Common Murre--BIOLOGICAL AND ECOTOXICOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE SPECIES RESIDING IN ESTUARIES

Common Murre Contaminant Exposure Data
I.	Organochlorine Contaminants
A.	Concentrations in adults
1.	Brain and muscle tissue samples from 10 dead adult common murres and 6 healthy live common murres collected during a period of abnormal mortality (min. est. of 51,100 dead common murres) near Newport, Oregon in July and August 1969 were analyzed for organochlorine contamination (Scott et al., 1975). These results were compared to samples taken during the following year in the same area. Analysis revealed an average DDE concentration of 8.7 mg/g ww in the brain tissue of dead birds, whereas the level in the healthy birds was 1.1 mg/g. The brain-to-muscle ratio of DDE averaged 28 in the dead murres. The January (n = 10), June (n = 18), and August (n = 10) 1970 samples indicated an average DDE concentration of 0.44 mg/g in brain tissue with brain-to-muscle ratios not exceeding 0.97. Brain levels of PCBs averaged 4.0 mg/g in the dead murres, 3.7 mg/g in the concurrent healthy murres, and 1.1 mg/g in the June 1970 sample.
2.	Egg (E), egg fat (EF/10), and whole body (W) tissue from common murres collected in 1968 from Pacific and Atlantic locations that were near or far from agricultural / industrial coasts were analyzed for DDE and DDE/PCB with the following results (mg/g ww): Pacific-near: DDE = 14.6 (EF/10) and 6.8 (W), DDE/PCB = 3 (EF/10); Pacific-far = no results recorded; Atlantic-near = no results recorded; Atlantic-far: DDE = 0.77 (E), DDE/PCB = no results recorded (Keith and Gruchy, 1970).
3.	Whole birds and livers from common murres (n=8) picked up dead on beaches on the eastern side of the Irish Sea region in October to November 1969 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants and PCBs and were compared with whole birds and livers of common murres (n = 9) shot at sea on 29 and 30 November 1969 in the northwestern part of the Irish Sea region (Parslow and Jeffries, 1973). Average concentrations (mg/g ww) in the whole bird without liver were: Shot Birds: PCB = 3.0, DDE = 1.2, dieldrin = 0.35; Birds Found Dead: PCB = 3.5, DDE = 1.0, dieldrin = 0.11. Average concentrations in livers were: Shot Birds: PCB = 0.53, DDE = 0.18, dieldrin = 0.09; Birds Found Dead: PCB = 50, DDE = 9.7, dieldrin = 0.48. At the average body load of each material, the proportionate increase in liver load in the birds found dead was approximately 25, 24, and 11 times greater for PCB, DDE, and dieldrin, respectively than in the shot birds.
4.	Livers from common murres found in a large die-off in the autumn of 1969 in the Irish Sea region were analyzed for PCB contamination (Parslow and Jeffries, 1973). The mean concentration for 39 birds was 127.1 mg/g ww. The mean concentration of calculated individual liver loads was 5549 mg, which is nearly twice the load found in 9 healthy birds shot in the same region (1962 mg). A correlation was established between liver and whole body residues of organochlorine residues.
5.	During the course of a number of studies from 1969 to 1972 on the effects of toxic substances on birds the Toxic Chemicals Section of the Canadian Wildlife Service accumulated a large number of birds and eggs for analysis of organochlorine residues (Gilbertson and Reynolds, 1982). Of these samples, common murres were collected with the following mean concentrations (mg/g dry weight): Liver (n=2) DDE = 1.89, PCB = 3.69; Whole body (n=1) DDE = 3.25, PCB = 2.80; Breast muscle (n=2) DDE = 1.09, PCB = 1.07. The liver and whole body samples were from birds found in British Columbia, while the breast muscle sample was from birds found in New Foundland.
6.	Livers and muscle tissue from common murres collected around Britain in summer 1971 and fall 1970 were analyzed for PCBs (Bourne and Bogan, 1972). The following concentrations (in mg/g) were found: LIVER: 0.6, 1.1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.6, 0.9, 7.6, 0.5, 0.8, 0.5, 0.04, ND, 0.1, 6.0, 0.6, and 0.2; MUSCLE: 0.4, 0.7, 0.4, 0.7, 0.4, 0.5, 4.6, 0.2, 0.8, 0.3, 0.03, 0.1, 0.1, 1.2, 0.3, and 0.2.
7.	Pooled fat extracts and droppings from common murres collected from the cliffs of the island of Stora Karlso in the Baltic Sea during breeding season were analysed for the presence of phenolic PCB metabolites (Jansson et al., 1975). The faeces sample revealed the following numbers of isomers after methylation: methoxytetrachlorobiphenyl (M4OH) = 6, M5OH = 8, M6OH = 7, M7OH = 3, dimethoxypentachlorobiphenyl (M5(OH)₂ = 1, M6(OH)₂ = 2. The composition of the PCB residues in pooled tissue samples and droppings were very similar. DBP (4,4’-dichlorobenzophenone) and DDA (2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)acetic acid) were indicated in some samples.
8.	Liver and muscle tissue from beached, dead common murres collected in the North Irish Sea and East Scotland during January to February 1974 were analyzed for oiling and organochlorine content (Lloyd et al., 1974). The mean concentration (mg/g ww) ranges found were as follows: Non-oiled murre liver (n = 7): PCBs = 6 to 143, DDE = 0.5 to 22.3, dieldrin = 0.07 to 0.6; Non-oiled murre muscle (n = 7): PCBs = 1 – 23, DDE = 0.2 to 1.7, dieldrin = 0.02 to 0.6; Oiled murre liver: PCBs = 41 – 126, DDE = 6.6 to 13.9, dieldrin = Not Detected to 1.3; Oiled murre muscle: No data.
9.	Adipose tissue samples taken from male and female common murres collected from the Isle of May and the Greater Saltees during 1978 – 1980 were analyzed for individual PCB congeners and DDE (Borlakoglu et al., 1990). The average concentration (mg/g ww) of total PCBs in both sexes obtained during 1978 (250, n=9) was somewhat lower than that for 1979 (450, n=6). PCB congeners 67, 118, 138, 153, 168, 170, 180, 183, and 194 accounted for nearly half of the total burden of PCBs in both sexes. The following concentrations of the indicated PCB congeners were found in adipose tissue from males: 67: 44.6, 118: 87.8, 138: 124, 153: 94.6, 168: 59.3, 180: 45.2, and 194: 76.4. The following concentrations of the indicated PCB congeners were found in adipose tissue from females: 67: 2.48, 118: 4.70, 138: 8.90, 153: 7.01, 168: 5.76, 180: 3.88, 194: 6.60. Levels of total PCBs correlated positively with the levels of DDE. Listed in this journal article are 45 different isomers and congeners of PCB quantified from adipose samples.
10.	Livers from 17 common murre carcasses and fat, muscle, kidney, and brain tissues extracted from 4 other common murres collected between 1988 and 1990 in UK and preserved in the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology at Monks Wood were analyzed for PCB congener patterns (Boumphrey, 1993). The following SPCB concentrations in mg/g ww were found in 2 individual birds (A and B): Liver: A = 17.6, B = 11.5; Muscle: A = 0.9, B = 1.1; Kidney: A = 5.9, B = 2.6; Brain: A (only) = 3.2; Fat: B (only) = 450; gizzard and contents: B (only) = 137. PCB signatures revealed that the relative contribution of each congener to SPCB was the same in all organs, even though the total PCB (or SPCB) concentrations showed great variation between tissues. PCB signatures varied greatly between species. The common murre had highest values of congeners 153, 138, 187 and 180 (All > 10% contribution to SPCB).
11.	Livers from 14 sick or dead common murres (2 were oiled and 6 were suspected of exposure to oil) collected around November 1988 on the beaches of Cornish, UK were analyzed for PCB congeners and hydrocarbons (Quick, 1993). The concentration ranges of hydrocarbons found (mg/g) were as follows: Hexadecane = trace to .52, Heptadecane = trace to .72, Pristane = trace to 7.8, Octadecane = trace to 1.1, Phytane = trace. PCB congener concentrations in mg/g were in the following ranges: 118: 0.24 to 0.27, 138: 0.30 to 0.50, 153: 0.24 to 0.61.
12.	Liver, kidney, and pectoral muscle samples were taken during six successive winters (1989-90 to 1994-95) from 508 common murres found stranded and either dead or sick (dying later in a rehab center) along the Belgian shore (Debacker et al., 1997). These samples were analyzed for SPCBs (mg/g dry weight) with the following results (beach dead / rehab center dead): Liver: 5.7 / 11.7; Kidney: 3.4 / 2.6; Muscle: 2.1 / 5.4.
13.	Livers, muscles, and kidneys of beached common murres collected during winter (Nov/Dec, Jan, and Feb) and spring (Mar) from 1990 to 1995 along the Belgian coast were analyzed for organochlorine contamination (Joiris et al., 1997). PCB (S congeners) mean concentrations in ug/g dry weight were: Liver-winter = 4.1, 4.2, 2.7; Liver-spring = 11.1; Muscle-winter = 1.6, 1.6, 1.5; Muscle-spring = 4.0; Kidney-winter = 0.6, 2.9, 2.6; Kidney-spring = 1.9. Of the organochlorine pesticides analysed, the following were not detected in any sample: *HCB, o,p’-DDD, p,p’-DDD, p,p’-DDT, endrin, trans-heptachlor, epoxide, heptachlor, methoxychlor, mirex.* The concentration of others were low, below detection limit in most of the samples: HCHs, including *lindane, dieldrin, aldrin, o,p’-DDE. However, the p,p’*-DDE concentration was high in almost all samples: Liver-winter = 0.6, 0.8, 0.5; Liver-spring = 1.5; Muscle-winter = 0.2, 0.3, 0.3; Muscle-spring = 0.4; Kidney-winter = 0.1, 0.4, 0.4; Kidney-spring = 0.3.
B.	Concentrations in eggs
1.	Eggs (n = 4) from common murres collected in 1963 from St. Abbs Head, Berwickshire, United Kingdom were analyzed for organochlorine insecticide residue (Moore and Tatton, 1965). The following ranges in concentrations (mg/g wet weight) were found: DDE = 1.5 to 4.0, dieldrin = 0.1 to 2.0, total organochlorine residue = 2.2 to 6.8.
2.	Eggs (n = 3) from common murres collected at St. Abbs Head, Berwickshire, United Kingdom in 1965 were analyzed for orgnaochlorine contaminants (Robinson et al., 1967). The following mean concentrations (mg/g wet weight) were found: dieldrin = 0.11, DDE = 1.30.
3.	Eggs from common murres collected in UK prior to 1965 were analyzed for total organochlorine insecticide residue (Moore, 1965). The following concentrations (mg/g) were found: 1.0 (n = 2), 2.0 (n = 6), 3.0 (n = 1), and 6.0 (n = 1).
4.	Eggs (n = 9) from common murres collected during May 1968 in the Baltic Sea region near Sweden were analyzed for organochlorine contamination (Jensen et al., 1969). The following mean concentrations (mg/g wet weight) were recorded: Egg FAT: SDDT = 570, DDT = 20, PCB = 250; Egg fresh TISSUE: SDDT = 40, DDT = 1.2, PCB = 16. In these eggs, as much as 87% of the SDDT was DDE.
5.	Eggs (n = 11) collected from Baltic region common murres in May, 1968 and eggs collected in May, 1969 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (Jensen et al., 1972). These results were compared to analysis of Baltic common murre adult pectoral muscle tissue and juvenile pectoral muscle tissue taken in 1969. There was no significant difference in SDDT and PCB levels in eggs from 1968 and 1969. The same amount of chlorinated hydrocarbons were found in fat from eggs and fat from pectoral muscle, although the juveniles (3 week old) showed a decreased level. The mean concentrations found (mg/g wet weight) in extractable fat portions were: Egg 1968: SDDT = 590, PCB = 250; Egg 1969: SDDT = 590, PCB = 200; Adult muscle: SDDT = 610, PCB = 160; Juvenile muscle: SDDT = 97, PCB = 48. The mean concentrations found (mg/g) in fresh tissue portions were: Egg 1968: SDDT = 40, PCB = 17; Egg 1969: SDDT = 56, PCB = 19; Adult muscle: SDDT = 14, PCB = 3.4; Juvenile muscle: SDDT = 2.2, PCB = 1.1.
6.	During the course of a number of studies from 1969 to 1972 on the effects of toxic substances on birds the Toxic Chemicals Section of the Canadian Wildlife Service accumulated a large number of eggs for analysis of organochlorine residues (Gilbertson and Reynolds, 1982). Of these samples common murre eggs (n=4) were collected from Quebec with the following means (mg/g dry weight): DDE = 6.34, PCB = 6.90.
7.	Eggs (n = 4) from common murres collected in 1971 at Ile St. Marie in Quebec, Canada were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (Pearce, 1979). Mean concentrations of contaminants in mg/g ww were: DDE = 2.03, PCBs = 8.37, dieldrin = 0.02.
8.	Eggs from common murres collected in Great Britain and Sweden between 1967 and 1970 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (n = 66) and PCBs (n = 16) (Prestt and Ratcliffe, 1970). The following concentrations (mg/g ww) were found: BHC isomers = 0.005, dieldrin = 0.28, DDE = 2.12, TDE = 0.06, DDT = 0.04, DME (DDMU or 1 chloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene) = 0.01, total organochlorine residues = 2.51, PCBs = 5.13.
9.	Egg samples (10 to 12 annually) from common murres collected annually in late May or early June from 1971 to 1976 at Graesholmen Island, Denmark were analyzed for organochlorine contaminant concentrations (Dyck and Kraul, 1984). Egg samples (n = 15) collected from the Faeroe Islands in 1972 were similarly analyzed and used as a reference. DDE and PCBs are comparable in the Graesholmen eggs; the yearly means vary between about 350 and 600 mg/g ww for DDE and 400 to 600 mg/g for PCBs. In contrast the Faeroese eggs show DDE residues which are approximately 100 times lower (6.4 mg/g) and PCB residues which are about 50 times lower (11.9 mg/g). Dieldrin concentrations (1.0 to 3.4 mg/g) in the Graesholman eggs are about 200 times lower than DDE levels in the same eggs. Linear regression analysis suggests a decrease in the DDE content of the Graesholman eggs during the 6 year period (42 mg/g decrease per year) The annual means of dieldrin do not suggest a trend.
10.	Eggs from common murres (n = 41) collected from 4 localities along coastal Norway in May 1972 were analyzed for DDE and PCBs (Fimreite et al., 1977). PCB levels were significantly correlated with those of DDE, and the average PCB concentrations consistently exceeded DDE by a factor of 2.7. The following levels (mg/g ww) were recorded for the 4 different areas: Hjelmsoy (n = 11): DDE = 0.74, PCB = 2.01; Hornoy (n = 10): DDE = 1.07, PCB = 3.23; Rost (n = 10): DDE = 0.89, PCB = 2.08; and Runde (n = 10): DDE = 0.51, PCB = 1.45.
11.	Eggs from common murres taken at various locations along the coast of the UK before 1974 were analyzed for DDE and PCB and compared geographically (Parslow and Jeffries, 1974). The following mean concentrations (mg/g ww) were reported: DDE: North coast = 6.2, 6.5, 6.4, 7.0, East coast = 9.7, 9.8, South coast = 17.2, 16.9, 11.8, 23.6, Irish Sea coast = 22.2, 28.8, 23.3, 20.8, Ireland Atlantic coast = 8.3; PCB: North coast = 17, 15, 14, 15, East coast = 36, 56, South coast = 165, 76, 101, 61, 165, Irish Sea coast = 154, 216, 128, 162, Ireland Atlantic coast = 39.
12.	Eggs (n = 10) from common murres collected from each of 5 colonies in Scotland and Wales in 1980 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (including HEOD from the insecticides aldrin and dieldrin) and compared to similar samples taken in 1969-1972 (Newton, 1981). The following mean concentrations (mg/g ww) were found in 1969-72 / 1980 samples: Skomer Island: DDE = 1.57 / 1.01, HEOD = 0.05 / 0.01, PCBs = 8.5 / 2.35; Scare Rocks: DDE = 1.71 / 1.23, HEOD = 0.08 / 0.002, PCBs = 12.52 / 5.45; St Kilda: DDE = 0.60 / 0.99, HEOD = 0.003 / 0, PCBs = 0.49 / 1.52; Fair Isle and Isle of May concentrations were not listed.
13.	Egg samples (N = 10) from common murres collected from four regions in North Norway in 1983 were analyzed for organochlorines (Barrett, 1985). The recorded mean concentrations in mg/g were as follows: E. Finnmark: PCB = 0.64, DDE = 0.94, HCB = 0.17, b-HCH = 13 ng/g; W. Finnmark: PCB = 0.70, DDE = 0.69, HCB = 0.13, b-HCH = 7 ng/g; g-HCH = 2 ng/g; S. Troms: PCB = 0.36, DDE = 0.49, HCB = 0.09, b-HCH = 6 ng/g; g-HCH = 1 ng/g; Lofoten: PCB = 0.79, DDE = 0.33, HCB = 0.13, b-HCH = 5 ng/g. There were no consistent patterns of regional differences in the residue levels. Results were also compared to similar analysis performed on samples taken in 1972. There was no significant change in the levels of DDE and PCB in the eggs of common murres between 1972 and 1983.
14.	Egg samples (n = 10) of common murres collected in 1992 and 1993 at locations in North Norway were measured and analyzed for organochlorine concentrations and compared to similar samples taken in a 1983 study (Barrett et al., 1996). All data pairs trend towards a downward trend in contamination levels, including statistically significant decreases in DDE, b-HCH, PCB, and oxychlordane. The mean concentrations (mg/g ww unless otherwise noted) found were: E. Finnmark: SPCB = 0.48, SDDT = 0.29, DDE = 0.25, HCB = 0.09, Schlordane 0.04, b-HCH = 2.27 ng/g, g-HCH = 0.85 ng/g. Kola Peninsula: SPCB = 0.98, SDDT = 0.09, DDE = 0.31, HCB = 0.10, Schlordane = 0.04, b-HCH = 2.88 ng/g, g-HCH = 0.23 ng/g. As in the 1983 study there was no consistent changes by region.
15.	Egg samples (n = 13) from common murres residing at the Farallon Islands and Ano Nuevo Island were collected in May, June, and July 1993 and analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (Jarman et al., 1996). The eggs contained the following mean concentrations in ng/g dw: SDDT = 8200, SHCH = 78, Schlordane = 85, HCB = 41, SPCB = 5900. Levels of DDE in murres have decreased nearly 15-fold since 1971, from 115,000 to 8200, while PCB concentrations have decreased nearly 20 times, from 110,000 to 5900. PCBs measured in the common murres contain a greater proportion of the higher chlorinated cogeners (hexa-, hepta-, octa-).
16.	Common murre eggs (n = 15) collected at South East Farallon Island (SEFI) and at Ano Nuevo Island in the spring of 1993 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants (Pyle et al., 1999). Mean concentrations in ng/g ww that were found: DDE = 2200, dieldrin = 6.4, oxychlordane = 7.7, SHCB = 11, heptachlor epoxide = 3.5, and SPCB = 1600.
II.	Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticides
	No direct exposure data available
III.	Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids
A.	Concentrations in Adults and Juveniles
1.	Secondary feathers from 11 common murres collected during 1906 to 1925 in the Baltic region were examined for Hg and found to have a mean concentration of 2.7 mg/g (Jensen et al., 1972). These results were compared with analysis taken from 10 adult Baltic common murres collected in 1969, which showed a significant increase to 5.4 mg/g.
2.	Fifth primary feathers from the left wing of common murres collected from 1969 to 1979 in the Baltic and Faroe Islands were analyzed for Hg content (Appelquist et al., 1985). The following concentrations (in ng/g) were recorded for the years indicated: North Baltic: 1969: 4326, 1973: 3274, 1975: 4008, 1976: 3737; South Baltic: 1973: 2585, 1975: 3227, 1976: 3039, 1977: 2571, 1979: 3176; Faroe Islands: 1973 = 1214.
3.	Livers from common murres that were among a massive die-off (counted at an average of 91 dead murres per mile of beach) in April 1970 at the Alaskan peninsula and Unimak Island were analyzed and found to have 2.77 mg/g As in some samples (Bailey and Davenport, 1971).
4.	A liver sample from an oiled common murre (in first year) found September 1970 at Ayrshire, UK was found to have a concentration of Hg at 5.1 mg/g dw (Dale et al., 1973).
5.	Livers from two common murres collected in July 1971 from the North Sea (57 to 58 degrees north lat) were examined for Hg and found to have 5.3 mg/g dw for the adult and 0.7 mg/g for the juvenile (Dale et al., 1973).
6.	Feather samples (4 or 5 large) taken from 17 common murres were analyzed for organic vs. inorganic Hg concentrations (Thompson and Furness, 1989). The following mean concentrations (mg/g ww) were recorded: Total Hg = 1.5, Organic Hg = 1.7. The results indicate that virtually all Hg present in the feathers was in the organic form.
7.	Primary feathers from common murres (n = 2) collected before 1984 in the North Baltic were analyzed and found to have mean Hg concentrations (ng/g) of 2768 and 3372 (Appelquist et al., 1984).
8.	Pectoral muscle, liver, and kidney samples taken from 6 adult common murres collected 26 – 28 July, 1986 from the North Pacific Ocean near the Northern Alaska mainland were analyzed for metals (Honda et al., 1990). The following mean concentrations (mg/g ww) were found: MUSCLE: Fe = 113, Mn = 0.53, Zn = 11, Cu = 5.27, Cd = 0.03, Hg = 0.06; LIVER: Fe = 282, Mn = 2.75, Zn = 22.8, Cu = 5.40, Cd = 0.35, Hg = 0.22; KIDNEY: Fe = 188, Mn = 1.31, Zn = 20.2, Cu = 3.79, Cd = 2.27, Hg = 0.18.
9.	Body feathers (4-10 each) taken during the period of 1986 to 1991 from common murres residing in Iceland, Scotland, and Norway were analyzed for total Hg and found to have the following concentrations (mg/g ww): Iceland: 1.5, n = 45; Firth of Forth, Scotland: 3.0, n = 44; Foula, Scotland: 1.1, n = 56; Northeast Norway: 1.2, n = 45 (Thompson et al., 1992).
10.	Liver, kidney, feathers, and muscle tissues taken from both juvenile and adult common murres collected in Loch Broom, Scotland on three separate collection occasions (April, June, and November) in 1988 were analyzed for trace metals (Stewart et al., 1994). Males had significantly higher concentrations of Hg in feathers than females, whereas females had higher concentrations of Cu in kidneys than males. Mercury and Cd concentrations were significantly higher in adult liver and kidney compared to juveniles, but not in feather or muscle. Copper was significantly higher in adult liver than in juveniles. Mercury concentrations in internal tissues showed a general decline from April through November, whereas Cd concentrations increased significantly April and June, then decreased to almost half the June level by November. Mercury levels in the muscle of the juvenile birds drops by almost half between April and June and is even lower by November. Adults had the following concentrations (mg/g dw) for April, June, November respectively in kidneys: Cd = 9.00, 11.72, 6.14; Zn = 72.22, 74.13, 72.31; Cu = 13.82, 13.69, 13.00; Hg = 3.93, 2.54, 0.84. Adults had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively in liver: Cd = 1.56, 2.49, 1.66; Zn = 58.42, 68.89, 69.7; Cu = 15.02, 16.09, 15.48; Hg = 3.66, 2.52, 0.87. Adults had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively in muscle tissue: Zn = 25.17, 25.98, 20.89; Cu = 11.52, 13.96, 10.68; Hg = 1.76, 0.84, 0.47. Adult feathers had the following Hg concentrations: 2.15, 2.09, 1.71. Juveniles had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively in kidneys: Cd = 4.05, 10.50, 1.56; Zn = 67.73, 74.03, 59.30; Cu = 13.96, 15.24, 12.26; Hg = 3.43, 1.91, 1.02. Juveniles had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively in liver: Cd = 1.35, 1.98, 1.09; Zn = 58.56, 67.77, 60.78; Cu = 12.92, 15.62, 13.34; Hg = 2.40, 1.57, 1.06. Juveniles had the following concentrations for April, June, November respectively in muscle tissue: Zn = 23.29, 24.11, 22.54; Cu = 12.03, 13.50, 10.21; Hg = 1.27, 0.65, 0.52. Juvenile feathers had the following Hg concentrations: 1.26, 2.68, 0.87.
11.	During 6 successive winters, from 1989-90 to 1994-95, 727 common murres (either dead or having died after rehab attempt) were recovered from coastal Belgium (Debacker et al., 1997). Half of the murres showed signs of external or internal oiling and the livers and kidneys from 339 murres were tested for the effect of oiling on trace metals. The following mean concentrations in mg/g dw were reported (in the order of 1. Non-oiled murres, 2. Externally and internally oiled murres, and 3. Only externally oiled murres): liver: Cu = 680, 715, 700; Zn = 52, 50, 55; Fe = 2318, 2189, 2362; Cd = 2.1, 2.0, 2.1, Total Hg = 5.3, 6.9, 5.5; organic Hg = 4.1, 4.3, 3.9; inorganic Hg = 0.9, 0.8, 0.7; kidney: Cu = 28, 25, 27; Zn = 176, 155, 167; Fe = 529, 689, 650; Cd = 6.3, 3.8, 6.8; total Hg = 4.0, 7.2, 3.5; organic Hg = 3.0, 5.9, 3.0; inorganic Hg = 0.8, 0.9, 0.7; muscle: Cu = 19, 16, 18; Zn = 63, 54, 55; Fe = 663, 586, 648; Cd = not recorded; total Hg = 1.8, 2.3, 1.5; organic Hg = 1.4, 1.5, 1.3; inorganic Hg = 0.2, 0.5, 0.2.
12.	A liver (3 sample portions) from a single common murre found dead, entangled in a fishing net in Gdansk Bay, Poland (Southern Baltic Sea) in winter 1989 was analyzed and found to have 500 ng/g ww mean total butyltin (Kannan and Falandysz, 1997).
13.	Soft tissues and body feathers of 10 common murres taken at Hornoya, Norway in the summers of 1992 and 1993 were analyzed for total Hg, Se, Cd, Zn, and Cu (Wenzel and Gabrielsen, 1995). The mean concentrations found in feathers (in mg/g ww) were: Hg = 0.88, Se = 2.59, Cu = 18.35, Cd = 0.026, Zn = 66.13. Mean concentrations in soft tissues (in mg/g dw) were: Liver: Hg = 1.88, Se = 17.6, Cu = 20, Cd = 3.08, Zn = 86.7; Kidney: Hg = 1.46, Se = 43.74, Cu = 14.44, Cd = 24.06, Zn = 114; Muscle: Hg = 0.42, Se = none, Cu = 19.22, Cd = 0.18, Zn = 49.28; Gonads: Hg = 1.17, Se = 21.93, Cu = 6.01, Cd = 1.125, Zn = 122.6; Lung: Hg = 1.25, Se = none, Cu = 2.57, Cd = 0.29, Zn = 44.57.
14.	Livers, muscles, and kidneys of beached common murres collected during winter (Nov/Dec, Jan, and Feb) and spring (Mar) from 1990 to 1995 along the Belgian coast were analyzed for Hg contamination (Joiris et al., 1997). Mercury occurred in the organic form MeHg as 80 to 85% of the SHg load. SHg concentrations (in mg/g dry weight) varied as follows: Liver-winter = 3.56, 5.02, 5.94; Liver-spring = 8.58; Muscle-winter = 1.48, 1.73, 2.33; Muscle-spring = 3.34; Kidney-winter = 2.92, 4.21, 3.66; Kidney-spring = 7.88. Methyl mercury concentrations were as follows: Liver-winter = 2.97, 3.94, 4.33; Liver-spring = 7.74; Muscle-winter = 1.20, 1.38, 1.72; Muscle-spring = 2.78; Kidney-winter = 1.60, 3.65, 2.84; Kidney-spring = 6.10.
15.	Liver, breast feathers, kidney, breast muscle and lung samples taken from dead and dying oiled common murres collected along the northern coast of Brittany (n = 60) and the German Bight (n = 31) in the winter of 1992 – 1993 were analyzed for trace elements (Wenzel and Adelung, 1996). Brittany murres had significantly lower Hg concentrations (in mg/g dry weight) than German Bight murres in liver (5.011 vs 8.338), kidney (4.46 vs 6.66), and breast-muscle (1.871 vs 2.411), but no difference in feathers (2.337 vs 1.79). For the same age group Cd concentrations were significantly different for Brittany versus German Bight murres in kidneys (10.20 vs 5.80), but no differences noted for other tissues. Selenium concentrations were significantly different in feathers (1.70 Brittany vs 1.24 German Bight) but not in kidneys (21.55 Brittany vs 23.54 German Bight). Murres from the German Bight had significantly higher kidney Cu concentrations than Brittany murres (31.25 vs 21.62), but no regional differences were noted in liver (53.6 Brittany vs 63.8 German Bight) or in feather values (25.6 Brittany vs 24.1 German Bight) when considering murres of the same nutritional quotient. Zinc concentrations were significantly higher in kidneys (193 vs 156) and in lung tissue (74 vs 52) of murres from the German Bight, whereas other tissues revealed no significant differences in concentrations.
16.	Kidney and liver samples from dead and moribund common murres, which were part of a 3500 murre die-off in the northern Gulf of Alaska, were collected during the first 6 months of 1993 and analyzed for trace elements (Piatt and Van Pelt, 1997). The following mean concentrations (mg/g dry weight / mg/g wet weight) were recorded: Cd kidney = 13.7 / 2.85; Cd liver = 4.46 / 1.12; Hg kidney = 1.08 / 0.13; Hg liver = 1.80 / 0.23; Se kidney = 20.1 / 4.54; Se liver = 12.5 / 3.4; Cu kidney = 14.4 / 2.98; Cu liver = 30.8 / 8.18; Fe kidney = 481 / 110; Fe liver = 1552 / 418; Mn kidney = no data; Mn liver = 11.5 / 3.10.
17.	A total of 166 common murres, collected stranded between November and March, over 5 successive winters (1993-94 and 1997-98) along the Belgian coast, were analyzed for heavy metals (Debacker et al., 2000). Various stages of cachexia (Non-cachectic or NC, and +1, +2, +3 increasing cachexia) were calculated for correlation to heavy metal content. The following concentrations (mg/g dw) were found in birds with four increasing degrees of cachexia (NC, +1, +2, +3): liver: Zn = 134.3, 134.8, 153, 201; Cu = 44.9, 46.2, 59.7, 59.9; Fe = 2241, 2229, 3157, 4252, Cd = 1.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.3; kidney: Zn = 155, 164.5, 181.1, 196; Cu = 21, 24.3, 32.7, 45.2; Fe = 725, 660, 627, 667; Cd = 5.2, 7.3, 7.9, 9.7; muscle: Zn = 52, 60, 64.7, 77.4; Cu = 17.5, 17.6, 19.6, 19.8; Fe = 582, 592, 738, 905; Cd = below detection limit. Copper and Zn concentrations in both liver and kidney as well as Zn in muscle are highly dependent on the cachectic status. Iron concentrations are strongly linked to cachexia in the liver. The Cd load was found to increase significantly with age.
18.	Feathers taken from adult common murres and down taken from common murre chicks during June-July 1994 at Foula, a small island 22 km west of Shetland mainland, were analyzed for Hg (Stewart, 1997). The following mean concentrations (mg/g) were found: Adult feathers: 0.99, n = 34; Downy chicks: 1.24, n = 29. Mercury concentrations were negatively correlated with chick age in common murre down.
B.	Concentrations in Eggs
1.	Eggs collected in May, 1968 (n = 11) and eggs collected in May, 1969 (n = 10) from common murres in the Baltic region were analyzed for Hg (Jensen et al., 1972). These results were compared to samples analyzed for Hg content from adult pectoral muscle (n = 10) and juvenile pectoral muscle tissue (n = 10) of common murres also found in the Baltic region. There was no difference in the Hg content in eggs collected in 1968 (0.50 mg/g) and 1969 (0.54 mg/g). Adult muscle tissue was also similar (0.64 mg/g) and juvenile tissue was found to be less (0.10 mg/g).
2.	Eggs (n = 4) from common murres collected in 1971 at Ile St. Marie in Quebec, Canada were analyzed and found to have a mean concentration of 0.12 mg/g ww Hg (Pearce, 1979).
3.	Egg samples (10 to 12 taken annually) from common murres collected in late May or early June from 1971 to 1976 at Graesholmen Island, Denmark were analyzed for total Hg and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations (Dyck and Kraul, 1984). Twenty egg samples collected from the Faeroe Islands in 1972 were similarly analyzed and used as a reference. The yearly means of MeHg in Graesholman eggs vary between 0.21 and 0.32 mg/g ww and those of total Hg vary between 0.25 and 0.37 mg/g wet weight, with the highest concentrations in 1971 and 1974. The Faeroese eggs revealed Hg (0.20 mg/g) and MeHg (0.17 mg/g) values at about two-thirds the Graesholman levels. A linear regression analysis does not suggest a trend during the 6-year period.
4.	Eggs (n = 30) from common murres collected in May 1972 at 3 sites in Northern Norway were analyzed for Hg and MeHg (Fimreite, 1974). The following Hg concentrations (in mg/g ww) were recorded: Hjelmsoy = 0.07, Hornoy = 0.07, Rost = 0.07. Some eggs (n = 9) were analyzed for MeHg and found to have a mean concentration of 0.13 mg/g which was, on the average, 97.6 % of total mercury found in the eggs.
5.	Eggs from common murres taken at various locations along the coast of the UK before 1974 were analyzed for Hg and compared geographically (Parslow and Jeffries, 1974). The following mean concentrations (mg/g dw) of Hg were reported: North coast = 1.2, 1.2, 0.8, 0.8, East coast = 1.4, 1.9, South coast = 5.7, 2.1, 4.7, 4.4, Irish Sea coast = 3.6, 10.1, 10.3, 13.2, 15.7, 6.1, Ireland Atlantic coast = 2.7.
6.	Eggs (n = 10) from common murres collected from each of 5 colonies in Scotland and Wales in 1980 were analyzed for Hg and Cd and compared to similar sampling taken in 1969-1972 (Newton, 1981). The following mean concentrations (in mg/g wet weight) of Hg were found in 1969-72 / 1980 samples: Skomer = 4.37 / 1.04, Scare Rocks = 8.05 / 2.94, St Kilda = 1.50 / 0.76. Mercury concentrations were statistically significant in that concentrations were higher in Irish Sea colonies than elsewhere, and the Scare Rock samples showed no overlap in concentrations with other colonies. No Cd was found in any eggs.
7.	Egg samples (n = 10) from common murres collected from four regions in North Norway in 1983 were analyzed for Hg (Barrett, 1985). The following concentrations (in mg/g) were found: E. Finnmark = 0.12, W. Finnmark = 0.11, S. Troms = 0.13, and Lofoten = 0.08. There were no statistically significant consistent changes in Hg concentrations since a similar study in 1972, nor were there any consistent regional differences.
8.	Egg samples (n = 10) of common murres collected in 1992 and 1993 at locations in North Norway were measured and analyzed for Hg concentrations and compared to similar samples taken in a 1983 study (Barrett et al., 1996). Mercury concentrations were not significantly different than those recorded in the 1983 study, nor was there a significant difference in regions. The 1993 Hg mean concentrations in mg/g ww were: E. Finnmark = 0.10, Kola Peninsula = 0.08.
9.	Eggs from common murres collected during April to June of 1993 at Southeast Farallon Island, California were analyzed for trace metal content (Sydeman and Jarman, 1998). The following mean concentrations (in mg/g dw) were found: Pb = 0.1 (n = 7), Hg = 0.7 (n = 15), Se = 2.1 (n = 15).
10.	Egg samples (n = 13) from common murres residing at the Farallon Islands and Ano Nuevo Island were collected in May, June, and July 1993 and analyzed for metal contaminants (Jarman et al., 1996). The following mean concentrations in ng/g dry weight were found: Pb = 80, Hg = 550, Se = 1900.
IV.	Petroleum
1.	From 1912 to 1994 previously ringed common murres from the German Bight island of Helgoland were recovered (605 murres of 6566 originally ringed during the 82 year period) and analyzed for oiling and physical condition (Huppop, 1990). Between 1912-45 about 8% of murres recovered were oiled. In the next period, 1946-69 the percentage rose to 20. Between 1970 and 1988 mortality of common murres by oil pollution reached its highest proportion (24%). In the following period, 1989-94, the percentage dropped down to about 15%. Most birds killed by oil pollution appeared along shipping routes in the southern North Sea, namely from Germany (42%), Netherlands (23%), Denmark (14%), and Great Britain (11%).
2.	Severe oil pollution was noted from Kent to the Isle of Wight, Cornwall, Pembroke, and Devon UK during February and March 1933 (Bourne, 1969). The common murre population at a colony in Devon was reduced from 765 to 320 birds during the next three years apparently due to the effects of the oil spills.
3.	In March 1937, a 2.7 million gallon crude oil spill occurred just outside of the Golden Gate, San Francisco from the tanker Frank Buck (Moffitt and Orr, 1938). Subsequently, oiled common murres (n = 30) were found dead along a one-quarter mile stretch of beach north of Half Moon Bay, California. Estimates extrapolated from the count indicated that there were actually no less than 6600 dead oiled common murres within the 55 mile spill affected area from Pt. Reyes south to below Half Moon Bay.
4.	During early March 1956 the mortality of seabirds per lineal mile caused by oil pollution was monitored along measured parts of the western beaches of the Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland (Tuck, 1960). The following numbers of common murres were found: St. Brides 1.3, Angels Cove 8, Pt Verde 4. The proportional mortality (per cent) of seabirds caused by oil pollution was also completed as follows: St Bride’s 1.5, Angels Cove 2, Point Verde 2.
5.	On September 6, 1956 the freighter Seagate ran aground on rocks near Pt. Grenville, Washington spilling fuel oil (Richardson, 1956). Stretches of beaches between Grays Harbor and Ruby Beach were examined for oiled birds. Oiled common murres were found averaging 56.5 individuals per mile in all areas, except Ruby Beach where they averaged 138 per mile. An estimated total of 904 common murres were oiled by this accident, almost all of which were dead or dying.
6.	On September 18, 1966 the tanker Seestern lost 1,700 tons of crude diesel oil which was quickly pushed by winds and tides onto the Medway Estuary, UK, affecting some 8,000 acres of wetlands (Harrison and Harrison, 1967). Common murres (n=5) were among the 2,772 dead, oiled birds recovered and counted (most of which were gulls). An estimated total of 5,000 birds were killed by this oil spill.
7.	The tanker Torrey Canyon grounded on rocks off the coast of Cornwall, England March 18, 1967 spilling 100,000 gallons of crude oil which affected an estimated 30,000 seabirds (Bourne et al., 1967). Dead and oiled common murres were recovered from Cornwall during the months following the wreck. An additional 110 oiled common murres were recovered for rehabilitation at Perros Guirec in France. The tanker Torrey Canyon grounded on rocks off the coast of Cornwall, England March 18, 1967 spilling 100,000 gallons of crude oil which affected an estimated 30,000 seabirds (Bourne et al., 1967). Dead and oiled common murres were recovered from Cornwall during the months following the wreck. A total of 6355 (estimate) oiled common murres were brought to various stations for cleaning, of which 375 murres later completed rehabilitation. An additional 110 oiled common murres were recovered for rehabilitation at Perros Guirec in France.
8.	A crack developing in the hull of the Tank Duchess allowed 87 tons of Venezuelan crude oil to be released in the Tay Estuary, UK on February 29, 1968 (Greenwood and Keddie, 1968). Of the 1300 birds killed by oiling, 2 common murres were found dead near the Fife ness.
9.	On April 30, 1969 the tanker Hamilton Trader released about 700 tons of heavy fuel oil into Liverpool Harbor, England after a collision (Hope et al., 1970). The following numbers of oiled common murres were found in locations affected by the spill: A) Brought to treatment center, dead or died in treatment – Merseyside 113, Rhyl 341, Bangor and Llangefni 18, Whitehaven 601. B) Died while treated by public 40. C) Found dead on beach- North Wales 98, Hilbre Island 30, S. Lancashire 69, Cumberland and N. Lancashire 1558. D) Live oiled found at Cumberland and N. Lancashire 601.
10.	Between 01 January and 15 February 1970 some 12,856 birds, mostly oiled, were recorded dead and dying on beaches in northeast Britain (Greenwood et al., 1971). Among this massive wreck of oiled birds were 5,203 common murres found in the following areas: Yorkshire (n=985), County Durham (n=272), Northumberland (n=1082), Berwick and the Lothians (n=783), Fife (562), Angus and Kincardine (n=1362), Aberdeen (n=157). External oiling affected 99 % of all murres found. The oil was identified as heavy fuel oil originating from at least two separate sources.
11.	On February 4, 1970 the tanker Arrow ran aground in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia spilling 2.5 million gallons of Bunker C fuel oil, of which 450,000 gallons came ashore in the bay (Brown at al., 1970). Oiled common murres were found between February 9 and 16 at Chedabucto Bay (n=5) and between March 11 and 13 at Sable Island (n=7). The estimated minimum mortality caused by the oil slick was 250 murres (non-specific) at Chedabucto Bay and 2800 murres (non-specific) at Sable Island. On February 14, the oil barge Irving Whale spilled between 3,000 and 7,000 gallons of Bunker C fuel oil off the SE coast of Newfoundland. Slicks from this spill caused a minimum estimated mortality of 1000 murres (non-specific) at Burin, Newfoundland.
12.	Two tankers collided in the mouth of San Francisco Bay on January 18, 1971 spilling 840,000 gallons of bunker C fuel oil (Smail et al., 1972). This oil spread over 17 miles out to sea and along the coast from Drake’s Bay south to Pt. Ano Nuevo during the following days. An estimate of 6,000 oiled birds passed through cleaning stations, while an estimated minimum mortality of 20,000 birds may have resulted. Birds were censused at four cleaning stations along the coast of California. The following are numbers of oiled common murres delivered to the stations: Bolinas 68, Farallon Island 184, Tiburon 10, Pacifica 302.
13.	A comparison of bird mortality and oiling was conducted from surveys taken in the North Irish Sea and in East Scotland in 1973 and 1974 (Lloyd et al., 1974). Common murres were the majority in the group reported under Auks. The following data was recorded: East Scotland: 1973: 0.06 dead birds per km, 40% oiled; 1974: 0.13 dead birds per km, 39% oiled. North Irish Sea: 1973: 0.16 birds per km, 81% oiled; 1974: 1.38 dead birds per km, 11% oiled. During the 1974 survey 799 Auks were found beached and dead.
14.	From July 1976 to June 1977 the following oiling incidents involving common murres were recorded in and around the UK (Cadbury and Richards, 1977): (1) Dec 25-31, an unknown oil slick around east Norfolk affected about 300 Auks (Auks include a number of unspecified murres) most of which were found dead and oiled. (2) Feb 13, HMS Vulcan accidently dumped heavy fuel oil at Dounreay, Caithness and Orkney affecting 513 seabirds including 364 Auks all of which are found oiled with about half alive and half dead. (3) Feb 16, a fuel oil slick of unknown origin offshore Flamborough, Humberside affected some 920 Auks, with 720 of these Auks found oiled, alive and beached. (4) Mar 5, the tanker Nacella leaked oil while moored at Scapa Flow, Orkney resulting in 81 Auks oiled and dead. (5) Apr 8, a slick of weathered crude oil from unknown origin offshore Flamborough, Humberside affected 1,425 common murres (Stowe, 1982). Of these murres, there were 400 alive and oiled at sea and 525 alive and oiled ashore, the rest oiled and dead. Of the 381 oiled Auks sent for rehabilitation only 81 were finally released. (6) The European beached bird survey of February to March 1977 revealed the following mortalities of common murres and percentage due to oiling, listed as (number murres found dead / percent of all seabirds found dead and oiled in that area): SW England (9 / 64), Wales (8 / 37), NE and SE Ireland (33 / 52), NW England (24 / 1), W Scotland (4 / 2), N and E Scotland (300 / 38), NE England (77 / 58), E England (21 / 51), SE England (8 / 74), Belgium and NE France (10 / 34), Netherlands (39 / 66), Denmark (63 / 26), W Germany (13 / 33).
15.	In February 1978 about 250 gallons of medium/heavy fuel oil was spilled within an industrial facility ashore near Leith, Scotland, but later leaked into the Firth of Forth via drains (Campbell et al., 1978). Between 3 and 19 February, 100 oiled and dead common murres were recovered from the Firth of Forth.
16.	The following oiling incidents involving common murres were reported in and around UK from July 1978 to June 1979 (Stowe, 1979; Richardson et al., 1982): (1) Oct 12, common murres (n=1,449) were oiled in south and west Wales and north Devon following spillage of 2,420 tons of crude oil from Christos Bitas. Of the 430 birds recovered and sent for rehab, only 142 were later released. (2) Nov 19, an unidentified oil slick at Lleyn Peninsula, Gwynedd caused oiling of 65 common murres, most of which were found dead. (3) Dec 12, On the east coast Orkney and northeast Caithness 338 common murres were found oiled and mostly dead from a crude oil tank residue slick. (4) Dec 30, over 180 kms of Shetland coastline around Yell Sound and Sullom Voe were affected by spillage of 1,160 tons of fuel oil from Esso Bernicia. Murres (n=338) were among 3,704 birds found oiled and dead. (5) Jan. 2, 1979, Murres (n=53) were found oiled and dead at eastern Norfolk from slicks of fuel and crude oil. (6) Feb 9, a slick of weathered fuel oil and crude oil cargo tank residues near the Northern Isles of Orkney caused oiling of at least 504 seabirds including 381 common murres which were mostly found alive and ashore. (7) Feb 24, crude oil tank residues on the west coast of Orkney were responsible for 247 oiled common murres found dead. (8) Feb. 28, an unidentified slick near SW Shetland affected 1,765 seabirds including 1,195 common murres found oiled. (9) Mar 6, at Lleyn Peninsula, Gwynedd, 148 common murres were found dead and oiled from a fuel oil slick of unknown origin. (10) Apr 4, a slick discharged from Baron Ventura in vicinity of St. Abb’s Head, Borders and Northumberland affected 258 common murres, which were found oiled and dead. (11) Apr 10, an oil slick at south Orkney and Caithness oiled and killed at least 570 common murres. (12) Jun 20, an unidentified oil slick near Cape Wrath and NW Sutherland affected 227 seabirds including 30 murres found oiled and dead.
17.	At least 4,572 seabirds were confirmed killed by oiling as a result of the super-tanker ‘Amoco Cadiz’ oil spill (220,000 tons of light Iranian and Arabian crude oils) in northwest France and the Channel Islands in March 1978 (Hope-Jones et al., 1978). Among the 33 species affected, the following numbers of oiled common murres, both dead and alive, were observed in the areas listed: Finistere north (384), Cotes du Nord (247), Manche west coast (20), Channel Islands (80). Most of the murres examined at Brest, France still had fat deposits indicating they may have died from either the toxic effect of oil, from stress or chilling rather than starvation.
18.	A spill of 1,174 tons of heavy fuel oil from the tanker ‘Esso Bernicia’ at the Sullom Voe oil terminal (Shetland Isles, UK) on 31 December 1978 polluted an estimated 105 km of the shoreline of Sullom Voe and Yell Sound (Heubeck and Richardson, 1980). Over 3,702 birds of 49 species were killed. The largest proportion affected were six species including 336 murres found dead and oiled.
19.	From March 1979 to February 1986 the Shetland Oil Terminal Environmental Advisory Group conducted a Beached Bird Survey (BBS) to obtain an index of the mortality of seabirds around Shetland, UK (Heubeck, 1987). Among the 20 most frequently recorded species were the common murre, a total of 4979 individual murre corpses being recovered. This amounted to nearly 26% of all birds collected. Of the common murres collected dead in the survey, 777 were oiled. The incidence of oiling was divided into two time periods: From 1979 to 1980 65% of all common murres collected, or 179, were oiled. From 1980 to 1986 13% of all common murres, or 596, were oiled.
20.	An oil spill (light fuel oil) from an unidentified source occurred in March 1979 off the coast of North Norway (Barrett, 1979). An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 birds died as a result of the spill. A total of 1616 of these birds were positively identified which included a total of 40 oiled common murres.
21.	Surveys of beached birds in the United Kingdom from July 1980 to June 1981 were compiled and the following incidents of oiling of common murres were tabulated (Standring, 1981): (1) Dec 15, in the vicinity of Pembrokeshire 250 murres, most of them alive, were oiled from an unknown source and stranded ashore. (2) Dec 29, around Portland and Dorset 241 birds, mostly murres, (98 alive) were found oiled from at least two separate fuel oil spills. (3) Jan 01-31, an unidentified oil slick affected 350 seabirds (mostly oiled and beached murres) around the Isle of Wight. (4) Jan 30 through May, the prolonged spilling of light fuel oil from the wrecked vessel Ems off the coast of Norfolk caused oiling of 1,615 birds, mostly found alive, and including 1,400 murres. (5) Mar 07, around the county Down in northern Ireland an unidentified fuel oil slick caused oiling of 52 murres. (6) Mar 08, in the vicinity of western Dorset an unidentified oil slick caused the oiling of 175 seabirds found dead, most of which were murres. (7) From December to March the following numbers of murres were found oiled in different European locations: Norway and Sweden (n=27,000), Netherlands (n=12,500), Belgium (n=3,000, mainly murres), Northern France (n=3,000, mainly murres).
22.	The winter mortality rates (Dec to Feb) caused by oiling of common murres was compared for the years 1980-81 and 1967-79 throughout the North Sea and Irish Sea (Mead and Baillie, 1981). The following numbers of birds were affected and are listed in order of 1980-81 / 1967-79: Murres recovered oiled and alive 61 / 68, murres recovered oiled and dead 20 / 56.
23.	A continuous survey of 665 km of German North Sea coastline was conducted from August 1983 to April 1986 focusing on oiled birds (Vauk et al., 1989). During the survey 3150 common murres were found dead, of which 2425 (77%) were also found externally oiled. Among the 725 murres found without external oiling 84% had internal oiling where the stomachs and intestines were filled with a brownish-black viscous substance identified chemically as oil and derivatives picked up from feathers during preening. An oil spill on January 3, 1986 (300 tons of heavy fuel oil at entrance of Kiel Canal) was estimated to have greatly impacted the survey, though no formal estimate of losses from this spill was computed.
24.	On 19 March 1984 the tanker Mobiloil ran aground spilling 170,000 to 230,000 gallons of heavy residual oil, No. 6 fuel oil, and an industrial fuel oil into the Columbia River near St. Helens, Oregon (Speich and Thompson, 1987). Of the 450 live oiled birds retrieved from the vicinity of the spill, 118, or 26% of the total were oiled common murres. Oiled birds retrieved during 23 March to 23 April 1984 were cleaned at a treatment center and 284 birds were released. Species identities of released birds were not recorded.
25.	In November 1984, the M/V Puerto Rican oil spill spread across the outer shelf of the Gulf of Farallones killing an estimated 1500 to 2000 common murres (Takekawa et al., 1990).
26.	On 21 December 1984 an unidentified vessel released around 5000 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into Puget Sound near Whidby Island, Washington (Speich and Thompson, 1987). Common Murres (n=16) were among over 447 birds of various species retrieved and taken to a cleaning station.
27.	Approximately 3600 common murres were among seabirds found dead from oiling after the barge Apex Houston discharged up to 25,800 gallons of crude oil from Point Reyes to Monterey, California between January 28 and February 4, 1986 (Page et al., 1990). Between 1–8 February 1986, a total of 2924 common murres were found oiled, but alive (87% of all birds found live and oiled) and were taken to a cleaning station for treatment.
28.	After an oil spill in November 1988 at the Milford Haven Oil Terminal in United Kingdom, 2 common murres were found oiled and 6 others were suspected of having been exposed to oil (Quick, 1993). Livers from these birds revealed trace amounts of the following hydrocarbons: hexadecane, heptadecane, pristine, octadecane, and phytane.
29.	On March 24, 1989 the oil tanker Exxon Valdez spilled 260,00 barrels of North Slope crude oil in Prince William Sound, Alaska (Piatt et al., 1990). Between March 25 and October 13, 1989 the following numbers of oiled common murres were retrieved from the areas indicated: Prince William Sound n=510, Kenai Peninsula n=3611, Barren Islands n=1910, Alaska Peninsula n=7904, and Kodiak n=7232. During the retrieval period, 74% of all birds retrieved (21,501) before August 1 were common murres, but only 7% of birds retrieved (493) after August 1 were common murres.
30.	Common murres found beached along the Belgian coast and others brought to rehabilitation centers during winter seasons from 1989-90 to 1994-95 were evaluated for oiling (Debacker et al., 1997). The following numbers of beached oiled murres (external oil / external and internal oil) were recorded by season: 1989-90 = 11 / 89; 1990-91 = 0 / 91; 1991-92 = 0 / 67; 1992-93 = 24 / 20; 1993-94 = 31 / 6; 1994-95 = 67 / 0. The following numbers of oiled murres (external oil / external and internal oil) were returned to the rehab center and recorded by season: 1989-90 = 31 / 69; 1990-91 = 12 / 88; 1991-92 = 23 / 65; 1992-93 = 20 / 46; 1993-94 = 42 / 9; 1994-95 = 47 / 0.
31.	A total of 309 oiled common murres (most found dead) were collected between 1980 and 1994 along the southwest coast of Britain for treatment and/or analysis at rehabilitation centers (Stratford and Partridge, 1996).
32.	From 1960 to 1996 about 4% of previously ringed common murres (amounting to 16 murres in this time period) recovered in the Baltic sea were found oiled (Olsson et al., 1999).
33.	On July 22, 1991 the sinking of the TENYO MARU released intermediate fuel oil (354,800 gallon tank) and diesel oil (97,800 gallon tank) (Lowe and Pitkin, 1996). The Northern Washington coast was most severely impacted where approximately 3157 dead, oiled common murres were recovered.
34.	Approximately 15 miles of San Mateo County, California beaches were affected by the release of an estimated 3,000 gallons of Intermediate Bunker fuel oil from the M/T Command on September 26, 1998 (USFWS, 2002). Oiled common murres were collected dead (N=64), collected live and later died (n=35) and collected live and later released (n=30). Aerial surveys and modeling for inaccessible coastline estimates that a total of 11,193 common murres were at risk and a total of 1,490 common murres were killed as a result of this spill.
Common Murre Contaminant Response Data
I.	Organochlorine Contaminants
A.	Biochemical and Morphological Responses
1.	Brain and muscle tissue samples from 10 dead adult common murres and 6 healthy live common murres collected during a period of abnormal mortality (min.est. of 51,100 dead common murres) near Newport, Oregon in July and August 1969 were measured and analyzed for organochlorine contamination (Scott et al., 1975). These results were compared to samples taken during the following year in the same area. Average metric values revealed that dead murres had lower body weights (dead = 706 g, live concurrent = 898 g, live 1970 = 1,180g, p < 0.01), loss of adipose tissue, an increased percentage of empty stomachs, and an almost complete absence of normal fish diet in stomachs when compared with healthy murres collected both concurrently and subsequently. Although the DDE concentrations of dead murres from 1969 were 40-fold higher (8.7 vs. .5 mg/g ww), and the PCB concentrations were 20-fold higher (11.5 vs. .5 mg/g ww), than found in live murres collected in 1970, DDE and PCB were not singled out as the cause of the murre die-off. This was primarily because these elevated levels were still 8 to 10 times less than known minimal lethal concentrations in other bird species (eg. 150 mg/g ww DDE, 300 – 400 mg/g ww PCB).
B.	Eggshell Thinning and Reproduction
1.	Egg samples (n = 5) collected at the Farallon Islands in 1968 were analyzed for chlorinated hydrocarbons and measured for shell thickness, shell weight, and shell thickness index (Gress et al., 1971). Lipid extracts from the eggs contained an average of 297 mg/g ww DDE, 168 mg/g ww PCB, and 0.021 mg/g ww dieldrin. No DDD or DDT were detected. The eggshell measurements were compared with measurements taken from 66 museum eggs collected in the Farallon Islands in 1913. Length and breadth did not differ significantly, however, thickness, thickness index, and shell weight all showed significant decrease from 1913 to 1968. Thickness decreased by 12.8%, thickness index by 11.9%, and shell weight by 11.5%.
2.	Egg samples collected from murres prior to 1970 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants and PCBs and correlated with historic measurements of eggshell thickness (Ratcliffe, 1970). The following average concentrations (mg/g fresh whole egg weight) were found for 66 eggs: BHC isomers = 0.005, dieldrin = 0.28, DDE = 2.12, DDD = 0.06, DDT = 0.04, DME (DDMU or 1 chloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene) = 0.01, Total Organochlorine residues = 2.51. PCB average concentration for 16 eggs was 5.13. There was no significant decrease in eggshell thickness over the historic period (1883-1937, n = 64 and 1953-1967, n = 69) and no correlation to organochlorine residue contamination was found.
3.	Egg samples (n = 12) from common murres collected annually in late May or early June from 1971 to 1976 at Graesholmen Island, Denmark were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants and the eggshell thicknesses were measured (Dyck and Kraul, 1984). Fifteen eggs collected from the Faeroe Islands in 1972 were similarly analyzed, measured and used as a reference, while Faeroese egg samples collected during 1857 to 1946 (museum samples) were measured. When compared to the indices of eggs collected prior to the introduction of DDT, the shell indices of Graesholman eggs collected in 1971, 1972, and 1974 are significantly lower, while eggs collected in 1976 show no difference. No change was found in Faeroese eggs recently collected when compared with the pre-DDT samples. However, any correlation between DDE concentration and the shell index is masked because of two factors: (1) the shell index is positively correlated with sea water salinity and (2) the sea water salinity varies between the years.
4.	Eggs from common murres (n = 41) collected from 4 localities along coastal Norway in May 1972 were analyzed for eggshell thickness vs DDE and PCBs (Fimreite et al., 1977). The following were median eggshell thicknesses (mm) followed by DDE / PCB levels (mg/g ww): Hjelmsoy: 0.534, 0.74 / 2.01; Hornoy: 0.542, 1.07 / 3.23; Rost: 0.428, 0.89 / 2.08; Runde: 0.441, 0.51 / 1.45.
5.	A single seabird egg was taken from each of 62 nests of 10 different species between 14 May and 3 July 1979 along the coast of southern Oregon at Gull Island and Island Rock (Henny et al., 1982). These eggs were then analyzed for organochlorine and PCB contamination and the shell thicknesses were compared with historically recorded pre-1947 thicknesses. Among the 10 different species were 8 common murre eggs that had a mean DDE concentration of 0.87 mg/g wet weight and mean PCB concentration of 0.52 mg/g. Neither contaminant concentration was significant. However, the mean shell thickness of 0.679 mm for the 1979 eggs was significantly thinner (-5.2%) than pre-1947 value of 0.716 mm.
6.	Common murre eggs (n = 15) collected at South East Farallon Island (SEFI) and at Ano Nuevo Island in the spring of 1993 were analyzed for organochlorine contaminants, the eggshell thicknesses were measured, and regression analysis conducted to reveal correlations (Pyle et al., 1999). The metric data from these eggs was also compared to historically recorded eggshell thicknesses from the same areas. Significant negative correlations were found between oxychlordane and eggshell thickness and between a pooled sampling of all organochlorine contaminants and shell thickness in the common murre. Although DDE concentration in the eggs was relatively high, no correlation was found with eggshell thickness. The eggshell thicknesses of common murre eggs collected at SEFI in 1993 had statistically similar measurements to those of SEFI eggs from 1913 but significantly thicker measurements than those SEFI eggs from 1968 –1970.
7.	Hatching success (eggs hatched / eggs laid) of common murre eggs was measured at SEFI from 1971 to 1994 and compared with measurements taken of eggshell thickness and organochlorine contaminations (Pyle et al., 1999). The lack of significant changes in hatching success of seabirds from 1971 to 1994 at SEFI supports the finding that eggshell thinning of common murre eggs at SEFI in the early 1970’s, during a period of highest DDT use, was not enough to affect reproduction. Furthermore, it was concluded that the 3 – 6% eggshell thinning observed at SEFI in 1993 (compared to pre-pesticide values) does not pose a significant problem to seabird productivity.
II.	Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticides
	No response data available
III.	Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids
1.	Egg samples (n = 12) from common murres collected annually in late May or early June from 1971 to 1976 at Graesholmen Island, Denmark were analyzed for both total Hg and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations and the eggshell thicknesses were measured (Dyck and Kraul, 1984). 15 eggs collected from the Faeroe Islands in 1972 were similarly analyzed, measured and used as a reference, while Faeroese egg samples collected during 1857 to 1946 (museum samples) were measured. A correlation was found between methyl mercury concentration and shell thinning. This relationship is not believed to be causal, but to be related to the correlation of both shell index and methylmercury concentration with sea water salinity at the time of egg laying.
IV.	Petroleum
1.	Oiled common murres were collected after exposure to “bunker C” oil along the coast near Santa Barbara, California on April 4, 1982 (Fry et al., 1985). These seven murres were euthanized and analyzed physiologically with the following results: hematocrits ranged from 43 to 52% (50% normal for California), mild renal tubular necrosis was present in 4 murres, hemosiderosis of hepatocytes and Kupffer cells was present in 6 murres, 4 murres had “grossly”smaller salt glands, and microscopically, the ratio of cortex to medulla was increased in 3 murres. All birds had a variety of parasites, gut lesions, and pneumoconiosis, which appeared also in other birds in the presence and absence of oiling.
2.	Dried blood smears of common murres oiled from the October 1984 spill of the tanker Puerto Rican in San Francisco were compared with smears from unoiled murres (Fry and Addiego, 1987). The normal blood cells were ovate and had smooth surfaces, sometimes showing a slight indentation over the nucleus. Many cells from the oiled murres contained clumped aggregates of hemoglobin (Heinz bodies) that were visible beneath the cell membrane and appeared to be very similar to petroleum induced Heinz bodies from other species of birds. Hematocrits from these oiled murres revealed a large proportion with mild to severe anemia (40 to 20% hematocrit equating to a 25 to 60 % loss of red blood cells, 50 to 55% being the normal hematocrit for common murres). During February and March 1986 common murres (n=580) oiled from the Apex Houston barge oil spill along California’s central coast were examined for hemolytic anemia and blood values were taken. The average hematocrit for these murres was 37.7% (with large variation) equating to a 25 to 30 % reduction in red blood cells. Some of these murres had a hematocrit below 10% representing an 80% reduction in red blood cells. Murres, unwashed and awaiting oil removal, did not recover from the anemic condition as long as they were able to preen and ingest oil. Nine of the oiled murres were monitored after cleaning, with four murres being severely anemic prior to cleaning (hematocrit at 20% or less). The murres returned to 90% of the normal red blood cell count after 30 days of being cleaned. These nine murres initially had elevated plasma total protein levels (above 5.0 gm/dl) that normally is associated with dehydration. Rehydration did not reverse the high levels and a lab preliminary estimation of albumin and globulin levels indicated high globulins without corresponding increases in serum albumin which implies the condition of the oiled murres is not simple dehydration. Plasma protein profiles of recovering oiled murres showed lack of a pre-albumin peak and variable, marked elevations of alpha, beta, and gamma proteins. Unoiled murres had a ‘typical’ protein profile with a distinct pre-albumin region, a prominent albumin peak, and lower levels of alpha, beta, and gamma proteins.
3.	An estimate of 185,000 common murres were eventually killed by oil as a result of the spill from Exxon Valdez (Piatt and Anderson, 1996). Based on comparisons of prespill and postspill data, the long term effects on the population of common murres in the affected region attributed to oil pollution have included population declines, reduced breeding success, and delayed breeding phenology. However, available data are inadequate to distinguish between long-term effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on common murres and a natural response of common murres to long-term changes in their environment (food stress, oceanographic anomalies).
4.	From January 18 to 22, 1990, common murres (n = 13) that were lightly to moderately contaminated with crude oil, primarily on their breast, were collected near Goosebery Cove, Newfoundland and analyzed for long term physical effects (Khan and Ryan, 1991). Only one common murre was rehabilitated and released, the other 12 either died or were necropsied at intervals after retention. The following physical changes were reported in the oiled murres: weight loss amounting to an average of 304 g over a 17 to 42 day period, discoloration of liver by ovoid or linear areas of necrosis, significantly lower than normal hematocrit values of 43% average (55.8% reported normal), histopathological changes in liver, kidney, and intestine including necrosis lesions in the liver and necrosis of the duodenum, hemosiderin accumulation in both hepatocytes and Kuppfer cells, renal tubular degeneration and necrosis, black emulsions from the digestive tracts that had a petroleum odor.
5.	Livers from oiled common murres recovered from the Newfoundland oil spill discussed in entry #6 above, as well as 4 carcasses collected in Newfoundland in February 1990, were examined for hemosiderin (Khan and Nag, 1993). The amount of hemosiderin varied for both murres collected dead and alive according to the length of time when seabirds became contaminated with crude oil. Generally, hemosiderin content was greater in birds that were heavily oiled and emaciated than in lightly oiled birds that showed evidence of slight weight loss. The following hemosiderin concentrations (per cent area of tissue affected) were found after various exposure periods: .4% after 0 days exposure (n =10), 2% after 3-10 days (n=5), 10% after 12-18 days (n=2), 21% after 26-30 days (n=2), 13% after 36 days (n=3), and 7% after 42 days (n=2).
6.	Of the 67 common murres collected dead on the Belgian coast from November 1993 to March 1994, 19 individuals were found oiled (Jauniaux, 1998). Oiling could not be correlated to various lesions.
7.	Half of a total of 166 common murres, collected stranded between November and March, over 5 successive winters (1993-94 to 1997-98) along Belgian beaches, were found with oil residues on plumages (Debaker et al., 2000). All were found dead and examined for heavy metal content and degrees of cachexia. Statistical analysis yielded the following: no correlation between frequency of cachectic status and presence/absence of oil, Fe level in liver and kidney were linked to oiling (more oiling correlates to greater Fe loads).
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Species	The common murre (Uria aalga), also called the common guillemot, averages 40 cm (16-17 in) in length and weighs between 980 and 1000 g (Johnsgard, 1987). In its breeding plumage the upperparts, including head and neck, are rich dark brown, underparts are white. The rear edge of the wing is white, inside of mouth yellow, and the feet dark. The winter plumage is similar to that of summer but the throat and cheeks are white instead of dark brown. The common murre can be distinguished from all other alcids by the long, dark slender bill (40 –50 mm), longer than that of any other alcid (Terres, 1980). Male and female common murres are of similar sizes and plumages. The juvenile is similar to winter-plummage adult but with a shorter, more slender bill (Gaston and Jones, 1998). A “bridled” color phase exists in some birds where a narrow white eye ring and postocular stripe are present (Johnsgard, 1987). Three subspecies of the common murre have been identified (Johnsgard, 1987).
Nesting and Status in Estuarine and Coastal Areas	Common murres are highly colonial, nesting on bare rock ledges using no material for the nest except occasionally a few pebbles cemented together with excrement, which may keep the egg from rolling (Terres, 1980). Clutch is a single, pear shaped egg. The egg is white to brown with markings of faint scribbles or deep blotches of red, brown or black (Freethy, 1987). Chicks are semiprecocial being fed at the site for an average of 22-25 days (Gaston and Jones, 1998).
Abundance and Range	Recent estimates suggest an Atlantic population of 6 to 9 million breeding birds and a Pacific population of 6.3 million breeding birds (Gaston and Jones, 1998). The Atlantic breeding range includes E. Canada from the Bay of Fundy and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Central Labrador, E. New Foundland, Iceland, Bear Island, the British Isles, and Norway. In the Pacific the breeding range is throughout the Gulf of Alaska, the Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and also in California, Oregon, and Washington, but only a few thousand breed in British Columbia and SE Alaska (Gaston and Jones, 1998). This species winters offshore throughout its breeding range, extending further south to Maine, Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey in the Atlantic and south to Newport Beach, California in the Pacific (Johnsgard, 1987).
Site Fidelity	Breeders normally return to the same site each year and hence pair-bonds persist, sometimes for many years (Gaston and Jones, 1998).
Ease of Census	Simple
Feeding Habits	Stomach contents of this species reveals a variety in the diet which includes 52% fish, 36% crustacean and annelid, 10% marine mollusk, and 2% seaweed. Common murres can feed alone but seem to prefer to hunt together in loose flocks (Freethy, 1987). They locate prey visually by dipping head into water and then pursue by diving and “flying” submerged. Occasionally these birds will coordinate hunting; a line of birds will swim around a shoal eventually encircling prey before moving in to “draw the net” and then feed together. Prey is usually swallowed prior to surfacing, thus eluding theft by aggressive gulls (Freethy, 1987). Typically the murre will dive for about 100 seconds, and has been reported to dive down to 100 meters (Gaston and Jones, 1998).

Species

Abundance and Range

Site Fidelity

Ease of Census

Petroleum