Thanatophoric Dysplasia

[Includes: Thanatophoric Dysplasia Type I, Thanatophoric Dysplasia Type II]

Summary

Disease characteristics. Thanatophoric dysplasia (TD) is a short-limb dwarfism syndrome that is usually lethal in the perinatal period. TD is divided into type I, characterized by micromelia with bowed femurs and, uncommonly, the presence of cloverleaf skull deformity (kleeblattschaedel) of varying severity; and type II, characterized by micromelia with straight femurs and uniform presence of moderate-to-severe cloverleaf skull deformity. Other features common to type I and type II include: short ribs, narrow thorax, macrocephaly, distinctive facial features, brachydactyly, hypotonia, and redundant skin folds along the limbs. Most affected infants die of respiratory insufficiency shortly after birth. Rare long-term survivors have been reported.

Diagnosis/testing. Diagnosis of TD is based on clinical examination and/or prenatal ultrasound examination and radiologic studies. Characteristic histopathology is also present. FGFR3 is the only gene associated with TD. Up to 99% of mutations causing TD type I and more than 99% of mutations causing TD type II can be identified through molecular genetic testing of FGFR3, which is available on a clinical basis.

Management. Treatment of manifestations: When TD is diagnosed prenatally, treatment goals are to avoid potential pregnancy complications including prematurity, polyhydramnios, malpresentation, and delivery complications from macrocephaly and/or a flexed and rigid neck. Management focuses on the parents' wishes for provision of comfort-care for the newborn. Newborns require respiratory support (with tracheostomy and ventilation) to survive. Other treatment measures may include: antiepileptic drugs to control seizures, shunt placement for hydrocephaly, suboccipital decompression for relief of craniocervical junction constriction, and hearing aids. Surveillance: Long-term survivors need neurologic, orthopedic, and audiologic evaluations, CT to monitor for craniocervical constriction, and EEG to monitor for seizure activity.

Genetic counseling. TD is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner; the majority of probands have a de novo mutation in FGFR3. Risk of recurrence for parents who have had one affected child is not significantly increased over that of the general population. Germline mosaicism in healthy parents, although not previously reported, remains a theoretical possibility. Prenatal diagnosis is possible by ultrasound examination and molecular genetic testing.

Diagnosis

Testing

Histopathology [Wilcox et al 1998, Lemyre et al 1999]:

• Disorganized chondrocyte columns

• Poor cellular proliferation

• Lateral overgrowth of the metaphyseal bone

• Mesenchymal cells extending inward forming a fibrous band at the periphery of the physeal bone

• Increased vascularity of the resting cartilage

Molecular Genetic Testing

GeneReviews designates a molecular genetic test as clinically available only if the test is listed in the GeneTests Laboratory Directory by either a US CLIA-licensed laboratory or a non-US clinical laboratory. GeneTests does not verify laboratory-submitted information or warrant any aspect of a laboratory's licensure or performance. Clinicians must communicate directly with the laboratories to verify information.—ED.

Gene. FGFR3 is the only gene known to cause TD type I and TD type II. The FGFR3 mutation p.Lys650Glu has been identified in all individuals with TD type II [Bellus et al 2000].

Clinical testing

• Targeted mutation analysis of FGFR3 using a panel of most or all of the reported FGFR3 mutations

• Sequence analysis of select regions of FGFR3 previously reported to contain mutations; for TD type I, FGFR3 exons 7, 10, 15, and 19; for TD type II, FGFR3 exon 15

• Sequence analysis of the entire FGFR3 coding region is clinically available; however, it is not clinically indicated for TD as there is no increase in test sensitivity, and test specificity may decrease as a result of the finding of novel variants of uncertain clinical significance.

Table 1 summarizes molecular genetic testing for this disorder.

Table 1. Molecular Genetic Testing Used in Thanatophoric Dysplasia

Gene Symbol	Test Method	Mutations Detected	Mutation Detection Frequency by Test Method and Phenotype		Test Availability
			TD Type I	TD Type II
FGFR3	Targeted mutation analysis; sequence analysis of select regions	Reported mutations 1,2	Up to 99%	NA	Clinical
		p.Lys650Glu	NA	>99%
	Sequence analysis of entire coding region 3	FGFR3 sequence variants	>99%	>99%

NA = not applicable

1. Some labs do not test for p.Lys650Met, the mutation that causes both severe achondroplasia with developmental delay and acanthosis nigricans (SADDAN) and thanatophoric dysplasia, type I [Bellus et al 2000].

2. Mutation panels and detection rates may vary among laboratories.

3. Not clinically indicated; see Clinical testing, Sequence analysis of the entire FGFR3 coding region.

Interpretation of test results. For issues to consider in interpretation of sequence analysis results, click here.

Clinical Description

Differential Diagnosis

For current information on availability of genetic testing for disorders included in this section, see GeneTests Laboratory Directory. —ED.

Disorders to consider in the differential diagnosis of thanatophoric dysplasia (TD) [Passos-Bueno et al 1999, De Biasio et al 2000, Lee et al 2002, Neumann et al 2003]:

• Homozygous achondroplasia has a similar clinical presentation and should be a part of the differential diagnosis when both parents have achondroplasia.

• Achondrogenesis, including achondrogenesis type IA, type IB, and type II, Schneckenbecken dysplasia. Clinical features of achondrogenesis type 1B (ACG1B) include extremely short limbs with short fingers and toes, hypoplasia of the thorax, protuberant abdomen, and hydropic fetal appearance caused by the abundance of soft tissue relative to the short skeleton. The face is flat, the neck is short, and the soft tissue of the neck may be thickened. The vertebral bodies show no or minimal ossification. The ribs are short. The iliac bones are ossified only in their upper part, giving a crescent-shaped, "paraglider-like" appearance on X-ray. The ischiua are usually not ossified. The tubular bones are shortened such that no major axis can be recognized; metaphyseal spurring gives the appearance of a "thorn apple." The phalanges are poorly ossified and therefore only rarely identified in x-rays. Death occurs prenatally or shortly after birth. The final diagnosis should be based on molecular genetic testing of SLC26A2 (DTDST). The presence of rib fractures and the absence of ossification of vertebral pedicles may suggest ACG1A. ACG2 shows more severe underossification of the vertebral bodies than ACG1B, in addition to quite typical configuration of the iliac bones with concave medial and inferior borders, and non-ossification of the ischial and pubic bones. The gene defect in ACG1A is not known; ACG2 is caused by COL2A1 mutations.

• SADDAN (severe achondroplasia with developmental delay and acanthosis nigricans) (see Achondroplasia) is a rare disorder characterized by extremely short stature, severe tibial bowing, profound developmental delay, and acanthosis nigricans. Unlike individuals with TD, those with SADDAN dysplasia survive past infancy. The three unrelated individuals with this phenotype who have been observed to date have had obstructive apnea but have not required prolonged mechanical ventilation. An FGFR3 p.Lys650Met mutation has been identified in all three individuals.

• Osteogenesis imperfecta type II (OI type II). Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is characterized by fractures with minimal or absent trauma. Clinically, OI was classified into four types; the type most reminiscent of TD is OI type II (the perinatal lethal form). This disorder is characterized by extremely short stature, dark blue sclerae, severe limb deformity, multiple fractures of ribs, minimal calvarial mineralization, platyspondyly, and marked compression of long bones. Biochemical testing (i.e., analysis of the structure and quantity of type I collagen synthesized in vitro by cultured dermal fibroblasts) detects abnormalities in 98% of individuals with OI type II. Most individuals with OI type II have mutations in either COL1A1 or COL1A2, the two genes encoding type I collagen. Osteogenesis imperfecta type II is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.

• Short rib-polydactyly syndromes are short-limb dwarfisms with narrow thorax. They are currently classified into four subtypes that may or may not be proven to be distinct clinical entities. Findings distinguishing these disorders from TD include polydactyly and/or syndactyly of the hands or feet. Type I (Saldino-Noonan type) features cardiac defects. Type II (Majewski type) may have cleft lip, cleft palate, ambiguous genitalia, and renal abnormalities. Inheritance is autosomal recessive.

• Campomelic dysplasia (CD) is a prenatal-onset, usually lethal skeletal dysplasia with narrow thorax. Individuals with CD have bowed tibiae, skin dimples, and hypoplastic scapulae. Many individuals with CD have 11 pairs of ribs. The tubular bones are poorly developed and show immature ossification. Mansour et al [1995] found that up to 75% of individuals with CD with a 46,XY karyotype have either female external genitalia or ambiguous genitalia. Campomelic dysplasia is caused by de novo, autosomal dominant mutations in SOX9 or chromosomal rearrangements upstream or downstream of SOX9 on chromosome 17.

• Rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata (RCDP) is a disorder of peroxisome biogenesis. Type 1 (RCDP1), the classic type, is characterized by rhizomelia (shortening of the humerus and to a lesser degree the femur), punctate calcifications in cartilage with epiphyseal and metaphyseal abnormalities (chondrodysplasia punctata), coronal clefts of the vertebral bodies, and cataracts that are usually present at birth or appear in the first few months of life. Later, severe mental deficiency and postnatal growth retardation are evident. The majority of affected individuals do not survive the first decade of life. The diagnosis of RCDP1 is confirmed by the demonstration of deficiency of red blood cell plasmalogens, increased plasma concentration of phytanic acid, and deficiencies in plasmalogen biosynthesis and phytanic acid oxidation in cultured skin fibroblasts. The disorder is caused by a PEX7 receptor defect. A common mutation is responsible in the majority. Inheritance is autosomal recessive.

• Asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy (Jeune thoracic dystrophy) is another chondrodysplasia marked by a narrow thorax. Short stature and short limbs are noted in infancy, but survivors may manifest only mild-to-moderate short stature. Survivors commonly develop renal insufficiency and can develop liver disease. A subset of affected individuals have mutations in IFT80 at chromosome 3q25.33 [Beales et al 2007]. Another locus has been mapped to 15q13. Inheritance is autosomal recessive.

• Platyspondylic lethal skeletal dysplasia (PLSD) — San Diego type, Torrance type, and Luton type. These short-limb dwarfism syndromes are clinically very similar to TD and have often been referred to as "TD variants." The Luton type is considered to be a mild form of the Torrance type [Nishimura et al 2004]. PLSD, Torrance type is characterized by shortened long bones with ragged metaphyses, radial bowing, and wafer-like vertebrae. All subtypes can be distinguished from TD histologically by the consistent presence of dilated loops of endoplasmic reticulum in the chondrocytes. FGFR3 mutations have been identified in PLSD, San Diego type, but not in Torrance or Luton types [Brodie et al 1999, Neumann et al 2003]. Nishimura et al [2004] and Zankl et al [2005] identified COL2A1 mutations in several families with PLSD, Torrance type or PLSD, Torrence-Luton type.

• Dyssegmental dysplasia, Silverman-Handmaker type (DDSH) is a lethal disorder characterized by narrow thorax, short neck, short stature, bowed limbs, and irregular ossification of the vertebral bodies. Encephalocele and cleft palate are common. DDSH is caused by mutations in the heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) gene [Arikawa-Hirasawa et al 2001]. Inheritance is autosomal recessive.

Management

Genetic Counseling

Genetic counseling is the process of providing individuals and families with information on the nature, inheritance, and implications of genetic disorders to help them make informed medical and personal decisions. The following section deals with genetic risk assessment and the use of family history and genetic testing to clarify genetic status for family members. This section is not meant to address all personal, cultural, or ethical issues that individuals may face or to substitute for consultation with a genetics professional. To find a genetics or prenatal diagnosis clinic, see the GeneTests Clinic Directory.

Molecular Genetics

Information in the Molecular Genetics tables is current as of initial posting or most recent update. —ED.

Normal allelic variants. FGFR3 is 17 exons in length with transcription initiation located in exon 2. See Table 2 for known normal allelic variants.

Pathologic allelic variants

TD type I. FGFR3 mutations responsible for the TD type I phenotype can be divided into two categories:

• Missense mutations [Passos-Bueno et al 1999]. Most of these mutations create new, unpaired cysteine residues in the protein. The two common mutations p.Arg248Cys and p.Tyr373Cys probably account for 60%-80% of TD type I (see Table 2).

• Stop codon mutations. These mutations cause a read-through of the native stop codon, adding a highly hydrophobic alpha helix-containing domain to the C terminus of the protein. Mutations that obliterate the stop codon represent 10% or more of TD type I mutations (see Table 2).

TD type II. A single FGFR3 mutation (p.Lys650Glu) has been identified in all cases of TD type II [Bellus et al 2000]. The lysine residue at position 650 plays a role in stabilizing the activation loop of the tyrosine kinase domain in an inactive state. Mutations of this residue destabilize the loop, allowing ligand-independent activation of the tyrosine kinase domain, likely without the need for receptor dimerization at the cell surface [Bellus et al 2000]. Other mutations at this position give rise to different phenotypes: p.Lys650Met has been identified in TD type I, and p.Lys650Gln is seen in SADDAN (see Table 2).

Table 2. FGFR3 Allelic Variants Discussed in This GeneReview

Normal gene product. FGFR3 encodes one of four known fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs). All FGFRs share considerable amino acid homology, and the genomic organization is nearly identical to that seen in mice. FGFRs are proteoglycans that function as tyrosine kinases upon binding of a ligand — usually one of more than 20 fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) plus proteoglycans containing heparan sulfate [McIntosh et al 2000, Torley et al 2002, Lievens & Liboi 2003]. Once a ligand binds, the FGFRs form homo- or heterodimers and undergo phosphorylation of the tyrosine residues in the tyrosine kinase domain. This is followed by a conformational change that frees intracellular binding sites. Intracellular proteins bind and initiate a signal cascade that usually influences protein activation or gene expression [Cohen 2002, Torley et al 2002]. Multiple pathways have been implicated, including ras/MAPK/ERK, P13/Akt, PLC-γ, and STAT1 [Cohen 2002, Torley et al 2002]. After activation, the complex is internalized for signal downregulation. This is accomplished via one of two pathways [Lievens et al 2006]: ubiquitination and degradation of the activated FGFR or feedback from the end targets (namely ERK) through the docking protein FRS2α.

FGFR3 consists of an extracellular signal peptide, three immunoglobulin-like domains (IgI, IgII, and IgIII) with an acid box between IgI and IgII, a transmembrane domain, and a split intracellular tyrosine kinase domain [Hyland et al 2003]. Ligand binding occurs between IgII and IgIII [McIntosh et al 2000]. The normal function of FGFR3 is to serve as a negative regulator of bone growth during ossification [Legeai-Mallet et al 1998, Cohen 2002]. Mice with knockout mutations of Fgfr3 are overgrown with elongated vertebrae and long femurs and tails. The growth plates of the long bones are expanded [McIntosh et al 2000, Cohen 2002]. Alternative splicing of exons 8 and 9 has been documented, with such diversity conferring the capacity for differential expression and binding of multiple ligands [Cohen 2002]. Three reported isoforms of FGFR3 include: the native protein, an intermediate intracellular membrane-associated glycoprotein, and a mature glycoprotein [Lievens & Loboi 2003].

FGFR3 is expressed in a spatial- and temporal-specific pattern during embryogenesis [McIntosh et al 2000]. The highest levels of expression occur in cartilage and the central nervous system [Cohen 2002]. FGFR3 is also expressed in the dermis and epidermis [McIntosh et al 2000, Torley et al 2002].

The FGFR3 signaling pathway is activated in several cancers, including bladder and cervical cancer and multiple myeloma. Meyer et al [2004] identified FGFR3 in complex with Pyk2, a focal adhesion kinase known to regulate apoptosis in multiple myeloma cells and to activate Stat5B. FGFR3 phosphorylates Pyk2 and activates a signaling pathway without recruitment of proteins from the Src family (which are normally recruited by Pyk2 in the absence of FGFR3). Hyperactivated FGFR3 (i.e., mutations similar to those causing TD) causes hyperphosphorylation of Pyk2. FGFR3 may also sequester Pyk2 from Shp2, which normally functions to decrease Pyk2 phosphorylation and downregulate Pyk2 signaling. Both FGFR3 and Pyk2 may work in concert to maximally activate Stat5B [Meyer et al 2004].

Abnormal gene product. Mutations in FGFR3 are gain-of-function mutations that produce a constitutively active protein capable of initiating intracellular signal pathways in the absence of ligand binding [Baitner et al 2000, Cohen 2002]. This activation leads to premature differentiation of proliferative chondrocytes into pre-hypertrophic chondrocytes and, ultimately, to premature maturation of the bone [Cohen 2002, Legeai-Mallet et al 2004]. The mechanism for other clinical findings in TD type I and TD type II (CNS and dermal abnormalities) is less clear. All reported mutations cause constitutive activation through the creation of new, unpaired cysteine residues that induce ligand-independent dimerization [Cohen 2002], activation of the tyrosine kinase loop [Tavormina et al 1999, Cohen 2002], or creation of an elongated protein through destruction of the native stop codon.

Studies have shown that the level of ligand-independent tyrosine kinase activity conferred by different FGFR3 mutations is correlated with the severity of disorganization of endochondral ossification and, therefore, with the skeletal phenotype [Bellus et al 1999, Bellus et al 2000].

The p.Lys650Glu mutation causing thanatophoric dysplasia type II has been shown to cause accumulation of intermediate, activated forms of FGFR3 in the endoplasmic reticulum [Lievens & Liboi 2003]. This immature, cellular FGFR3 is able to signal through an FRS2α-independent pathway (via the JAK/STAT pathway) that is then not subject to FRS2α-mediated downregulation [Lievens et al 2006].

Resources

GeneReviews provides information about selected national organizations and resources for the benefit of the reader. GeneReviews is not responsible for information provided by other organizations. Information that appears in the Resources section of a GeneReview is current as of initial posting or most recent update of the GeneReview. Search GeneTests for this disorder and select for the most up-to-date Resources information.—ED.

National Library of Medicine Genetics Home Reference
Thanatophoric Dysplasia

Compassionate Friends
PO Box 3696
Oak Brook IL 60522-3696
Phone: 877-969-0010; 630-990-0010
Fax: 630-990-0246
Email: nationaloffice@compassionatefriends.org
www.compassionatefriends.org

Helping After Neonatal Death (HAND)
A non-profit California-based group that lists support groups
www.handonline.org/resources/groups/index.html

Medline Plus
Dwarfism

European Skeletal Dysplasia Network
c/o Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research
Faculty of Life Sciences University of Manchester
Michael Smith Building Oxford Road
Manchester M13 9PT United Kingdom
Email: info@esdn.org
www.esdn.org

International Skeletal Dysplasia Registry
Medical Genetics Institute
8635 West Third Street Suite 665
Los Angeles CA 90048
Phone: 800-CEDARS-1 (800-233-2771)
Fax: 310-423-0462
www.csmc.edu

References

Medical Genetic Searches: A specialized PubMed search designed for clinicians that is located on the PubMed Clinical Queries page.

Chapter Notes