exercise on Bone 141 Hormonal and Nutritional Effects on Bone 142 The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve 142 Fracture Repair 144 Aging Effects on Bone 144 6-6 BONE MARKINGS (SURFACE FEATURES) 146 REVIEW QUESTIONS 147 CHAPTER 7 THE SKELETON 148 7-1 DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON 149 7-2 THE SKULL 151 Cranial Bones 155 Facial Bones 158 The Orbital and Nasal Complexes 162 The Skulls of Infants and Children 162 7-3 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN 164 Spinal Curvature 164 Vertebral Anatomy 165 Vertebral Regions 166 7-4 THE THORACIC CAGE 171 The Ribs 171 The Sternum 173 7-5 THE PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMBS 173 The Pectoral Girdle 174 The Upper Limbs 175 7-6 THE PELVIC GIRDLE AND LOWER LIMBS 179 The Pelvic Girdle 179 The Lower Limbs 182 7-7 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 186 REVIEW QUESTIONS 187 CHAPTER 8 ARTICULATIONS 189 8-1 A CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS 190 Synarthroses (Immovable Joints) 190 Amphiarthroses (Slightly Movable Joints) 190 Diarthroses (Freely Movable Joints) 190 8-2 ARTICULAR FORM AND FUNCTION 193 Describing Dynamic Motion 193 Types of Movements 194 A Structural Classification of Synovial Joints 196 8-3 REPRESENTATIVE ARTICULATIONS 199 Intervertebral Articulations 199 The Shoulder Joint 200 The Elbow Joint 202 The Hip Joint 202 The Knee Joint 204 8-4 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 206 REVIEW QUESTIONS 208 CHAPTER 9 MUSCLE TISSUE 209 9-1 SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 210 9-2 ANATOMY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE 210 Organization of Connective Tissues 210 Blood Vessels and Nerves 210 Skeletal Muscle Fibers 211 The Sliding Filament Theory 216 9-3 THE CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE 217 The Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity 217 Excitation-Contraction Coupling 218 Relaxation 221 9-4 TENSION PRODUCTION 222 Tension Production by Muscle Fibers 222 Tension Production by Skeletal Muscles 224 9-5 ENERGY USE AND MUSCULAR ACTIVITY 230 ATP and CP Reserves 230 ATP Generation 230 Energy Use and the Level of Muscular Activity 231 Muscle Fatigue 232 The Recovery Period 232 Hormones and Muscle Metabolism 233 9-6 MUSCLE PERFORMANCE 233 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 233 Muscle Performance and the Distribution of Muscle Fibers 234 Muscle Hypertrophy and Atrophy 235 Physical Conditioning 235 9-7 CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE 236 Structural Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 236 Functional Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 237 9-8 SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE 238 Structural Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 238 Functional Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 239 REVIEW QUESTIONS 240 CHAPTER 10 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 241 10-1 MUSCLE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTION 242 Organization of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 242 Levers 242 10-2 MUSCLE TERMINOLOGY 244 Origins and Insertions 244 Actions 245 Names of Skeletal Muscles 245 Axial and Appendicular Muscles 247 10-3 THE AXIAL MUSCLES 247 Muscles of the Head and Neck 250 Muscles of the Vertebral Column 254 Oblique and Rectus Muscles 259 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor 261 10-4 THE APPENDICULAR MUSCLES 263 Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs 263 Muscles of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 273 10-5 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 281 REVIEW QUESTIONS 283 Unit 3 Integration, Regulation, and Control CHAPTER 11 NEURAL TISSUE AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 284 11-1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 285 11-2 NEURONS 286 The Structure of Neurons 286 The Classification of Neurons 288 11-3 NEUROGLIA 290 Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System 290 Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System 293 Neural Responses to Injuries 293 11-4 NEUROPHYSIOLOGY: IONS AND ELECTRICAL SIGNALS 295 The Transmembrane Potential 296 Changes in the Transmembrane Potential 299 Graded Potentials 300 Action Potentials 302 11-5 SYNAPTIC ACTIVITY 308 General Properties of Synapses 308 Cholinergic Synapses 308 Other Neurotransmitters 310 Neuromodulators 312 How Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Work 312 11-6 INFORMATION PROCESSING 313 Postsynaptic Potentials 313 The Rate of Generation of Action Potentials 315 REVIEW QUESTIONS 315 CHAPTER 12 THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES 317 12-1 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 318 12-2 GROSS ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL CORD 319 Spinal Meninges 321 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 322 12-3 SPINAL NERVES 324 Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves 324 Nerve Plexuses 325 12-4 PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION 329 Neuronal Pools 331 An Introduction to Reflexes 332 12-5 SPINAL REFLEXES 335 Monosynaptic Reflexes 335 Polysynaptic Reflexes 337 12-6 INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF SPINAL REFLEXES 339 Voluntary Movements and Reflex Motor Patterns 339 Reinforcement and Inhibition 339 REVIEW QUESTIONS 340 CHAPTER 13 THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES 342 13-1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN 343 A Preview of Major Regions and Landmarks 343 Embryology of the Brain 343 Ventricles of the Brain 345 13-2 PROTECTION AND SUPPORT OF THE BRAIN 346 The Cranial Meninges 346 Cerebrospinal Fluid 346 The Blood Supply to the Brain 348 13-3 THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA AND PONS 349 13-4 THE CEREBELLUM 350 13-5 THE MESENCEPHALON 352 13-6 THE DIENCEPHALON 354 The Thalamus 355 The Hypothalamus 356 13-7 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM 357 13-8 THE CEREBRUM 359 The Cerebral Cortex 359 The White Matter of the Cerebrum 359 The Basal Nuclei 360 Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex 361 13-9 CRANIAL NERVES 365 13-10 CRANIAL REFLEXES 366 REVIEW QUESTIONS 370 CHAPTER 14 NEURAL INTEGRATION 372 14-1 AN OVERVIEW OF SENSORY PATHWAYS AND THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 373 14-2 SENSORY RECEPTORS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION 373 Sensory Receptors 373 The General Senses 375 14-3 THE ORGANIZATION OF SENSORY PATHWAYS 378 Somatic Sensory Pathways 378 Visceral Sensory Pathways 382 14-4 THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 383 The Corticospinal Pathway 383 The Medial and Lateral Pathways 385 The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum 386 Levels of Processing and Motor Control 387 14-5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ANS 387 Divisions of the ANS 389 14-6 THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION 389 Organization and Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division 390 Sympathetic Activation 393 Neurotransmitters and Sympathetic Function 393 Summary: The Sympathetic Division 394 14-7 THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION 395 Organization and Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division 395 Parasympathetic Activation 397 Neurotransmitters and Parasympathetic Function 397 Summary: The Parasympathetic Division 397 14-8 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISIONS 398 Anatomy of Dual Innervation 398 A Comparison of the Divisions of the ANS 399 Autonomic Tone 399 14-9 INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS 400 Visceral Reflexes 400 Higher Levels of Autonomic Control 403 14-10 HIGHER ORDER FUNCTIONS 403 Memory 403 Consciousness 405 14-11 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 406 REVIEW QUESTIONS 408 CHAPTER 15 THE SPECIAL SENSES 410 15-1 OLFACTION 411 Olfactory Receptors 411 Olfactory Pathways 412 Olfactory Discrimination 412 15-2 GUSTATION 412 Taste Receptors 412 Gustatory Pathways 412 Gustatory Discrimination 413 15-3 VISION 414 Accessory Structures of the Eye 414 The Eye 416 Visual Physiology 423 The Visual Pathway 427 15-4 EQUILIBRIUM AND HEARING 429 Anatomy of the Ear 429 Equilibrium 432 Hearing 434 REVIEW QUESTIONS 440 CHAPTER 16 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 441 16-1 INTERCELLULAR COMMUNICATION 442 16-2 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 443 Hormone Structure 443 Secretion and Distribution of Hormones 445 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 446 Control of Endocrine Activity 449 16-3 THE PITUITARY GLAND 450 The Anterior Lobe 451 The Posterior Lobe 454 Summary: The Hormones of the Pituitary Gland 455 16-4 THE THYROID GLAND 456 Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones 456 Functions of Thyroid Hormones 458 The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland: Calcitonin 459 16-5 THE PARATHYROID GLANDS 459 16-6 THE ADRENAL GLANDS 461 The Adrenal Cortex 461 The Adrenal Medulla 463 16-7 THE PINEAL GLAND 463 16-8 THE PANCREAS 463 The Pancreatic Islets 464 Insulin 464 Glucagon 465 16-9 THE ENDOCRINE TISSUES OF OTHER SYSTEMS 465 The Intestines 466 The Kidneys 466 The Heart 468 The Thymus 469 The Gonads 469 Adipose Tissues 469 16-10 PATTERNS OF HORMONAL INTERACTION 470 Hormones and Growth 470 Hormones and Stress 472 Hormones and Behavior 473 16-11 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 473 REVIEW QUESTIONS 475 Unit 4 Fluids and Transport CHAPTER 17 BLOOD 476 17-1 THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION 477 The Functions of Blood 477 The Composition of Blood 477 17-2 PLASMA 479 Plasma Proteins 479 17-3 RED BLOOD CELLS 480 Abundance of RBCs 480 Structure of RBCs 480 Hemoglobin 481 RBC Life Span and Circulation 482 RBC Production 483 Blood Types 485 17-4 WHITE BLOOD CELLS 487 WBC Circulation and Movement 487 Types of WBCs 489 The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles 491 WBC Production 491 17-6 PLATELETS 494 Platelet Functions 494 Platelet Production 494 17-7 HEMOSTASIS 494 The Vascular Phase 494 The Platelet Phase 495 The Coagulation Phase 495 Fibrinolysis 498 REVIEW QUESTIONS 499 CHAPTER 18 THE HEART 500 18-1 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 501 18-2 ANATOMY OF THE HEART 501 The Pericardium 501 Superficial Anatomy of the Heart 502 The Heart Wall 504 Internal Anatomy and Organization 505 Connective Tissues and the Fibrous Skeleton 509 The Blood Supply to the Heart 509 18-3 THE HEARTBEAT 513 Cardiac Physiology 513 The Conducting System 514 The Electrocardiogram 516 Contractile Cells 517 The Cardiac Cycle 519 18-4 CARDIODYNAMICS 522 Overview: The Control of Cardiac Output 523 Factors Affecting the Heart Rate 524 Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume 526 Exercise and Cardiac Output 528 Regulation of Heart Rate and Stroke Volume 528 REVIEW QUESTIONS 530 CHAPTER 19 BLOOD VESSELS AND CIRCULATION 531 19-1 THE ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS 532 The Structure of Vessel Walls 532 Differences between Arteries and Veins 533 Arteries 533 Capillaries 536 Veins 538 The Distribution of Blood 539 19-2 CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY 539 Pressure 541 Resistance 541 An Overview of Cardiovascular Pressures 542 Arterial Blood Pressure 543 Capillary Exchange 544 Venous Pressure and Venous Return 546 19-3 CARDIOVASCULAR REGULATION 547 Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues 547 Neural Mechanisms 548 Hormones and Cardiovascular Regulation 551 19-4 PATTERNS OF CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSE 553 Exercise and the Cardiovascular System 553 Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhaging 554 Special Circulation 555 19-5 THE DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD VESSELS: AN OVERVIEW 556 19-6 THE PULMONARY CIRCUIT 556 19-7 THE SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT 557 Systemic Arteries 557 Systemic Veins 565 19-8 FETAL CIRCULATION 572 Placental Blood Supply 572 Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels 572 Cardiovascular Changes at Birth 572 19-9 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 573 REVIEW QUESTIONS 575 CHAPTER 20 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 577 20-1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY 578 20-2 ORGANIZATION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 578 Functions of the Lymphatic System 578 Lymphatic Vessels 579 Lymphocytes 580 Lymphoid Tissues 583 Lymphoid Organs 584 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses 588 20-3 NONSPECIFIC DEFENSES 588 Physical Barriers 588 Phagocytes 589 Immunological Surveillance 590 Interferons 591 Complement 591 Inflammation 592 Fever 594 20-4 SPECIFIC DEFENSES: AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMMUNE RESPONSE 594 Forms of Immunity 594 Properties of Immunity 595 An Introduction to the Immune Response 596 20-5 T CELLS AND CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY 596 Antigen Presentation 596 Antigen Recognition 597 Activation of CD8 T Cells 598 Activation of CD4 T Cells 599 20-6 B CELLS AND ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY 599 B Cell Sensitization and Activation 599 Antibody Structure 600 Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure 604 Summary: The Immune Response 605 Hormones of the Immune System 607 20-7 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL RESISTANCE 609 The Development of Immunological Competence 609 Immune Disorders 609 Stress and the Immune Response 611 20-8 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 611 REVIEW QUESTIONS 614 Unit 5 Environmental Exchange CHAPTER 21 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 615 21-1 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION 616 Functions of the Respiratory System 616 Organization of the Respiratory System 616 21-2 THE UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 618 The Nose and Nasal Cavity 618 The Pharynx 620 21-3 THE LARYNX 620 Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx 620 Sound Production 621 The Laryngeal Musculature 622 21-4 THE TRACHEA AND PRIMARY BRONCHI 622 The Trachea 622 The Primary Bronchi 623 21-5 THE LUNGS 623 Lobes and Surfaces of the Lungs 623 The Bronchi 623 The Bronchioles 625 Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli 627 The Blood Supply to the Lungs 628 The Pleural Cavities and Pleural Membranes 629 21-6 AN OVERVIEW OF RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY 629 21-7 PULMONARY VENTILATION 630 The Movement of Air 630 Pressure Changes during Inhalation and Exhalation 632 The Mechanics of Breathing 633 Respiratory Rates and Volumes 635 21-8 GAS EXCHANGE 637 The Gas Laws 637 Diffusion and Respiratory Function 638 21-9 GAS PICKUP AND DELIVERY 640 Oxygen Transport 640 Carbon Dioxide Transport 643 Summary: Gas Transport 643 21-10 CONTROL OF RESPIRATION 644 Local Regulation of Gas Transport and Alveolar Function 644 The Respiratory Centers of the Brain 645 Respiratory Reflexes 646 Voluntary Control of Respiration 649 21-11 CHANGES IN THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AT BIRTH 650 21-12 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 650 REVIEW QUESTIONS 650 CHAPTER 22 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 653 22-1 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW 654 Functions of the Digestive System 655 The Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum 655 Histological Organization of the Digestive Tract 657 The Movement of Digestive Materials 658 Control of the Digestive Function 658 22-2 THE ORAL CAVITY 660 The Tongue 660 Salivary Glands 661 The Teeth 662 22-3 THE PHARYNX 664 22-4 THE ESOPHAGUS 664 Histology of the Esophagus 665 Swallowing 665 22-5 THE STOMACH 666 Anatomy of the Stomach 666 Regulation of Gastric Activity 669 Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach 671 22-6 THE SMALL INTESTINE AND ASSOCIATED GLANDULAR ORGANS 672 The Small Intestine 672 Histology of the Small Intestine 672 Intestinal Movements 675 The Pancreas 675 The Liver 677 The Gallbladder 681 The Coordination of Secretion and Absorption 681 22-7 THE LARGE INTESTINE 682 The Cecum 684 The Colon 684 The Rectum 684 Histology of the Large Intestine 684 Physiology of the Large Intestine 685 22-8 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 687 The Processing and Absorption of Nutrients 687 Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption 687 Lipid Digestion and Absorption 690 Protein Digestion and Absorption 690 Water Absorption 691 Ion Absorption 691 Vitamin Absorption 691 22-9 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 691 REVIEW QUESTIONS 693 CHAPTER 23 METABOLISM 694 23-1 AN OVERVIEW OF METABOLISM 695 23-2 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 696 Glycolysis 697 Mitochondrial ATP Production 697 Energy Yield of Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration 702 Gluconeogenesis 703 23-3 LIPID METABOLISM 704 Lipid Catabolism 704 Lipid Synthesis 704 Lipid Transport and Distribution 705 23-4 PROTEIN METABOLISM 707 Amino Acid Catabolism 707 Protein Synthesis 709 23-5 NUCLEIC ACID METABOLISM 709 RNA Catabolism 709 Nucleic Acid Synthesis 709 23-6 METABOLIC INTERACTIONS 710 23-7 DIET AND NUTRITION 712 Food Groups and Food Pyramids 713 Nitrogen Balance 714 Minerals 714 Vitamins 714 Diet and Disease 716 REVIEW QUESTIONS 717 CHAPTER 24 THE URINARY SYSTEM 718 24-1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE URINARY SYSTEM 719 24-2 THE KIDNEYS 719 Sectional Anatomy of the Kidneys 720 The Blood Supply and Innervation of the Kidneys 720 The Nephron 723 24-3 PRINCIPLES OF RENAL PHYSIOLOGY 728 Basic Processes of Urine Formation 728 An Overview of Renal Function 730 24-4 RENAL PHYSIOLOGY: FILTRATION AND THE GLOMERULUS 731 Filtration Pressures 732 The Glomerular Filtration Rate 732 Controlling the GFR 733 24-5 RENAL PHYSIOLOGY: REABSORPTION AND SECRETION 735 Reabsorption and Secretion at the PCT 735 The Loop of Henle and Countercurrent Multiplication 736 Reabsorption and Secretion at the DCT 738 Reabsorption and Secretion along the Collecting System 739 The Control of Urine Volume and Osmotic Concentration 740 The Function of the Vasa Recta 741 The Composition of Normal Urine 741 A Summary of Renal Function 742 24-6 URINE TRANSPORT, STORAGE, AND ELIMINATION 744 The Ureters 744 The Urinary Bladder 744 The Urethra 747 The Micturition Reflex and Urination 748 24-7 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 749 REVIEW QUESTIONS 751 CHAPTER 25 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE BALANCE 752 25-1 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID-BASE BALANCE: AN OVERVIEW 753 25-2 AN INTRODUCTION TO FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE 753 The ECF and the ICF 753 Basic Concepts in the Regulation of Fluids and Electrolytes 754 An Overview of the Primary Regulatory Hormones 756 The Interplay between Fluid Balance and Electrolyte Balance 756 25-3 FLUID BALANCE 756 Fluid Movement within the ECF 756 Fluid Exchange with the Environment 757 Fluid Shifts 758 25-4 ELECTROLYTE BALANCE 758 Sodium Balance 759 Potassium Balance 760 Other Electrolytes 761 25-5 ACID-BASE BALANCE 764 The Importance of pH Control 764 Types of Acids in the Body 764 Mechanisms of pH Control 765 Maintenance of Acid-Base Balance 768 25-6 DISTURBANCES OF ACID-BASE BALANCE 770 Respiratory Acidosis 770 Respiratory Alkalosis 773 Metabolic Acidosis 773 Metabolic Alkalosis 774 The Detection of Acidosis and Alkalosis 774 REVIEW QUESTIONS 776 Unit 6 Continuity of Life CHAPTER 26 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 778 26-1 INTRODUCTION TO THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 779 26-2 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF THE MALE 779 The Testes 780 Spermatogenesis 782 The Anatomy of a Spermatozoon 785 The Male Reproductive Tract 785 The Accessory Glands 787 Semen 789 The External Genitalia 790 Hormones and Male Reproductive Function 790 26-3 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF THE FEMALE 793 The Ovaries 793 The Uterine Tubes 797 The Uterus 798 The Vagina 802 The External Genitalia 802 The Mammary Glands 803 Hormones and the Female Reproductive Cycle 803 26-4 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SEXUAL INTERCOURSE 809 Male Sexual Function 809 Female Sexual Function 809 26-5 AGING AND THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 812 Menopause 812 The Male Climacteric 812 26-6 INTEGRATION WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 813 REVIEW QUESTIONS 815 CHAPTER 27 DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE 816 27-1 AN OVERVIEW OF TOPICS IN DEVELOPMENT 817 27-2 FERTILIZATION 817 The Oocyte at Ovulation 818 Oocyte Activation 819 27-3 THE STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 819 27-4 THE FIRST TRIMESTER 820 Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation 820 Implantation 820 Placentation 825 Embryogenesis 829 27-5 THE SECOND AND THIRD TRIMESTERS 829 Pregnancy and Maternal Systems 830 Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus 832 27-6 LABOR AND DELIVERY 832 Stages of Labor 832 27-7 POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT 834 The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood 834 Adolescence and Maturity 835 Senescence 837 27-8 GENETICS, DEVELOPMENT, AND INHERITANCE 837 Genes and Chromosomes 837 Patterns of Inheritance 838 Sources of Individual Variation 841 Sex-Linked Inheritance 842 The Human Genome Project 842 REVIEW QUESTIONS 844 ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS Q-1 APPENDICES A-1 I Weights and Measures A-1 II Normal Physiological Values A-3 GLOSSARY G-1 ILLUSTRATION CREDITS C-1 INDEX I-1
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication: Human physiology, Human anatomy