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Energy and Climate Change ................ .................. I 1.1 General .................................................. 1.2 Energy and Climate ...................................... 3 1.3 Energy and Society ........................................ 5 1.4 Energy and Industry ...................................... 10 1.5 Energy andthe Economy ................................... 12 1.6 Energy and the Atmospheric Environment ...................... 13 1.7 Energy and the Future ..................................... 17 References. ............................. 18 2 Atmospheric Environment and Renewable Energy ................. 21 2.1 General .................................................. 21 2.2 Weather, Climate, and Climate Change ........................ 22 2.3 Atmosphere and Its Natural Composition....................... 26 2.4 Anthropogenic Composition of the Atmosphere ................. 28 2.4.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ................................ 29 2.4.2 Methane (CH4) ...................................... 30 2.4.3 Nitrous Oxide (N20) ................................3. 31 2.4.4 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) ........................... 3;1 2.4.5 Water Vapor(H20) .......... ............... 31 2.4.6 Aerosols ........................................... 33 2.5 Energy Dynamics in the Atmosphere .......................... 34 2.6 Renewable Energy Alternatives and Climate Change ............. .35 2.6.1 Solar Energy ..................................... 36 2.6.2 Wind Energy ....................................... 37 2.6.3 Hydropower Energy ................................. 38 2.6.4 Biomass Energy ..................................... 39 2.6.5 W ave Energy... ............................. 40 2.6.6 Hydrogen Energy .................................... 41 2.7 Energy Units ............................ ................ 43 References.............................. .................... 44 3 Solar Radiation Deterministic Models ............................ 47 3.1 General .................................................. 47 3.2 TheSun ........... .... .................... .... 47 3.3 Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum .............................. 51 3.4 Energy Balance of the Earth ............................... 55 3.5 Earth Motion ............................................ 57 3.6 Solar Radiation ..................... .................. . 61 3.6.1 Irradiation Path ...................................... 64 3.7 Solar Constant ............................................ 66 3.8 Solar Radiation Calculation .................................. 67 3.8.1 Estimation of Clear-Sky Radiation ...................... 70 3.9 Solar Parameters .......................................... 72 3.9.1 Earth's Eccentricity ................................. 72 3.9.2 Solar Time ........................................ 72 3.9,3 Useful Angles ..................................... 74 3.10 Solar Geometry ............................................ 77 3.10.1 Cartesian and Spherical Coordinate System .............. 78 3.11 Zenith Angle Calculation .................................. 85 3.12 Solar Energy Calculations .................................. 87 3.12.1 Daily Solar Energy on a Horizontal Surface .............. 88 3.12.2 Solar Energy on an Inclined Surface .................... 91 3.12.3 Sunrise and Sunset Hour Angles ........................ 93 References ................................... ............... 98 4 Linear Solar Energy Models .................................... 101 4.1 General ............................................... 101 4.2 Solar Radiation and Daylight Measurement ..................... 102 4.2.1 Instrument Error and Uncertainty ....................... 103 4.2.2 Operational Errors ................................... 104 4.2.3 Diffuse-Irradiance Data Measurement Errors ............. 105 4.3 Statistical Evaluation of Models .............................. 106 4.3.1 Coefficient of Determination (R ) ................... ... 109 4.3.2 Coefficient of Correlation (r) .......................... 110 4.3.3 Mean Bias Error, Mean of Absolute Deviations, and Root Mean Square Error ........................... Ill 4.3.4 Outlier Analysis ..................................... 112 4.4 Linear Model ........................................... 113 4.4.1 Angstr6m Model (AM) ............................ 116 4.5 Successive Substitution (SS) Model ........................... 120 4.6 Unrestricted Model (UM) .................................... 126 4.7 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Model ................... 133 4.8 Linear Cluster Method (LCM) ................................ 140 References ...................... .............................. 147 5 Non-Linear Solar Energy Models ................................ 151 5.1 General .................. .............................. 151 5.2 Classic Non-Linear Models .................................. 151 5.3 Simple Power Model (SPM) ................................. 156 5.3.1 Estimation of Model Parameters ...................... 157 5.4 Comparison of Different Models .............................. 159 5.5 Solar Irradiance Polygon Model (SIPM) ....................... 160 5.6 Triple Solar Irradiation Model (TSIM) ......................... 168 5.7 Triple Drought-Solar Irradiation Model (TDSIM) ............... 172 5.8 Fuzzy Logic Model (FLM) ................ ................ 176 5.8.1 Fuzzy Sets and Logic ................................. 177 5.8.2 Fuzzy Algorithm Application for Solar Radiation ......... 179 5.9 Geno-Fuzzy Model (GFM) ................................. 186 5.10 Monthly Principal Component Model (MPCM) ................. 188 5.11 Parabolic Monthly Irradiation Model (PMIM) ................... 196 5.12 Solar Radiation Estimation from Ambient Air Temperature ....... 202 References................. ...........................206 6 Spatial Solar Energy Models .................................... 209 6.1 General ...................................................209 6.2 Spatial Variability .......................................... 210 6.3 Linear Interpolation ...................................... . 212 6.4 Geometric Weighting Function .............................. 214 6.5 Cumulative Semivariogram (CSV) and Weighting Function ....... 216 6.5.1 Standard Spatial Dependence Function (SDF) ............ 217 6.6 Regional Estimation ..................................... ..220 6.6.1 Cross-Validation ..................................... 221 6.6.2 Spatial Interpolation ............................... 226 6.7 General Application ..................................... 228 References................... .......... ....................236 7 Solar Radiation Devices and Collectors ........................... 239 7.1 General ...................................................239 7.2 Solar Energy Alternatives .................................... 239 7.3 Heat Transfer and Losses .................................... 241 7.3.1 Conduction ..........................................242 7.3.2 Convection .........................................243 7.3.3 Radiation ................................... ..... 244 7.4 Collectors ................................................245 7.4.1 Flat Plate Collectors .................................. 246 7.4.2 Tracking Collectors .................................. 249 7.4.3 Focusing (Concentrating) Collectors .................... 250 7.4.4 Tilted Collectors ..................................... 252 7.4.5 Solar Pond Collectors ............................... 253 7.4.6 Photo-Optical Collectors .............................. 253 7.5 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells ..................................... 256 7.6 Fuel Cells ..................... .............................. 259 7.7 Hydrogen Storage and Transport ............................. 259 7.8 Solar Energy Home ........................................ 260 7.9 Solar Energy and Desalination Plants ........................ 261 7.10 Future Expectations ........................................ 262 References........................ ....................264 A A Simple Explanation of Beta Distribution .................. ..... 267 B A Simple Power Model ................ ...................... 269 Index ........... ...................................273