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Contents OVERVIEW¿¿.¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿.......¿....OV-1 1 COMPARATIVE DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF DOGS AND CATS¿¿¿¿..1-1 Introduction, 1-2 Digestive Compartments and Functions, 1-4 Mouth, 1-4 Esophagus, 1-5 Stomach, 1-5 Gastric Emptying, 1-7 Small Intestine, Pancreas, and Liver, 1-8 Large Intestine, 1-12 Hormonal Aspects of Digestion, 1-21 Measurement of, and Factors Affecting, Digestibility, 1-21 References, 1-24 2 FEEDING BEHAVIOR OF DOGS AND CATS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿.2-1 Food Ingestion by Feral Dogs and Cats, 2-1 Diurnal Rhythms, and Feeding and Drinking Patterns, 2-2 Role of Imprinting and Social Factors on Feeding Behavior, 2-4 Dietary Choice, Palatability, Learned Taste Aversions, and Preferences, 2-5 Control of Food Intake, 2-8 Feeding Recommendations, 2-8 References, 2-9 3 ENERGY¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿..3-1 Introduction, 3-1 Energy Evaluation and Requirements: Two Ways of Looking at the Issue, 3-1 Energy Evaluation, 3-3 Methods of Estimating Energy in Food, 3-3 Prediction of Energy Content, 3-4 Energy Requirements of Dogs, 3-11 Definitions, 3-11 Basis for Establishing Energy Requirements, 3-12 Basal Metabolic Rate, 3-13 Diet-Induced Thermogenesis and Resting Fed Metabolic Rate, 3-14 Adult Maintenance, 3-17 Gestation, 3-19 Lactation, 3-21 Growth, 3-23 Physical Activity, 3-26 Energy Requirements of Cats, 3-26 Basis for Establishing Energy Requirements, 3-26 Basal Metabolic Rate and Dietary Thermogenesis, 3-27 Adult Maintenance, 3-27 Gestation, 3-32 Lactation, 3-32 Growth, 3-35 Energy Deficiency and Excess in Dogs and Cats, 3-35 Body Condition, 3-36 References, 3-38 4 CARBOHYDRATES AND FIBER¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿.4-1 Definition, Classification, and Measurement, 4-1 Absorbable Carbohydrates, 4-1 Digestible Carbohydrates, 4-2 Fermentable Carbohydrates, 4-2 Nonfermentable Carbohydrates, 4-4 Absorbable Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides and Sugar Alcohols), 4-5 Presence in Foodstuffs, 4-6 Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization, 4-5 Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 4-7 Nutritive Value, 4-7 Physicochemical Effects, 4-8 Physiological Effects, 4-9 Health-Related Characteristics, 4-12 Digestible Carbohydrates (Disaccharides, Certain Oligosaccharides, and Nonstructural Polysaccharides), 4-12 Presence in Foodstuffs, 4-12 Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 4-15 Nutritive Value, 4-18 Physicochemical Characteristics, 4-18 Physiological Effects, 4-19 Health-Related Characteristics, 4-23 Fermentable Carbohydrates (Lactose, Certain Oligosaccharides, Dietary Fibers, and Resistant Starch), 4-24 Presence in Foodstuffs, 4-24 Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 4-27 Nutritive Value, 4-29 Physicochemical Effects, 4-30 Physiological Effects, 4-31 Health-Related Characteristics, 4-38 Nonfermentable Carbohydrates (Cellulose and Wheat Bran), 4-43 Presence in Foodstuffs, 4-43 Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization, 4-44 Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 4-44 Nutritive Value, 4-44 Physicochemical Effects, 4-45 Physiological Effects, 4-46 Health-Related Characteristics, 4-49 Carbohydrates in Dog and Cat Diet Formulations, 4-49 References, 4-53 5 FAT AND FATTY ACIDS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿.5-1 Importance of Dietary Fats and Fatty Acids, 5-1 Types and Sources of Dietary Fats and Fatty Acids, 5-2 Nomenclature, 5-2 Sources, 5-3 Trans Fatty Acids, 5-5 Medium-Chain Triacylglycerols, 5-5 Conjugated Linoleic Acid, 5-6 Other Sources, 5-7 Analytical Procedures, 5-8 Acid Hydrolysis, 5-8 Extraction and Saponification of Fatty Acids, 5-8 Extraction for Total Lipid Analysis, 5-9 Fat Energy and Nutrient Density, 5-9 Digestion and Absorption, 5-10 Preduodenal Lipase, 5-10 Pancreatic Lipase, 5-11 Other Lipases, 5-11 Summary of Triacylglycerol Hydrolysis, 5-12 Absorption, 5-13 Digestibility, 5-14 Biochemical Basis of Fatty Acid Essentiality, 5-16 Biosynthesis, 5-16 Desaturation and Elongation, 5-17 Fatty Acid Ratios, 5-17 Essential Fatty Acid Utilization for Structure and Function, 5-19 Comparative Studies, 5-19 Membrane Composition and Integrity, 5-20 Lipid-Protein Interactions, 5-20 Eicosanoid Production, 5-21 Growth and Development, 5-23 Canine Studies, 5-25 Signs of Deficiency or Excess, 5-25 Skin and Hair Coat, 5-27 Inflammatory and Immune Cell Structure and Function, 5-28 n6 Fatty Acid Effects, 5-28 n-3 Fatty Acid Effects, 5-29 Feline Studies, 5-31 Signs of Deficiency or Excess, 5-31 Evidence for Limited ?-6 Desaturase Activities, 5-32 Dietary LCPUFA and Feline Life Stage, 5-33 Immune, Inflammatory, and Platelet Cell Functions, 5-34 Requirements, Recommendations, and Allowances, 5-35 Essential Fatty Acids for Dogs and Cats, 5-36 Dogs, 5-38 Fat Content of Diet: Preferences, Minima, and Maxima, 5-38 Growth, 5-40 Adult Maintenance, 5-41 Gestation and Lactation, 5-44 Cats, 5-45 Fat Content of Diets: Preferences, Minima, and Maxima, 5-45 Growth, 5-46 Adult Maintenance, 5-48 Gestation and Lactation, 5-49 References, 5-50 6 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿6-1 Basic Concepts, 6-1 Introduction, 6-1 Structure and Function, 6-2 Essentiality of Amino Acids, 6-3 Digestibility and Bioavailability of Protein and Amino Acids, 6-4 Assessing Protein and Amino Acid Status, 6-7 Requirements, Allowances, and Tolerances of Protein and Amino Acids, 6-12 Role of Metabolic Adaptation in Protein and Amino Acid Nutrition, 6-12 Nitrogen (Crude Protein) Minimal Requirements, Recommended Allowances, and Adequate Intakes, 6-14 Amino Acid Minimal Requirements, Recommended Allowances, Adequate Intakes, and Safe Upper Limits, 6-24 Dispensable Amino Acids, 6-52 Amino Acid Imbalances and Antagonisms, 6-59 References, 6-61 7 MINERALS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿..7-1 Introduction, 7-1 Minerals and Acid Base Balance, 7-3 Macrominerals, 7-5 Calcium, 7-5 Phosphorus, 7-17 Magnesium, 7-26 Sodium, 7-33 Potassium, 7-40 Chloride, 7-47 Trace Minerals, 7-52 Iron, 7-52 Copper, 7-58 Zinc, 7-64 Manganese, 7-71 Selenium, 7-75 Iodine, 7-81 Other Minerals, 7-86 Arsenic, 7-86 Boron, 7-87 Chromium, 7-87 Molybdenum, 7-89 Silicon, 7-89 Nickel, 7-90 Vanadium, 7-91 Miscellaneous Minerals, 7-91 References, 7-92 8 VITAMINS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿8-1 Introduction, 8-1 Vitamin A, 8-4 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 8-5 Biological Function, 8-7 Dogs, 8-10 Cats, 8-14 Vitamin D, 8-17 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 8-17 Biological Function, 8-18 Dogs, 8-20 Cats, 8-25 Vitamin E, 8-28 Absorption, 8-29 Biological Function, 8-30 Dogs, 8-34 Cats, 8-36 Vitamin K, 8-38 Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion, 8-38 Biological Function, 8-39 Dogs, 8-40 Cats, 8-42 Thiamin (Vitamin B1), 8-44 Absorption, 8-45 Biological Function, 8-45 Dogs, 8-46 Cats, 8-49 Riboflavin, 8-52 Absorption, 8-52 Biological Function, 8-53 Dogs, 8-54 Cats, 8-56 Vitamin B6, 8-57 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 8-57 Biological Function, 8-58 Dogs, 8-60 Cats, 8-62 Niacin, 8-63 Absorption, 8-64 Biological Function, 8-65 Dogs, 8-66 Cats, 8-68 Pantothenic Acid, 8-70 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 8-70 Biological Function, 8-71 Dogs, 8-72 Cats, 8-73 Cobalamin (Vitamin B12), 8-74 Absorption, 8-75 Biological Function, 8-76 Dogs, 8-77 Cats, 8-78 Folic Acid, 8-80 Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 8-80 Biological Function, 8-81 Dogs, 8-82 Cats, 8-84 Biotin, 8-85 Absorption, 8-86 Biological Function, 8-86 Dogs, 8-87 Cats, 8-88 Choline, 8-89 Absorption, 8-90 Biological Function, 8-90 Dogs, 8-91 Cats, 8-93 Ascorbic Acid, 8-95 Biological Function, 8-95 Dogs, 8-97 Cats, 8-98 Vitamin-Like Substances, 8-98 Vitamin Losses During Processing and Storage of Dog and Cat Foods, 8-100 References, 8-103 9 WATER¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿9-1 General Principles, 9-1 Function, 9-1 Regulation of Intake by Dogs and Cats, 9-2 Deficiency in Dogs and Cats, 9-3 Requirements of Dogs, 9-4 Requirements for Maintenance, 9-4 Requirements for Other Life Stages, 9-6 Requirements for Work and Environmental Stress, 9-6 Requirements of Cats, 9-7 Requirements for Maintenance and Other Life Stages, 9-7 Water and Feline Lower Urinary Tract Health, 9-8 Recommended Allowances, 9-9 Toxicity in Dogs and Cats, 9-10 References, 9-10 10 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR LABORATORY ANIMALS¿¿¿¿¿10-1 Requirements, 10-1 Energy, 10-1 Nutrients Other than Energy, 10-2 Food Selection, 10-2 General, 10-2 Certified Diets, 10-5 Purified and Chemically Defined Diets, 10-5 Foods for Specific Dietary Purposes (e.g., Medical Foods), 10-7 Feeding Management, 10-8 Life-Stage Designation of Food, 10-8 Form of Food, 10-8 Amount Fed, 10-9 Frequency of Feeding, 10-9 Storage of Food, 10-10 References, 10-11 11 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENT¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿11-1 Introduction, 11-1 Calculations and Assumptions, 11-2 How Much Exercise Do Dogs and Cats Undertake? 11-3 Dogs, 11-3 Cats, 11-5 Types of Exercise: Sprinting versus Endurance, 11-5 Sprint Exercise over a Distance of Less than One Kilometer, 11-5 Endurance Exercise over Distances Greater than a Kilometer, 11-7 Traditional Diets Fed to Racing Dogs, 11-7 Sled Dogs, 11-7 Greyhounds, 11-11 Diet and Health During Exercise, 11-11 The Effect of Exercise on Intestinal Function, 11-12 Exercise and Digestibility, 11-13 When to Feed Exercising Dogs, 11-14 Exercise and Body Condition, 11-17 The Effect of Confinement and Training, 11-18 Energy Requirements, 11-22 Minimal Metabolism, 11-22 Anxiety, 11-22 Circadian Rhythms, 11-22 Cold-Induced Thermogenesis, 11-23 Nutrients in a Warm Environment, 11-32 Effect of Reduced Oxygen at High Altitude, 11-32 Effect of Exercise on Energy Requirements, 11-33 Effect of Exercise on Energy Required in the Absence of Exercise, 11-33 Energy Required for Exercise: Dynamic Exercise (Short Runs) versus Steady-state Exercise (Long Runs), 11-34 Maximal Oxygen Consumption, 11-48 Intensity of Exercise, 11-51 Field Metabolic Rate, 11-51 Nutrient Requirements, 11-57 How May Nutrient Requirements Change with Exercise or in the Cold? 11-57 Sources of Energy: Fat versus Carbohydrate, 11-58 Sources of Protein Energy, 11-63 Studies That Have Altered Both Fat and Protein in the Diet of Exercised Dogs, 11-69 Dietary Carbohydrate and Exercise, 11-72 Importance of Water and Water Requirements at High Ambient Temperatures, 11-74 Exercised-Induced Hyperthermia and the Importance of Water during Exercise, 11-75 Water Requirements at Rest and During Exercise, 11-77 Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride, 11-81 Fluids Containing Electrolytes, 11-84 Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium, 11-85 Trace Minerals, 11-87 Vitamins, 11-88 Other Nutrients, 11-95 References, 11-96 12 DIET FORMULATION AND FEED PROCESSING ¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿12-1 Petfood Processing, 12-1 General Consideration, 12-1 Dogs, 12-2 Cats, 12-2 Petfood Categories, 12-2 Dry Petfoods, 12-2 Semi-moist Petfoods, 12-5 Soft-Expanded (Soft Dry) Petfoods, 12-6 Baked Petfoods, 12-7 Starch-Lipid Complexes, 12-7 Snacks for Pets, 12-8 Canned (Wet) Petfoods, 12-8 Homemade Diets, 12-11 Diet Formulation, 12-11 Summary, 12-12 References, 12-13 13 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF INGREDIENTS USED IN DOG AND CAT FOODS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿13-1 References, 13-1 14 OTHER FOOD CONSTITUENTS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿14-1 Constituents Intended for Nutritive Value, 14-1 Introduction, 14-1 Chondroprotective Agents, 14-2 Antioxidants, 14-4 Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) and Enzymes, 14-7 Herbs and Botanicals, 14-9 Other, 14-9 Constituents Intended for Technical or Non-Nutritive Effects on Food, 14-10 Introduction, 14-10 Preservatives, 14-11 Flavors and Extracts, 14-15 Colors, 14-16 Other Additives, 14-17 References, 14-17 15 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿¿..¿.15-1 Use of Nutrient Requirement Tables, 15-3 Recommendations Relative to ME Compared with Requirements Relative to DM, 15-3 Requirements Relative to ME in the Food Compared with Requirements Relative to BW, 15-4 Note on Bioavailability, 15-4 References, 15-7 APPENDICES A ACRONYMS, A-1 B ABOUT THE AUTHORS, B-1 Tables and Figures TABLES 1-1 Gastrointestinal Hormone Characteristics of Dogs and Cats, 1-15 3-1 Predictive Equations for Metabolizable Energy in Dog Food, 3-6 3-2 Predictive Equations for Metabolizable Energy in Cat Food, 3-7 3-3 Basal Metabolic Rate in Dogs, 3-16 3-4 Reported Maintenance Energy Requirements of Dogs in Relation to Breed, Age, Housing, and Activity, 3-20 3-5 Recommendations for Growth of Large- and Giant-Breed Dogs, 3-25 3-6 Reported Daily Maintenance Energy Requirements of Cats, 3-30 3-7 Body Condition Scoring System, 3-37 4-1 Summary of Physicochemical, Physiological, and Health-Related Effects of Absorbable, Digestible, Fermentable, and Nonfermentable Carbohydrates in Dog and Cat Nutrition, 4-10 4-2 Starch Content of Some Starch-Rich Foodstuffs and By-products Used in Dog and Cat Foods, 4-13 4-3 Influence of Diet Type on Amylase Activity in Chyme of Adult Dogs, 4-17 4-4 Average Activity of Disaccharidases in Small Intestinal Mucosa of Cats in Relation to Age, 4-19 4-5 Molecular Structure and Chemical Linkages of Oligosaccharides with Bifidogenic Effects in Dog and Cat Foods, 4-25 4-6 Characteristics of Selected Fibers and Their Effects on Intestinal Transit Time and Fecal Characteristics of Dogs and/or Cats, 4-32 4-7 Characteristics of Selected Fibers and Their Effects on Nutrient Digestibility by Dogs and/or Cats, 4-35 4-8 Characteristics of Selected Carbohydrates and Their Effects on Gastrointestinal Health Characteristics of Dogs and/or Cats, 4-39 4-9 Safe Upper Limits of Selected Carbohydrates for Adult Dog and Cat Maintenance Diets, 4-52 5-1 List of Abbreviations of Selected Fatty Acids and Fatty Acid Terminology, 5-37 6-1 Plasma Amino Acids Concentrations of Kittens, 6-9 6-2A Plasma Amino Acids Concentrations of Puppies, 6-10 6-2B Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations from Normal, Small-, and Large-Breed Adult Dogs Fed a Variety of Commercial Diets Known to Be Adequate for Maintenance, 6-11 6-3 Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen Excretion of Animals Fed a Protein-Free Diet, 6-17 7-1 Clinical Signs of Phosphorus Deficiency in Dogs in Relation to Physiological Status and Dietary Phosphorus Concentration, 7-20 8-1 Relative Vitamin E Activity of Various Tocopherols in Preventing Fetal Resorption and Hemolysis, 8-32 8-2 Estimated Minimal Requirement of Vitamin E Needed to Compensate for the Elevated Vitamin Demand Caused by Some Common Unsaturated Fatty Acids, 8-33 8-3 Recovery of Vitamins and Carotenoids Added to Extruded Petfoods and Percentage Loss on Storage, 8-102 11-1 Greyhound Race Distances and Approximate Fastest Times at Tracks in the United States, 11-6 11-2 Distances and Reported Times for Some Long-Distance Races, 11-9 11-3 Analyses of Diets Fed to Working Sled Dogs in the Antarctic, Mid-Twentieth Century, 11-10 11-4 The Effect of Changes in Ambient Temperature on Energy Utilization in Acclimatized and Unacclimatized Cats, 11-29 11-5 Rate of Energy Utilization in Greyhounds, 11-39 11-6 Cost of Standing and Running during Steady-State Exercise on a Treadmill for Dogs and Cats, 11-42 11-7 The Efficiency of Gaining and Losing Height When Running, 11-44 11-8 Maximal Oxygen Consumption in Dogs, 11-50 11-9 Field Metabolic Rate in Dogs, 11-54 11-10 Recommendations for Metabolizable Energy Requirements of Exercising Dogs, 11-56 11-11 Adequate Intake of Amino Acids in Greyhounds, 11-70 11-12 Daily Water Loss from Hydrated and Dehydrated Dogs and Cats as Affected by Temperature, 11-75 12-1 Nutrient Content of Dry, Semi-moist and Canned Dog Foods, 12-12 13-1 Carbohydrate and Lignin Concentrations of Some Common Ingredients in Canine and Feline Foods, 13-2 13-2 Total Fat Concentration and Fatty Acid Composition of Selected Feed Ingredients, 13-4 13-3 Fatty Acid Composition of Selected Fats, 13-6 13-4 Amino Acid Composition of Selected Feed Ingredients, 13-8 13-5 Mineral Content of Selected Ingredients, 13-13 13-6 Vitamin Content of Selected Ingredients, 13-18 13-7 Composition of Selected Inorganic Macro-mineral Sources Used in Petfood, 13-24 13-8 Composition of Selected Inorganic Micro-mineral Sources Used in Petfood, 13-26 13-9 Proximate Analysis of Selected Feed Ingredients, 13-28 15-1 Change in Requirements Relative to ME if Requirements Vary Directly with Body Weight, 15-6 15-2 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Growth of Puppies After Weaning, 15-9 15-3 Nutrient Requirements for Growth Puppies after Weaning , 15-10 15-4 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Adult Dogs at Maintenance, 15-13 15-5 Nutrient Requirements of Adult Dogs for Maintenance, 15-14 15-6 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Bitches in Late Gestation, 15-17 15-7 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Lactating Bitches Based on Number of Puppies and Weeks of Lactation, 15-18 15-8 Nutrient Requirements of Bitches for Late Gestation and Peak Lactation, 15-19 15-9 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements of Growth in Kittens After Weaning, 15-22 15-10 Nutrient Requirements for Growth of Kittens After Weaning, 15-23 15-11 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Adult Cats at Maintenance, 15-11 15-12 Nutrient Requirements of Adult Cats for Maintenance, 15-27 15-13 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Lactating Queens, 15-30 15-14 Nutrient Requirements of Queens in Late Gestation and Peak Lactation, 15-31 FIGURES 1-1 Dog gastrointestinal tract, 1-3 1-2 Cat gastrointestinal tract, 1-3 3-1 Principles of bioavailability of energy in animals, 3-2 3-2 Comparison of experimentally determined and predicted ME values in prepared cat food, 3-9 3-3 Comparison of experimentally determined and predicted ME values in prepared cat food, 3-10 3-4 Schematic comparison of body weight changes of queen and bitch during gestation and lactation, 3-34 5-1 Chemical structure of the n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid families, 5-4 5-2 Predominant pathways of essential fatty acid metabolism in mammals, 5-18 5-3 Generalized pathways of eicosanoid formation from n-3 and n-6 PUFAs, 5-22 6-1 Effect of dietary crude protein and ratio of essential amino acid nitrogen to total amino acid nitrogen (E:T) on weight gain of kittens, 6-22 11-1 Effect of environmental temperature (oC) on energy requirement, 11-24 11-2 Changes in oxygen consumption before and after a short bout of submaximal exercise, 11-35 11-3 Cost of running on a treadmill, 11-41
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Dogs -- Nutrition.
Cats -- Nutrition.
Dogs -- Food.
Cats -- Food.