Effects of Management Practices on Grassland Birds:
Lark Sparrow
This resource is based on the following source:
Dechant, J. A., M. L. Sondreal, D. H. Johnson, L. D. Igl, C. M. Goldade, B. D. Parkin, and B. R. Euliss. 1999 (revised 2003). Effects of management practices on grassland birds: Lark Sparrow. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, ND. 18 pages.
This resource should be cited as:Dechant, J. A., M. L. Sondreal, D. H. Johnson, L. D. Igl, C. M. Goldade, B. D. Parkin, and B. R. Euliss. 2003. Effects of management practices on grassland birds: Lark Sparrow. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, ND. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/grasbird/lasp/lasp.htm (Version 12DEC2003).
Effects of Management Practices on Grassland Birds:
Lark Sparrow
Jill A. Dechant, Marriah L. Sondreal, Douglas H. Johnson, Lawrence D. Igl,
Christopher M. Goldade, Barry D. Parkin, and Betty R. Euliss
Series Coordinator: Douglas H. Johnson
Series Assistant Coordinators: Lawrence D. Igl, Jill A. Dechant Shaffer
Reviewer: John W. Martin
Range Map: Jeff T. Price
Illustration: Christopher M. Goldade
Major Funding: Prairie Pothole Joint Venture, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey
Funding also provided by: U.S. Forest Service
The Nature Conservancy
Collaborators:
Louis B. Best, Iowa State University
Carl E. Bock, University of Colorado
Brenda C. Dale, Canadian Wildlife Service
Stephen K. Davis, Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation Corporation
James J. Dinsmore, Iowa State University
James K. Herkert, Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board
Fritz L. Knopf, Midcontinent Ecological Science Center
Rolf R. Koford, Iowa Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit
David R. C. Prescott, Alberta NAWMP Centre
Mark R. Ryan, University of Missouri
David W. Sample, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
David A. Swanson, Ohio Division of Wildlife
Peter D. Vickery, Massachusetts Audubon Society
John L. Zimmerman (retired), Kansas State University
Organization and Features of this Species Account
Information on the habitat requirements and effects of habitat management on grassland birds were summarized from information in more than 5,500 published and unpublished papers. A range map is provided to indicate the relative densities of the species in North America, based on Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data. Although birds frequently are observed outside the breeding range indicated, the maps are intended to show areas where managers might concentrate their attention. It may be ineffectual to manage habitat at a site for a species that rarely occurs in an area. The species account begins with a brief capsule statement, which provides the fundamental components or keys to management for the species. A section on breeding range outlines the current breeding distribution of the species in North America, including areas that could not be mapped using BBS data. The suitable habitat section describes the breeding habitat and occasionally microhabitat characteristics of the species, especially those habitats that occur in the Great Plains. Details on habitat and microhabitat requirements often provide clues to how a species will respond to a particular management practice. A table near the end of the account complements the section on suitable habitat, and lists the specific habitat characteristics for the species by individual studies. A special section on prey habitat is included for those predatory species that have more specific prey requirements. The area requirements section provides details on territory and home range sizes, minimum area requirements, and the effects of patch size, edges, and other landscape and habitat features on abundance and productivity. It may be futile to manage a small block of suitable habitat for a species that has minimum area requirements that are larger than the area being managed. The Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) is an obligate brood parasite of many grassland birds. The section on cowbird brood parasitism summarizes rates of cowbird parasitism, host responses to parasitism, and factors that influence parasitism, such as nest concealment and host density. The impact of management depends, in part, upon a species' nesting phenology and biology. The section on breeding-season phenology and site fidelity includes details on spring arrival and fall departure for migratory populations in the Great Plains, peak breeding periods, the tendency to renest after nest failure or success, and the propensity to return to a previous breeding site. The duration and timing of breeding varies among regions and years. Species' response to management summarizes the current knowledge and major findings in the literature on the effects of different management practices on the species. The section on management recommendations complements the previous section and summarizes specific recommendations for habitat management provided in the literature. If management recommendations differ in different portions of the species' breeding range, recommendations are given separately by region. The literature cited contains references to published and unpublished literature on the management effects and habitat requirements of the species. This section is not meant to be a complete bibliography; for a searchable, annotated bibliography of published and unpublished papers dealing with habitat needs of grassland birds and their responses to habitat management, use the Grassland and Wetland Birds Bibliography on the home page of this resource.
This report has been downloaded from the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center World-Wide Web site, http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/grasbird/. Please direct comments and suggestions to Douglas H. Johnson, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 8711 37th Street SE, Jamestown, North Dakota 58401; telephone: 701-253-5539; fax: 701-253-5553; e-mail: Douglas_H_Johnson@usgs.gov.
(Chondestes grammacus)
 |
| Figure. Breeding distribution of the Lark Sparrow in the United States and southern Canada, based on Breeding Bird Survey data, 1985-1991. Scale represents average number of individuals detected per route per year. Map from Price, J., S. Droege, and A. Price. 1995. The summer atlas of North American birds. Academic Press, London, England. 364 pages. |
Keys to management include providing suitable habitat (open grasslands with sparse to moderate herbaceous and litter cover, and a shrub component), and allowing moderate grazing or occasional burning.
Breeding Range:
Lark Sparrows breed from southern British Columbia to southern Manitoba, south to southern California and southern Texas, and east to western North Carolina, western Ohio, and southern Michigan (National Geographic Society 1987). (See figure for the relative densities of Lark Sparrows in the United States and southern Canada, based on Breeding Bird Survey data.)
Suitable habitat:
Lark Sparrows use riparian areas, shrubsteppe, and mixed-grass and shortgrass uplands with a shrub component and sparse litter (Rand 1948, Walcheck 1970, Salt and Salt 1976, Wiens and Rotenberry 1981, Kahl et al. 1985, Wershler et al. 1991, Bock et al. 1995). Suitable habitat includes shortgrass, mixed-grass, and tallgrass prairie; parkland; sandhills; barrens; oldfields; cultivated fields; shrub thickets; woodland edges; shelterbelts; parks; riparian areas; brushy pastures; and overgrazed pastures (Baepler 1968, Newman 1970, Rising 1974, Stewart 1975, Faanes 1983, Dinsmore et al. 1984, Walley 1985, Sample 1989, Wershler et al. 1991, Cable et al. 1992, Kaspari and Joern 1993, Zimmerman 1993, Faanes 1995, Best et al. 1997, Prescott 1997, Martin and Parrish 2000). In Nebraska, Lark Sparrows were observed in low abundance in wet-meadow habitat (Helzer 1996, Helzer and Jelinski 1999). In Colorado, Bock et al. (1999) compared the abundance of Lark Sparrows between upland (mixed-grass prairie) and lowland (tallgrass prairie or tame hayland) grasslands. Lark Sparrows were significantly more abundant on upland than on lowland plots. Lark Sparrows use both native and tame vegetation in shrubsteppe (Bock and Bock 1992). In Nevada, Lark Sparrows preferred areas of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum, Agropyron desertorum) that were invaded by sagebrush (Artemisia) over areas dominated solely by either sagebrush or wheatgrass; Lark Sparrow abundance was negatively correlated with sagebrush density (McAdoo et al. 1989). In Arizona, areas inhabited by Lark Sparrows were characterized by mean habitat values of 38% bare ground, 54% grass cover, 7% forb cover, <2% canopy cover, 13 cm grass height, and 0.068 shrubs/m²; Lark Sparrows usually were flushed near mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) (Bock and Webb 1984).
Lark Sparrows nest either on the ground or close to the ground (within 4 m) in woody vegetation (Ely 1957, Baepler 1968, McNair 1985). Ground nests may be located in areas of sparse ground cover such as those areas associated with burning, moderate to heavy grazing, or poor or eroded soils (Fitch 1958, Graber and Graber 1963, Baepler 1968, Kahl et al. 1985, Walley 1985, Zimmerman 1993, Prescott 1997), or in idle fields, lawns, and cemeteries (Baepler 1968, Salt and Salt 1976, Walley 1985). Ground nests often are placed at the base of a plant (Ely 1957, Baepler 1968, Rising 1974). In Montana, Lark Sparrow nests always were located under sagebrush (Cameron 1908). Also in Montana, Walcheck (1970) found seven of eight nests placed under big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). The eighth nest was placed under greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus). Above-ground nests may be located in various species of shrubs, saplings, and small trees (Baepler 1968, Newman 1970, McNair 1985). A table near the end of the account lists the specific habitat characteristics for Lark Sparrows by study.
Area requirements:
Little is known concerning area requirements of the Lark Sparrow. No studies have investigated a relationship between patch size and nest success or patch size and rates of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater). In a Kansas oldfield, one pair used 6 ha for foraging and nesting activities (Fitch 1958). In Colorado, Bock et al. (1999) compared the abundance of Lark Sparrows between interior and edge locations. Edge was defined as the interface between suburban development and upland or lowland habitat, and interior locations were 200 m from edge. Lark Sparrows occurred more frequently on interior plots than on edge plots but the difference was not significant due to high variation in numbers of Lark Sparrows among plots.
Brown-headed Cowbird brood parasitism:
Lark Sparrows are highly susceptible to brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Friedmann et al. 1977). Rates of brood parasitism vary from 6% of 17 nests (Ely 1957) to 82% of 11 nests (Hill 1976). Refer to Table 1 in Shaffer et al. (2003) for rates of cowbird brood parasitism. Lark Sparrows may be multiply-parasitized (Newman 1970). Abandonment of parasitized nests has been reported in two cases (Baepler 1968, Walley 1985).
Breeding-season phenology and site fidelity:
Lark Sparrows arrive on their southern breeding grounds as early as mid-March and on their northern breeding grounds from mid-April to May (Cameron 1908, Fitch 1958, Maher 1974, Stewart 1975, Dinsmore et al. 1984, Walley 1985, Zimmerman 1993, Martin and Parrish 2000). Lark Sparrows depart for their wintering grounds from mid- to late September (Maher 1974, Dinsmore et al. 1984, Walley 1985, Martin and Parrish 2000). Some Lark Sparrows may depart as early as mid-July or as late as mid-November (Dinsmore et al. 1984, Zimmerman 1993, Martin and Parrish 2000). Although no concrete evidence exists (Baepler 1968), some authors suggested that double-broodedness occurs (Cameron 1908, Newman 1970, Joern 1992, Kaspari and Joern 1993).
Species' response to management:
Burning usually is beneficial to Lark Sparrows. In a Kansas study of spring-burned and unburned native fields enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program, abundance of Lark Sparrows was nonsignificantly higher on spring-burned than unburned fields (Robel et al. 1998). Within Arizona desert grasslands, Lark Sparrow abundance increased in native vegetation 2 yr postburn; abundance was positively correlated with percent herbaceous cover (Bock and Bock 1992). A nonsignificant increase in abundance occurred 2 yr postburn in fields composed of African lovegrass (Eragrostis lehmanniana) and weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) (Bock and Bock 1992). Prior to the burn, no Lark Sparrows inhabited those fields and they were absent 3 and 4 yr postburn (Bock and Bock 1988, 1992). In Arizona floodplains dominated by sacaton grass (Sporobolus wrightii), there was no difference in Lark Sparrow abundance between burned and unburned stands (Bock and Bock 1988). Within a honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa)/tobosagrass (Hilaria mutica) grassland in central Texas, Lark Sparrow abundance was highest in most recent burns and decreased as litter and grass cover increased (Renwald 1977). A negative correlation was found between number of nests and percent cover of tobosagrass; Lark Sparrows nested in tobosagrass ranging from 32 to 55% cover (Renwald 1977). In a Missouri study examining avian composition within 53 sites ranging from hardwood forest to oldfields to grasslands, Lark Sparrows were found on only one site (Kahl et al. 1985). This site was a recently burned grassland characterized by sparse litter cover and few (24-50 stems/ha) woody stems ≥2.5 cm diameter at breast height (Kahl et al. 1985). In contrast to the aforementioned studies, Lark Sparrows avoided an area devoid of woody vegetation burned 2 yr previously within Montana shrubsteppe, preferring instead areas dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) within unburned sites (Bock and Bock 1987).
Little information is available concerning the response of Lark Sparrows to mowing or grazing. In Colorado, Lark Sparrows preferred shortgrass and mixed-grass uplands over tallgrass remnants or hayfields (Bock et al. 1995). In Nebraska, Lark Sparrow abundance was higher on an area both burned and grazed by American bison (Bison bison) than on an area grazed by cattle (Griebel et al. 1998). Lark Sparrow abundance was not different between burned and unburned areas within the pasture grazed by American bison. In Oklahoma and Manitoba, Lark Sparrows nested in moderately to heavily grazed pastures, but also nested in idle fields (Baepler 1968, Newman 1970, Walley 1985). Lark Sparrow abundance was significantly higher on grazed than on ungrazed desert grasslands in Arizona (Bock et al. 1984, 1993; Bock and Webb 1984; Bock and Bock 1988).
Lark Sparrows are not common in fields enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program or Permanent Cover Program or in fields of dense nesting cover (Johnson and Schwartz 1993, Hull et al. 1996, Best et al. 1997, Klute et al. 1997, McMaster and Davis 1998).
In a study examining the effects on avian density of discing, spraying of the herbicide (2,4,5-T) about 14 yr earlier, and construction of brush shelters, there were no effects on brushland sparrows as a group; effects on particular species, including Lark Sparrow, composing the group of brushland sparrows, were not examined (Gruver and Guthery 1986). In a study examining the effects of (DDT) dust for tick (Amblyomma americanum) control in Texas, numbers of nesting Lark Sparrows decreased in both the treated and untreated area (George and Stickel 1949). In North Dakota, brain levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChe) in Lark Sparrows did not differ between areas treated with carbaryl bait and untreated areas (George et al. 1992). Carbaryl is an AChe-inhibiting chemical.
Management Recommendations:
Reduce amount of grassland edge near suburban interfaces (Bock et al. 1999).
Conduct burns before (early March) Lark Sparrows arrive on the breeding grounds (Renwald 1977).
During brush removal, leave about 10% brush cover for use by Lark Sparrows (McAdoo et al. 1989). Removal of all woody vegetation would make an area unsuitable for Lark Sparrows (Renwald 1977).
Conduct burns at intervals of 5 to 8 yr to increase amount of open foraging area; burns should be conducted at moderate temperatures so as to provide patches of unburned habitat for nesting and perching, while still providing open areas for foraging (Renwald 1977).
Table. Lark Sparrow habitat characteristics.
| Author(s) | Location(s) | Habitat(s) Studied* | Species-specific Habitat Characteristics |
| Baepler 1968 | Oklahoma | Cropland, hayland, idle, pasture, tame | Nested in ornamental evergreens near buildings, in grass-free depressions on the ground in the shade of broad-leaved plants, in low trees and shrubs, and on the ground in pastures, lawns, idle fields, and cotton fields |
| Bock and Bock 1987 | Montana | Burned shrubsteppe, idle shrubsteppe | Preferred shrubs in unburned areas; avoided shrubless burned areas |
| Bock and Bock 1992 | Arizona | Burned semidesert grassland, burned tame, idle semidesert grassland, idle tame | Abundance was positively correlated with herbaceous cover; were more abundant in native burned areas 2 yr postburn; were found in tame grassland 1-2 yr postburn |
| Bock et al. 1999 | Colorado | Idle mixed-grass, idle tallgrass, mixed-grass pasture, tallgrass pasture, tame hayland | Occurred more frequently on interior plots than on edge plots and was more abundant in upland habitat than in lowland habitat; edge was defined as the interface between suburban development and upland or lowland habitat, and interior locations were 200 m from edge; upland grasslands were mixed-grass prairie and lowland grasslands were tallgrass prairie or tame hayland |
| Bock et al. 1984 | Arizona | Idle semidesert grassland, semidesert grassland pasture | Were significantly more abundant on grazed than ungrazed sites |
| Bock and Webb 1984 | Arizona | Idle semidesert grassland, semidesert grassland pasture | Densities were significantly higher in grazed than ungrazed sites; were often found near mesquite (Prosopis juliflora); measurements at flush sites were 38.2% bare ground, 54.2% grass cover, 12.9 cm average grass height, 2.4% mesquite cover, 1.4% shrub cover, 6.8 shrubs/100 m², and 7% forb cover |
| Dinsmore et al. 1984 | Iowa | Cropland, hayland, idle, pasture | Used sandy grasslands, field edges, and brushy areas |
| Ely 1957 | Oklahoma | Idle, tame pasture, woodland | Of 13 nests found, five were on the ground and eight were in woody vegetation ≤4 m above the ground |
| Faanes and Lingle 1995 | Nebraska | Mixed-grass, shortgrass, tallgrass, woodland edge | Highest densities were found in upland prairie followed by lowland forest; observed most often in native grassland that was being invaded by Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) and that contained an abundance of soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca) |
| Graber and Graber 1963 | Illinois | Cropland, hayland, idle, idle grassland, tame pasture, wetland, woodland | Used areas with sandy or other poor soil types; were found in hedgerows, plowed fields, fallow fields, shrub-grown areas and pasture |
| Kahl et al. 1985 | Missouri | Burned tallgrass, cropland, idle, idle tallgrass, tallgrass hayland, tallgrass pasture, woodland, woodland edge | Used recently burned grassland cleared of trees; habitat was characterized by shallow litter (0.1-1.0 cm deep), sparse (40-45%) litter cover, and few (24-50 stems/ha) woody stems ≥2.5 cm diameter at breast height |
| McAdoo et al. 1989 | Nevada | Shrubsteppe pasture, tame pasture | Abundance was negatively correlated with shrub density; were more abundant in fields seeded to crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum, Agropyron cristatum) invaded by big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) than in pure stands of either wheatgrass or sagebrush |
| Newman 1970 | Oklahoma | Cropland, mixed-grass pasture | Nested on the ground in grazed fields at the base of herbaceous or woody plants, in cultivated fields, above ground in small trees or shrubs; some nests were found in the open on the ground |
| Prescott 1997 | Alberta | Cropland, hayland, mixed-grass pasture, shrubland, tame pasture, woodland | Were common in badlands and riparian shrub; were found in low numbers in shelterbelts, native mixed-grass, and riparian woodland |
| Rand 1948 | Alberta | Cropland, idle shortgrass, shortgrass pasture | Were locally common where native, arid shrubbery existed in valleys; were absent from the open plains; a nest was found on the ground under sagebrush |
| Renwald 1977 | Texas | Burned shortgrass, idle shortgrass | Were most abundant in recently burned areas; density decreased as litter increased and areas became dominated by residual tobosagrass (Hilaria mutica) |
| Rising 1974 | Kansas | Cropland, shortgrass pasture, woodland | Were abundant in woodland edge and mixed-grass prairie; nested in trees or at the base of plants or rocks |
| Robel et al. 1998 | Kansas | Conservation Reserve Program (CRP; burned seeded-native, idle seeded-native) | Abundance was nonsignificantly higher on spring-burned than unburned fields |
| Sample 1989 | Wisconsin | Burned tallgrass, cropland, dense nesting cover (DNC; idle seeded-native, idle tame), idle, idle seeded-native, idle tallgrass, idle tallgrass/tame, idle tame, tame hayland, tame pasture, tame savanna pasture, wet meadow, wet-meadow pasture | Were found in low numbers in a few sandy sites in dry prairie and barrens habitat; habitat was characterized as containing very sparse vegetation with scattered small trees |
| Stewart 1975 | North Dakota | Cropland, hayland, idle, pasture | Nested in pastures, cultivated and weedy fields, woodland edges, or shrubby areas |
| Walcheck 1970 | Montana | Shrubsteppe, woodland | Placed nests under big sagebrush and greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) |
| Walley 1985 | Manitoba | Cropland, idle tame, mixed-grass pasture | Nested in gardens, cultivated fields, cemeteries, and heavily grazed pastures containing scattered shrubs |
| Wershler et al. 1991 | Alberta | Cropland, idle mixed-grass, idle tame, mixed-grass pasture, parkland, wet meadow | Inhabited woodland edges, river valleys, sandhills, parkland, and edge habitats of cultivated fields |
| Zimmerman 1993 | Kansas | Burned tallgrass, idle, idle tallgrass, woodland | Nested in areas with sparse ground cover due to poor soils, overgrazing, or formerly cultivated fields undergoing secondary succession |
* In an effort to standardize terminology among studies, various descriptors were used to denote the management or type of habitat. "Idle" used as a modifier (e.g., idle tallgrass) denotes undisturbed or unmanaged (e.g., not burned, mowed, or grazed) areas. "Idle" by itself denotes unmanaged areas in which the plant species were not mentioned. Examples of "idle" habitats include weedy or fallow areas (e.g., oldfields), fencerows, grassed waterways, terraces, ditches, and road rights-of-way. "Tame" denotes introduced plant species (e.g., smooth brome [Bromus inermis]) that are not native to North American prairies. "Hayland" refers to any habitat that was mowed, regardless of whether the resulting cut vegetation was removed. "Burned" includes habitats that were burned intentionally or accidentally or those burned by natural forces (e.g., lightning). In situations where there are two or more descriptors (e.g., idle tame hayland), the first descriptor modifies the following descriptors. For example, idle tame hayland is habitat that is usually mowed annually but happened to be undisturbed during the year of the study.
Literature Cited
Baepler, D. H. 1968. Lark Sparrow. Pages 886-902 in A. C. Bent, editor. Life histories of North American cardinals, grosbeaks, buntings, towhees, finches, sparrows, and allies. Dover Publications Inc., New York, New York.
Best, L. B., H. Campa, III, K. E. Kemp, R. J. Robel, M. R. Ryan, J. A. Savidge, H. P. Weeks, Jr., and S. R. Winterstein. 1997. Bird abundance and nesting in CRP fields and cropland in the Midwest: a regional approach. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25:864-877.
Bock, C. E., and J. H. Bock. 1987. Avian habitat occupancy following fire in a Montana shrubsteppe. Prairie Naturalist 19:153-158.
Bock, C. E., and J. H. Bock. 1988. Grassland birds in southeastern Arizona: impacts of fire, grazing, and alien vegetation. Pages 43-58 in P. D. Goriup, editor. Ecology and conservation of grassland birds. International Council for Bird Preservation Publication 7.
Bock, C. E., and J. H. Bock. 1992. Response of birds to wildfire in native versus exotic Arizona grassland. Southwestern Naturalist 37:73-81.
Bock, C. E., J. H. Bock, and B. C. Bennett. 1995. The avifauna of remnant tallgrass prairie near Boulder, Colorado. Prairie Naturalist 27:147-157.
Bock, C. E., J. H. Bock, and B. C. Bennett. 1999. Songbird abundance in grasslands at a suburban interface on the Colorado High Plains. Pages 131-136 in P. D. Vickery and J. R. Herkert, editors. Ecology and conservation of grassland birds of the Western Hemisphere. Studies in Avian Biology 19.
Bock, C. E., J. H. Bock, W. R. Kenney, and V. M. Hawthorne. 1984. Responses of birds, rodents, and vegetation to livestock exclosure in a semidesert grassland site. Journal of Range Management 37:239-242.
Bock, C. E., V. A. Saab, T. D. Rich, and D. S. Dobkin. 1993. Effects of livestock grazing on Neotropical migratory landbirds in western North America. Pages 296-309 in D. M. Finch and P. W. Stangel, editors. Status and management of Neotropical migratory birds. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-229.
Bock, C. E., and B. Webb. 1984. Birds as grazing indicator species in southeastern Arizona. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:1045-1049.
Cable, T. T., R. L. Schroeder, V. Brack, Jr., and P. S. Cook. 1992. Summer bird use of Kansas windbreaks. Prairie Naturalist 24:175-184.
Cameron, E. S. 1908. The birds of Custer and Dawson counties, Montana. Auk 25:39-56.
Dinsmore, J. J., T. H. Kent, D. Koenig, P. C. Peterson, and D. M. Roosa. 1984. Iowa birds. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 356 pages.
Ely, C. A. 1957. Comparative nesting success of certain south-central Oklahoma birds. M.S. thesis. University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. 74 pages.
Faanes, C. 1983. Breeding birds of wooded draws in western North Dakota. Prairie Naturalist 15:173-187.
Faanes, C. A., and G. R. Lingle. 1995. Breeding birds of the Platte River Valley of Nebraska. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/distr/birds/platte/platte.htm (Version 16JUL97).
Fitch, H. S. 1958. Home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the Natural History Reservation. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History 11:63-326.
Friedmann, H., L. F. Kiff, and S. I. Rothstein. 1977. A further contribution to knowledge of the host relations of the parasitic cowbirds. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 235:1-75.
George, J. L., and W. H. Stickel. 1949. Wildlife effects of DDT dust used for tick control on a Texas prairie. American Midland Naturalist 42:228-237.
George, T. L., L. C. McEwen, and A. Fowler. 1992. Effects of a carbaryl bait treatment on nontarget wildlife. Environmental Entomology 21:1239-1247.
Graber, R. R., and J. W. Graber. 1963. A comparative study of bird populations in Illinois, 1906-1909 and 1956-1958. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 28:383-528.
Griebel, R. L., S. L. Winter, and A. A. Steuter. 1998. Grassland birds and habitat structure in sandhills prairie management using cattle or bison plus fire. Great Plains Research 8:255-268.
Gruver, B. J., and F. S. Guthery. 1986. Effects of brush control and gamebird management on nongame birds. Journal of Range Management 39:251-253.
Helzer, C. J. 1996. The effects of wet meadow fragmentation on grassland birds. M.S. thesis. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. 65 pages.
Helzer, C. J., and D. E. Jelinski. 1999. The relative importance of patch area and perimeter-area ratio to grassland breeding birds. Ecological Applications 9:1448-1458.
Hill, R. A. 1976. Host-parasite relationships of the Brown-headed Cowbird in a prairie habitat of west-central Kansas. Wilson Bulletin 88:555-565.
Hull, S. D., R. J. Robel, and K. E. Kemp. 1996. Summer avian abundance, invertebrate biomass, and forbs in Kansas CRP. Prairie Naturalist 28:1-12.
Joern, A. 1992. Variable impact of avian predation on grasshopper assemblies in sandhills grassland. Oikos 64:458-463.
Johnson, D. H., and M. D. Schwartz. 1993. The Conservation Reserve Program: habitat for grassland birds. Great Plains Research 3:273-295.
Kahl, R. B., T. S. Baskett, J. A. Ellis, and J. N. Burroughs. 1985. Characteristics of summer habitats of selected nongame birds in Missouri. Research Bulletin 1056. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri. 155 pages.
Kaspari, M., and A. Joern. 1993. Prey choice by three insectivorous grassland birds: reevaluating opportunism. Oikos 68:414-430.
Klute, D. S., R. J. Robel, and K. E. Kemp. 1997. Will conversion of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) lands to pasture be detrimental for grassland birds in Kansas? American Midland Naturalist 137:206-212.
Maher, W. J. 1974. Matador Project: Birds II. Avifauna of the Matador area. Canadian Committee for the International Biological Programme, Matador Project, Technical Report 58. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. 31 pages.
Martin, J. W., and J. R. Parrish. 2000. Lark Sparrow (Chondestes grammacus). A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America, No. 488. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
McAdoo, J. K., W. S. Longland, and R. A. Evans. 1989. Nongame bird community responses to sagebrush invasion of crested wheatgrass seedings. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:494-502.
McMaster, D. G., and S. K. Davis. 1998. Non-game evaluation of the Permanent Cover Program. Unpublished report. Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation Corporation, Regina, Saskatchewan. 75+ pages.
McNair, D. B. 1985. A comparison of oology and nest record card data in evaluating the reproductive biology of Lark Sparrows (Chondestes grammacus). Southwestern Naturalist 30:213-224.
National Geographic Society. 1987. Field guide to the birds of North America, second edition. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 464 pages.
Newman, G. A. 1970. Cowbird parasitism and nesting success of Lark Sparrows in southern Oklahoma. Wilson Bulletin 82:304-309.
Prescott, D. R. C. 1997. Avian communities and NAWMP habitat priorities in the northern prairie biome of Alberta. NAWMP-029. Land Stewardship Centre of Canada, St. Albert, Alberta. 41 pages.
Rand, A. L. 1948. Birds of southern Alberta. National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Bulletin no. 111. Biological series, no. 37. 105 pages.
Renwald, J. D. 1977. Effect of fire on Lark Sparrow nesting densities. Journal of Range Management 30:283-285.
Rising, J. D. 1974. The status and faunal affinities of the summer birds of western Kansas. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 50:347-388.
Robel, R. J., J. P. Hughes, S. D. Hull, K. E. Kemp, and D. S. Klute. 1998. Spring burning: resulting avian abundance and nesting in Kansas CRP. Journal of Range Management 51:132-138.
Salt, W. R., and J. R. Salt. 1976. The birds of Alberta. Hurtig Publishers, Edmonton, Alberta. 498 pages.
Sample, D. W. 1989. Grassland birds in southern Wisconsin: habitat preference, population trends, and response to land use changes. M.S. thesis. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. 588 pages.
Shaffer, J. A., C. M. Goldade, M. F. Dinkins, D. H. Johnson, L. D. Igl, and B. R. Euliss. 2003. Brown-headed Cowbirds in grasslands: their habitats, hosts, and response to management. Prairie Naturalist 35:146-186.
Stewart, R. E. 1975. Breeding birds of North Dakota. Tri-College Center for Environmental Studies, Fargo, North Dakota. 295 pages.
Walcheck, K. C. 1970. Nesting bird ecology of four plant communities in the Missouri River breaks, Montana. Wilson Bulletin 82:370-382.
Walley, W. J. 1985. Breeding range extension of the Lark Sparrow into west-central Manitoba. Blue Jay 43:18-24.
Wershler, C., W. W. Smith, and C. Wallis. 1991. Status of the Baird's Sparrow in Alberta: 1987/1988 update with notes on other grassland sparrows and Sprague's Pipit. Pages 87-89 in G. L. Holroyd, G. Burns, and H. C. Smith, editors. Proceedings of the second endangered species and prairie conservation workshop. Natural History Occasional Paper No. 15. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.
Wiens, J. A., and J. T. Rotenberry. 1981. Habitat associations and community structure in shrubsteppe environments. Ecological Monographs 51:21-41.
Zimmerman, J. L. 1993. Birds of Konza: the avian ecology of the tallgrass prairie. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas. 186 pages.
