FA-157, Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Recruitment and Retention*

Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Recruitment and Retention Manual 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 
United States Fire Administration 

Any information, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this 
publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Federal Emergency 
Management Agency or the United States Fire Administration.

Preface 

The United States Fire Administration (USFA) publication Emergency Medical 
Services (EMS) Recruitment and Retention Manual is a guidebook intended for the 
use of the managers and recruiters of volunteer personnel in organizations that 
provide emergency medical services. The manual also may be used productively by 
EMS organizations. that employ career personnel, especially combined career-
volunteer departments.

The manual was developed for the United States Fire Administration under FEMA 
contract EMW-93-C-4132 by the Transportation Research Center of the School of 
Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana. 
The project development team and authors of the manual were James A. Palmer, 
Project Coordinator and Research Attorney, Transportation Research Center; John 
M. Buckman, Chief, German Township (Indiana) Volunteer Fire Department, 
Evansville, Indiana; and Lois R. Wise, Associate Professor, School of Public and 
Environmental Affairs.

Robert (" Red") McKeon, Chief, Occum (Connecticut) Volunteer Fire Department, 
and former Chairman of the National Volunteer Fire Council, and Jack W. Snook, 
Chief, Tualatin Valley (Oregon) Fire and Rescue Department, also contributed to 
this project.

State-level EMS departments and local-level EMS organizations in the United 
States were contacted by telephone by the project team during the course of the 
project in order to identify and learn about innovative, interesting, and 
effective strategies being used to recruit and retain EMS volunteers. The manual 
could not have been completed without the information and insights about EMS 
recruitment and retention that were contributed by the contact persons with 
these agencies.

A Quality Review Panel was established to review and comment on the first and 
second drafts of the manual. The members of the Quality Review Panel were Mary 
Beth Michos, Chief, Prince William County (Virginia) Department of Fire & 
Rescue; Rohn M. Brown, Recruitment and Retention Coordinator, Office of 
Emergency Medical Services, Virginia Department of Health; and Ted Halpin, 
Executive Director, Ontario County (New York) ALS/ Thompson Health System.

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Contents 
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 
National Trends in the Volunteer Sector ........... 1 
Volunteerism in the United States .............. 3 
The Role of Leadership in Volunteer Programs ........ 4 
Planning for the Participation of Volunteers .......... 5 

RECRUITMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 
Steps in Recruiting EMS Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 
Use of a Dedicated Recruiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 
Some Relevant Laws Affecting EMS Recruitment . . . . . . . 10 
Diversity in EMS Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

MOTIVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 
Motivating Them to Volunteer . . . . . . . . . . .15 
etting Their Attention: Marketing . . . . . . . .16 
The Importance of Marketing . . . . . . . 17 T
he Three Components of Marketing . . . . . 18 
Planning a Marketing Program . . . . . . . 19 
Four Ways to Market . . . . . . . . . . 20 
Communications Strategies . . . . . . . . . 21 
Use the EMS PIER Manual . . . . . . . . . 23 
Recruitment Reminder: Be Realistic . . . . . . . .23 
What Motivates Them to Volunteer for EMS . . .. .24 
Participation in Decisionmaking . . . . . . . 26 
Following Up After the Application Is Received . . . . .26 
The Unspoken Concerns of Volunteers . . . . .30 
Matching Volunteers to Jobs . . . . . . . . . 31 

RETENTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 
Volunteer Leadership Issues ................. 33 
Stress Management ..................... 37 
Health and Safety Risks .................. 39 
Equipment Concerns .................... 39 
The Performance Review as a Retention Tool ......... 40 
The Exit Interview as a Retention Tool ............ 43 
Retention of Career Staff ................... 44 

RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION STRATEGIES . . . . . . . 47 

V 

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ............... 103 
RESOURCES. ........................ 117 

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Introduction 

This manual presents guidance for the managers of emergency medical services 
(EMS) organizations in the recruitment and retention of volunteer personnel. The 
knowledge gained from research concerning the use of volunteers in both public 
and nonprofit agencies has been combined with the experiences, practices, and 
ideas of EMS agencies that have successfully recruited and retained volunteer 
members. Practical solutions to common problems in the use of volunteers are 
suggested, and examples of effective recruitment and retention techniques that 
may be adopted by a variety of communities are described. The manual does not 
specify a single, correct way to recruit and retain EMS volunteers. The ideas 
and alternatives presented for EMS volunteer recruitment and retention are 
possibilities, which EMS managers may consider and adopt according to local 
needs, preferences, and limitations.

National Trends in the Volunteer Sector

Volunteerism is a tradition in the United States. Americans have a long history 
of forming voluntary groups of citizens to work on common problems and 
interests, and volunteering is one of the most commonplace activities in our 
society today. In a survey conducted by the Gallup Poll, it was learned that 
over 80 million adults had volunteered during the previous year and contributed 
more than 19.5 billion hours of effort. The savings realized by this volunteer 
activity exceeded 200 billion dollars.

Emergency medical services have depended on volunteer support for many years. 
The importance of volunteers to the delivery of emergency medical services 
cannot be overstated. Rural America relies almost totally on the volunteer 
system to provide EMS and fire services in a timely manner. Suburban America 
also relies on volunteers, but combination career-volunteer systems are being 
used more frequently as a way to assist volunteers and to maintain the current 
EMS system. Funding of the volunteer EMS system by the local community has been 
very important for the survival of the volunteer EMS system in many cases.

The delivery of emergency medical services by local government was not firmly 
established until the 1950s. The first providers of emergency transport to a 
medical facility were local funeral homes. As time progressed and the demand for 
emergency medical services increased, fire departments, hospitals, and new 
independent agencies were asked to provide the services. In many cases, 
volunteer fire departments became involved because of the participation of their

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career counterparts. The involvement of both career and volunteer fire 
departments made sense: they already had experience in providing prompt 
emergency services, fire stations were located throughout the communities 
served, and firefighters could be cross-trained easily to perform as emergency 
medical technicians (EMTs). The delivery of emergency medical services by 
volunteer fire departments provided another incentive to attract volunteer 
members: additional opportunities for action.

In the 196Os, the U. S. Department of Transportation developed a training 
program for emergency medical technicians because of the increasing rate of 
fatalities resulting from traffic crashes. The EMT program, which consisted of 
81 hours of clinical and technical training, provided the level of knowledge and 
skills necessary for the performance of lifesaving tasks on the street. In most 
states, the training required today is 110 hours for an EMT and 800 to 1,200 
hours for a paramedic.

In the 1970s, the television show "Emergency" depicted paramedics in Los Angeles 
County, California, responding to accidents and other emergencies to provide 
lifesaving treatment. The success of "Emergency" created excitement in many 
communities, which now wanted to have the same level of emergency services for 
themselves. This television show did more for the rapid development of 
prehospital emergency medical services than almost any other single event. At 
about the same time, military medics, whose skills could be used in the civilian 
EMS system, began to return from the Vietnam War.

In the 1980s, there was an increased emphasis on productivity in service 
delivery, and fire departments in many communities were looked to as the agency 
that could provide an efficient lifesaving EMS response. In the early 1980s, the 
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimated that nearly 65% of the 
prehospital EMS workforce was composed of volunteers.

In the 1990s, fire departments continued to improve their image by providing 
emergency medical services, while private industry viewed EMS delivery as a 
profit-making activity. When more private ambulance providers began to offer 
prehospital emergency care and transport, the competition between fire 
departments and private industry was renewed. If fire departments did not change 
the way they delivered emergency medical services, private industry would 
replace them as the EMS provider in their communities.

With the increased competition for public funding of prehospital emergency 
medical services came an increasing demand for greater professionalism in EMS 
delivery. Additional training and oversight

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requirements were established to improve the performance, image, requirements 
set by government regulators dramatically increased and attitude of prehospital 
EMS personnel. The training the time demands on volunteers, and volunteer EMS 
agencies not used to medical oversight began to feel the pressure from 
physicians and hospitals to improve the quality of "street medicine. "

Physician and hospital involvement in improving the quality of emergency medical 
services created friction in the relationship between volunteer EMS agencies and 
the medical community. In addition, government regulations concerning EMS 
operations, personnel, and equipment were seen as an unnecessary outside 
interference with the right of volunteer EMS agencies to manage and control 
their organizations. Volunteers have a great sense of pride, and some initially 
resented this intervention by the medical community and government regulators. 
However, as EMS organizations upgraded their training and capabilities and 
became more accustomed to medical and governmental oversight, the volunteer 
resentment diminished and cooperative relationships with the medical community 
and government regulators were created. American society is changing rapidly, 
and some of these societal changes directly influence volunteering in the United 
States. In addition to these nationwide influences, there are local influences 
unique to each volunteer EMS organization: the community in which the service is 
provided, the organization itself, and the individuals involved. Each of these 
influences--societal, community, organizational, and individual--must be 
addressed when you answer the question: "What factors influence our volunteer 
program? "

Volunteerism in Volunteers are characterized by the diversity of their 
backgrounds, the United States ages, gender, and reasons for volunteering. Since 
almost one-half of the population engages in volunteer activities, it is no 
surprise that the "typical" volunteer can be almost anyone.

Volunteers are of all ages, with the largest number between 30 and 45. Almost a 
quarter of the population under age 30 and over age 65 is involved in volunteer 
work. Each sex is represented equally among volunteers; almost one-half of all 
males and females are involved in volunteer activities. Both white-collar and 
blue-collar workers, as well as students and retirees, are represented among 
volunteers. Individuals become involved as volunteers for a variety of reasons. 
The most frequently cited reasons for volunteering are:

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The Role of Leadership in Volunteer Programs 

"Wanted to help others." 
"Felt obligated to give back what I got." 
"Sense of citizenship." 
"Religious feelings." 
"Interested in the work being done." 
"Desire for involvement with a group of friends." 

Volunteers usually experience a variety of motivations, ranging from altruism to 
self-interest, during their volunteering "career," and their motivation indeed 
may vary considerably as they work over time within a single organization. 

The key to success in recruiting and retaining volunteers is effective and 
dynamic leadership. Programs involving volunteers do not work spontaneously. 
They require a leader to provide the care and attention needed to fit together a 
complex system for delivering services that matches the needs of the community 
and the program. The role of the leader includes working with the program's 
staff, funding sources, and clientele to identify what needs to be accomplished, 
which activities can be performed by part-time volunteer workers, and what will 
motivate those volunteers to participate. The effective performance of the 
leadership role requires someone who relates well to people and understands both 
their needs and wants, is flexible and can adapt to changing demands and 
interests, and is able to identify potential opportunities and to create the 
environment necessary to take advantage of those opportunities.

The management of volunteer programs is a growing professional field. While many 
volunteer programs are managed effectively by volunteer leaders, many 
organizations now pay staff to assume responsibility for their volunteer 
programs. Program directors who work with volunteers are hired by governments to 
manage many EMS delivery systems. Much time and energy is involved in meeting 
both program and volunteer needs. When a volunteer fills the primary management 
role in an organization, there may be a problem with continuity in leadership. A 
full-time paid director provides the needed continuity in management and is in a 
strong position to represent the interests of volunteers with both paid 
personnel and the general community. However, even a full-time paid position may 
not be sufficient to meet all of the needs of a sizable EMS system.

4 

Planning for the Participation of Volunteers 

EMS organizations must compete with other community organizations to attract the 
most capable and committed volunteers. The organizations that are well managed 
will be the most appealing to prospective volunteers. Volunteers are more likely 
to join and remain with well-run organizations with competent leaders.

Volunteer involvement has a unique place in our history. Helping one another is 
an American tradition. Volunteering in EMS organizations today has changed 
because our society has changed, but the basic commitment to helping one another 
remains the same. EMS leaders must be aware of and respond to these changing 
conditions and trends in the future.

The first step in determining an organization's need for volunteers is to 
develop a plan with two questions: Why does the organization need volunteers? 
How many volunteers are needed? The answers to these questions will enable the 
organization to:

Determine the specific jobs and tasks that volunteers will perform. 

Explain to volunteers how and why they are contributing to the mission of the 
organization. 

Explain to any career staff why volunteers are being sought. 

Develop a plan to evaluate whether the use of volunteers has been effective. 

Why have volunteers? If an organization consists only of volunteers, the answer 
is obvious. Without volunteers the organization would not exist. In 
organizations that could function without a volunteer program, volunteers can 
still contribute significantly to the accomplishment of the organization's 
goals.

In the planning process, it is important to list the positive and negative 
points of volunteer participation in the organization. Both the positives and 
negatives need to be acknowledged. The positive factors make it worthwhile to 
spend energy on effective management. Some negative factors can be altered by 
sound planning and leadership, but others cannot and must be viewed 
realistically. If the positive points of volunteer involvement do not outweigh 
the negative points, effective leadership and management may be insufficient to 
compensate for the disadvantages, and perhaps volunteers should not be involved 
in the organization.

5 

If everyone in the organization is committed and excited about having 
volunteers, it is not necessary to spend much time in enlisting internal support 
for volunteer participation. If there are complaints about having volunteers in 
the organization, an attempt must be made to enlist the support of all members 
of the organization to mediate these concerns.

If volunteers are going to work with career staff, it is essential that staff 
are in agreement as to the purpose and worth of the volunteer program. It is 
important for all levels of career and volunteer staff to be involved in the 
planning process.

It is also desirable to have the support of top management of an organization 
for the volunteer program. This support can be demonstrated by the official 
adoption by the governing body of the organization of a policy endorsing the use 
of volunteers or by a position statement on volunteers approved by the director 
of the organization.

6 

Recruitment 

Recruitment is a key to the success and survival of an EMS organization. It is 
the systematic, continuous process by which capable volunteers are identified, 
evaluated, and enlisted as members of the organization. The major considerations 
involved in the development or improvement of an effective EMS recruitment 
program are presented in this unit of the manual: the multi-step process for 
recruiting and selecting volunteers! the use of a dedicated recruiter, the 
relevant federal laws affecting recruitment, and the need for and benefits of 
diversity in an EMS organization. The next unit--Motivation--also provides 
information concerning recruitment: how to attract and persuade individuals to 
volunteer as members of an EMS organization. Specific techniques for recruiting, 
as well as retaining, volunteers are described in the unit Recruitment and 
Retention Strategies.

Steps in Recruiting EMS Volunteers

The process for the recruitment of volunteers for an EMS organization can be 
viewed as a series of steps. By following these steps, an EMS organization will 
have an efficient system for recruiting new volunteers, keeping everyone 
informed about the status of the recruitment effort, and evaluating the 
strengths and weaknesses of applicants for volunteer positions.

An important consideration in the recruitment process is the periodic assessment 
of the organization's needs for volunteers. A needs-assessment strategy involves 
thinking about present needs, as well as future needs that are likely to 
develop, and planning for how those needs will be met: What kinds of tasks do 
you need volunteers to perform? What capabilities or skills are required? Are 
there sufficient volunteers with the needed capabilities to perform those tasks? 
What additional training is required? How many additional volunteers are 
required to undertake those tasks now and in the future?

If a volunteer member is planning to move or take a job that precludes or 
reduces his or her participation, the organization may have a present need to 
replace the member by recruiting another volunteer or by retraining or 
reassigning an existing volunteer. If the organization has a general idea based 
on experience as to how long, on the average, volunteers serve, it has 
identified a future need resulting from turnover that can be anticipated, and 
the recruitment program can be designed to ensure that an adequate number of new 
volunteers are enlisted in the future. Strategic thinking today about how the 
work can be organized to get the most out of available volunteers and how 
upcoming needs can be addressed will enable the manager to operate the EMS 
organization more efficiently and effectively.

The basic steps to follow for recruiting and selecting volunteers are: 

Develop and implement a needs assessment based on the EMS organization's current 
volunteer staffing, existing vacancies, and anticipated need for staffing, 
including daytime volunteers.

Identify the skills, knowledge, and abilities needed and any specific 
certifications required. 

Prepare job descriptions based on tasks and responsibilities. 

Develop a plan and timetable for the recruitment of the various types of 
volunteer personnel and skills needed. 

Implement the recruitment plan for the volunteer personnel currently needed. 
Provide feedback, encouragement, and information to potential volunteers during 
the recruitment process. 

Implement a system for evaluating potential volunteers that is compatible with 
applicable civil rights laws. The evaluation system used may be an existing 
system or a new system developed by the organization; however, the procedures 
employed in the system must be valid and reliable. Skill or knowledge tests, if 
appropriate, or open-ended interview forms should be administered. Tests based 
on the performance of real tasks offer the most reliable information about the 
relative abilities of candidates for volunteer positions and are more easily 
shown to be valid if challenged in court. Rate or rank order the applicants 
based on established criteria.

Select the candidates with the best qualifications. 

Develop a schedule compatible with current and anticipated needs for volunteers 
for bringing the selected candidates on board. Schedule followup contacts with 
qualified candidates placed on a waiting list. 

Implement an orientation and training program for new volunteers. 

Assess the progress of new volunteers and make recommendations as to changes 
needed in performance or training. 

Use of a Dedicated Recruiter 

The responsibility for an EMS organization's recruitment efforts should be 
assigned to a dedicated recruiter or volunteer coordinator, who does not need to 
be an operational member of the organization, in order to ensure a continuous, 
professional approach to the identification and enlistment of a competent 
volunteer workforce for the organization.

The recruiter selected must be enthusiastic, dedicated, motivated, and sold on 
the product, which is the importance of the EMS organization and its work to the 
community. A casual attitude towards recruitment will not achieve the results 
needed. It is more important for the EMS organization to take the time to select 
the right person to sustain the recruitment program with the right attitude than 
simply to assign the job of coordinating the recruitment effort to anyone in the 
organization.

The dedicated recruiter is responsible for developing a program to recruit 
individuals into the organization. The recruiter is not solely responsible for 
the actual recruiting. Recruiting is the job of every member of the EMS 
organization. All members must participate in implementing the recruitment 
program and in identifying and attracting capable individuals who express an 
interest in the organization.

One of the first things that a recruiter should do is to train other members of 
the organization how to recognize an opportunity to recruit and to follow 
through with recruitment opportunities. The recruiter should develop print 
materials that explain the organization and its mission and activities and 
ensure that these materials are available for distribution by the membership and 
in public facilities throughout the community.

The assignment of a dedicated recruiter is vital to the overall success of the 
EMS organization. The person assigned this task is as important to the 
organization as other staff members. If proper attention to the manpower needs 
of the EMS organization is not maintained, EMS managers can expect problems in 
maintaining adequate staffing levels and the organization's ability to perform 
its mission, and the morale of its membership will suffer.

Some Relevant Laws Affecting EMS Recruitment 

Depending upon the state in which an EMS organization operates, different laws 
pertaining to the conditions of employment may apply when an EMS manager makes 
decisions about recruiting, selecting, and using volunteer EMS personnel. It is 
not feasible to list the relevant laws of all fifty states, but it is possible 
to provide a brief summary of the most important federal laws affecting 
employment.

Fair Labor Standards Act 

The Fair Labor Standards Act, which has been implemented by the Department of 
Labor (DOL) since 1938, is designed to protect employees from being coerced by 
their employers into volunteering at their place of employment. The FLSA was 
extended through amendments in 1966 and 1974 to include most state and local 
government employees. Fire departments and EMS organizations need to understand 
that FLSA is the law and DOL is actively enforcing the FLSA regulations. 
Noncompliance continues to cost fire and EMS departments money both in violation 
fines and in compliance costs, which are usually retroactive.

The purpose of FLSA is to set minimum wage and overtime pay standards for 
employees. These requirements are enforced by DOL's Wage and Hour Division 
(WHD), and its compliance efforts center around employee complaints of 
employer's alleged violations of FLSA. DOL can initiate legal action against 
employers who violate FLSA to recover back wages due employees and can also seek 
to restrain employers from future violations.

In the 1985 case Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 U. S. 
528, the U. S. Supreme Court held that the Congress does have the authority to 
apply the FLSA minimum wage and overtime pay requirements to state and local 
government employees who are engaged in traditional governmental activities. As 
a result, state and local units of government are required, among other things, 
to compensate those government employees in traditional activities who work 
overtime with cash wages rather than compensatory time off,

Volunteers who receive no compensation and perform wholly charitable services, 
such as mentoring a needy child, are not subject to the FLSA requirements. 
Volunteers who receive some type of compensation, whether monetary or in-kind, 
may be entitled to additional pay or overtime consideration. FLSA applies only 
to individuals considered to be "employees. " The act itself offers little 
guidance for determining whether someone is an employee or a volunteer. There is 
no definition for the term "volunteer." An

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"employee" is "any individual employed by the employer"; "employ" means "to 
suffer or permit to work. " 

To determine whether an employment relationship exists for the purposes of the 
FLSA, DOL looks at the following four major factors: education, benefits, 
competition for open positions, and wages. 

Each EMS organization is encouraged to contact its local legal counsel for 
advice as to its potential liability under FLSA. 

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides the basis for equal 
employment opportunity and forbids discrimination in employment on the basis of 
race, color, national origin, religion, and sex. By interpreting Title VII 
broadly, the courts have set precedents affecting a number of recruitment and 
retention issues, especially in the area of testing. Because they are used as a 
basis for making choices, interviews are considered a test instrument under this 
law and must be free of discrimination.

Selection tests for new recruits and for placement according to law must be job-
related. If members of certain groups are more likely to be turned down than 
others, the fairness of the selection procedure should be reexamined.

Equal Pay Act of 1963 

The Equal Pay Act of 1963, which is an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards 
Act, prohibits different rates of pay for equal work based on a person's sex. 
This law applies when: 

the working conditions are the same; 
the jobs are the same; and 
the jobs require similar skills, responsibilities, and efforts. 

Differences in pay between a male and female EMT doing the same work could be 
justified, for example, if they are the result of any of the following: 

a seniority system; 
a merit system; 
a production-based pay system; 
or a factor other than sex. 

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Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1974 

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act protects workers who are forty years of 
age or older from discrimination in applying for employment or from 
discrimination on the job. It is a violation of federal law to discharge 
individuals at a specific chronological age unless a mandatory retirement age 
exists for their occupational category. Assumptions may not be made about an 
individual's physical abilities based on his or her chronological age. In fact, 
preselection queries regarding age, date of birth, or other proxies are a 
violation of ADEA.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1992

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1992 (ADA) extended to individuals with 
disabilities the civil rights protections that are afforded to others under 
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. As in the case of the Title VII protections 
for minority group members and women, the full implications of the act will 
depend on court interpretations of the law.

There are two important aspects of the ADA that affect EMS organizations. The 
first is the requirement that many public facilities must be accessible to 
individuals with disabilities. This mandate may have consequences for facilities 
of an EMS organization; it may mean that it will be easier to transport 
individuals using wheelchairs and other equipment.

The law also forbids employers from discriminating against individuals with 
disabilities who can perform the essential tasks of a specific job, even if they 
cannot perform other marginal job duties, if an employer can make a reasonable 
accommodation. The ADA represents a very important change in policy towards 
individuals with disabilities even though its application to volunteer workers 
is still unclear. The fact that individuals with disabilities have valuable 
skills and talents to contribute to an EMS organization is the key point for 
managers of volunteer services to consider,

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Diversity in EMS Organizations 

In many communities in America, it is apparent that the population is becoming 
more diverse. It will be difficult and unwise to carry out a recruitment program 
based on the traditional image of an EMT volunteer; there just aren't enough of 
them. EMS managers should value diversity by recognizing that capable volunteers 
come in different packages with different personal lifestyles, values, and 
priorities, by reaching out to the entire population of potential volunteers 
when recruiting new members, and by not making assumptions about whether or not 
individuals would or could perform EMS tasks based upon their age, sex, race, 
ethnicity, or disabilities,

Older individuals will become increasingly important as volunteers as our 
population continues to retire earlier and enjoy good health. Women are often 
under-represented in EMS organizations even though they are as competent as men 
in serving as EMS volunteers. Members of different racial and ethnic groups want 
to participate in the network of active citizens just like everyone else, but 
need extra encouragement to become involved. Individuals with disabilities can 
perform many tasks that are of great value to EMS organizations.

A strategy for recruitment that reflects the philosophy of valuing diversity 
means developing and executing a plan to reach out to nontraditional volunteers. 
It means giving everyone equal access to membership, training opportunities, and 
decisionmaking and listening to their ideas, solutions, and concerns. The 
participation of nontraditional volunteers can both enrich and improve the 
operation of an EMS organization.

Valuing diversity also means taking responsibility to ensure that individuals 
from different backgrounds are integrated into the organization and made to feel 
they are an important part of the EMS team. The EMS manager should be aware that 
these individuals may be sensitive about being different or not one of the group 
and that adjustments may need to be made to accommodate them. For example, the 
organization's facilities may need to be modified so they are wheelchair-
accessible, and special equipment may be required to enable individuals with 
disabilities to field phone calls. The range of sizes for uniforms, boots, or 
other equipment may need to be increased.

Diversity in cultural backgrounds raises some other issues about managing 
volunteers. Individuals from some cultures may not react to praise or criticism 
the same way as others or may be reluctant to claim responsibility for their own 
accomplishments. Religious holidays or family priorities may need to be taken 
into consideration when scheduling certain volunteers for work. EMS managers 
will need to be aware of such cultural differences when evaluating, motivating, 
and encouraging volunteers. Flexibility is required in managing a diverse 
volunteer membership.

The creation of an environment that welcomes cultural diversity may require some 
special effort. Special training concerning issues related to diversity may need 
to be provided for the membership. Trainers with expertise in this field are 
available to provide special diversity programs, films, and group problem-
solving exercises. There is a risk, however, that diversity training can be 
counterproductive by bringing to the surface but not resolving personal 
prejudices.

Creating the Right Environment 

Valuing diversity means making individuals feel welcome. Jokes about one's 
heritage or appearance may not be appreciated, and expressions used without any 
thought about their content may be offensive. Some signs, calendars, and wall 
art may be perceived as degrading or embarrassing. Such organizational behavior 
will put some members on the defensive or make them feel inferior. An EMS 
organization that tolerates racial or ethnic bigotry, personal slurs, or sexual 
harassment is not a welcome place.

There are no secret formulas for changing the culture and attitudes of an 
organization, but one thing is critical to any change: EMS managers must lead by 
example. A manager cannot practice or tolerate behavior that is offensive to 
minority groups, females, seniors, or disabled volunteers. A manager cannot 
change people, but can demonstrate what is allowable in the EMS organization.

Motivation 

The purpose of recruitment is to motivate individuals to volunteer their 
capabilities, time, and energy for the benefit of the EMS organization and the 
accomplishment of its lifesaving mission. EMS managers and recruiters need to 
understand the basic principles and techniques for marketing their organization 
and motivating potential recruits to enlist as volunteers.

Motivation is a comprehensive topic. There are many different theories about HOW 
to motivate people to join an organization and even more theories about WHAT 
motivates people. Let's start with HOW.

Motivating Them to Volunteer

Most people really do things based on impressions they have rather than through 
some thoughtful analysis of the pro's and con's of a course of action. Decisions 
about joining voluntary organizations often come about that way. People get an 
impression that it would be challenging or interesting to serve as an emergency 
medical technician, and something confirms that idea and motivates them into 
action.

How do people get impressions that make them think about joining an EMS 
organization? Positive impressions can be gained through relatives, friends, or 
coworkers who are active volunteers, through public-relations advertising, and 
through television programs or movies about EMS. In addition, EMS managers can 
create situations that make a positive impression through special events and 
promotions. A variety of approaches for persuading individuals to volunteer may 
be required because, according to the "three times rule, " a message must be 
heard or seen at least three times before an individual will be persuaded to 
act.

Once this idea has been planted in someone's mind, he or she can be moved to 
action by a friend, relative, or co-worker who actively recruits them, by an 
event the EMS organization creates in which people come forward to explore the 
possibility of volunteering, and by mailings, phone calls, or advertisements 
designed to persuade people to enlist.

Some individuals are more rational. They volunteer for a specific reason, like 
getting experience that will help them in their career. These individuals will 
think more about the benefits of being a member of an EMS organization and may 
want more information describing just what these advantages are. They may want 
to know

15 

what kind of equipment they will become qualified to use and what sort of 
emergency medical training or certification they will receive from their 
volunteer work. They may want to know whether anyone before them has had success 
in converting his or her volunteer experience into regular employment. They also 
may want to know more about the disadvantages or costs to them, such as the 
equipment they will have to buy, the time they will need to invest in training, 
or the time and expense required for recertification in the future. They usually 
want enough information to make a reasonably informed decision. Booklets and 
information sheets can be very helpful here.

If the EMS organization is located where there is more than one volunteer 
service, some individuals may try to compare the advantages and disadvantages in 
order to decide which one offers them the best opportunity, For this reason, an 
EMS manager might want to keep abreast of the recruitment incentives that 
similar volunteer services are offering so the EMS organization can try to be 
competitive with them in attracting new people.

Word-of-Mouth Recruitment

EMS volunteers and their friends, relatives, and neighbors are excellent 
recruiters, especially when they have a positive EMS experience to share. They 
are the best recruiters not only because of their contacts with other people, 
but also because they can convey something about the nature of EMS work. This 
type of recruitment can be enhanced by providing volunteer members with 
professional business cards and basic organizational flyers. Volunteers 
recruited this way usually have a more realistic picture of what EMS work 
entails and even a familiar face in the organization to show them the ropes. As 
a result, they are less likely to drop out in the initial period after their 
enlistment.

One down side to relying on existing EMS volunteers and their friends, 
neighbors, and relatives is that it tends to limit the cultural diversity of the 
volunteer force because many individuals limit their social contacts to others 
like themselves. If an EMS organization relies on social networks for 
volunteers, it probably will want to make a special effort to reach out to 
under-represented groups in the community for volunteers as well.

Getting Their Attention: Marketing

Marketing has been around since time began, but it's been going by other names, 
such as sharing, trading, exchanging, or bartering. It is the caring trade of 
value for value. For an EMS organization that needs volunteers, marketing 
involves the identification and offer of

16 

something valued by volunteers in exchange for their uncompensated services.

The true worth of marketing comes when all parties involved in an exchange 
relationship are convinced they have received the greatest value. People can 
relate to value in many instances only when they literally can feel the value. 
In emergency medical services this may be hard to do, but is not impossible.

Value can be felt by the community in several ways. One way is by receiving 
emergency care or other services from the EMS organization; another way is by 
learning about an EMS organization' s activities through an effective public-
relations program,

Like any of the tools needed to manage a well-run program, marketing requires 
hard work, creative problem-solving, and innovative thinking to be successful.

The Importance of Marketing 

Marketing is important to the overall success of an EMS organization:

1. In recruitment. Marketing is the bridge between potential volunteers and the 
EMS organization. It defines what is needed and what benefits are available, in 
addition to the incentives offered to prospective volunteers, to attract and 
involve them in the organization.

2. In volunteer retention. The value given to volunteers in tangible and 
intangible rewards is what keep volunteers coming back and stimulates them to 
tell others about their good feelings, which feeds back into further 
recruitment.

3. For the organizational climate. Happy volunteers who feel good about their 
work create a climate that stimulates creativity, enjoyment, and achievement. It 
simply feels good to work and be there.

4. In gaining organizational support. When an EMS manager needs the support of 
the organization's administration, board members, peer-level department heads, 
and volunteers, marketing provides the basic leverage that allows the manager to 
define an exchange relationship (what's in it for them and for the manager) to 
attain the manager's goals.

5. In winning public support. EMS managers need the support of the general 
public for the organization's programs, events, and philosophies. Marketing 
again holds the key to attaining this support. Public relations can play a key 
role here.

6. In resource development. When an EMS manager needs goods, services, or 
dollars, the marketing orientation is the magic that will produce results. In 
fact, marketing is the key to getting what the manager needs without spending 
dollars: the art of fundraising.

7. In obtaining members, participants, and consumers. Marketing is also the key 
in getting people to accept the EMS organization's services and/ or products. 
Proper application of marketing convinces others to become involved with the 
organization when they see there is great value to themselves for that 
involvement. Too often, marketing is the missing tool in the EMS manager's 
toolbox, with the result that issues begin to arise concerning recruitment, 
retention, and fundraising. As shrinking resources, increased requirements for 
volunteers' time, and greater demands from the public affect EMS organizations 
more dramatically each year, EMS managers must master this tool in order to 
achieve the EMS organization' s goals.

The Three Components of Marketing 

Marketing is made up of three components: publics, markets, and the exchange 
relationship. Let's define all three. 

1. Public. A public is any identifiable segment of the community in which the 
EMS organization operates. Publics are groups with whom the EMS organization 
might or might not want to have a relationship. When identifying publics, the 
EMS manager doesn't worry about or try to judge whether or not he or she might 
someday want to interact with them. They simply exist.

2. Market. A market is an identified public with whom the EMS organization 
decides it wishes to establish a trade relationship. To put it in simpler terms: 
they have what the organization needs or wants. On a list of 100 publics, an EMS 
manager may find six markets that could meet the organization's needs if they 
choose to do so. The trick is having a list of publics from which to choose. 
Without it, EMS organizations suffer from resource nearsightedness, never 
realizing how many potential resources are available to them.

3. Exchange Relationship. This is the keystone of success. It is the bargain 
that is struck between the EMS organization and the markets. It is the essence 
of marketing: the trade of value for value. The characteristics of the exchange 
relationship are:

Honesty and fairness. 
No hidden agendas or pitfalls. 
A user-oriented position. 
A targeted approach. 
Highest concern for what the other party will receive of value. 
Attention to the organization's success in attaining its goals. 
A lot of homework. 

Planning a Marketing Program 

When thinking about marketing the EMS organization, it is essential that the EMS 
manager understand the four-step planning process that will bring success.

In most instances, EMS managers begin with step #2--their needs; as a result, 
they find themselves with many problems, including resource nearsightedness. The 
manager must first think of what the organization has:

What business are you in? 
What's your product? 

Three product classifications: 

The expected product? It is critical to learn each volunteer's expectations 
before beginning work in order to compare them to reality. 
The augmented product? 
The potential product? 
What business does the public think you're in? 
What products does the public think you offer? 

Four Ways to Market 

There are many things that go into marketing, but there are four basic ways to 
market: advertising, publicity, promotion, and personal selling. 

1. Advertising. Advertising is a campaign that is designed, pretested on target 
markets, posttested for results, and presented through selected media in order 
to influence people to accept a product or idea. It usually has a theme or 
slogan, is targeted to specific audiences, and has a cost. Too frequently, EMS 
organizations misunderstand the purpose of advertising, and consequently they 
omit testing, targeting, and life-cycle checks, thereby making their ads 
ineffective.

Advertising can serve an EMS organization by making people aware of what it 
does, what it needs, and how it can be contacted. Advertising usually is 
designed for quick consumption, not lengthy reading, and for creating 
familiarity.

Many EMS managers confuse advertising with marketing, thinking they have a 
wonderful recruitment campaign underway, for example, with 24 ads in newspapers 
and 100 posters in stores. This is not a recruitment campaign; it is an 
advertising effort that can augment recruitment through personalized asking, but 
by itself is not going to be successful in attracting volunteers or donors.

The most remembered and successful advertising of this century was the "Uncle 
Sam Wants You!" campaign that appeared in every post office and train station 
across the United States. Had the posters and ads, however, not been backed up 
by recruitment offices, appeals, the draft, and the fervor of people wanting to 
help their country, the ads themselves would have fallen short of their goal.

2. Publicity. Publicity is a cost-effective technique that involves the 
development and dissemination of news and promotional material designed to bring 
favorable attention to a product, person, organization, place, or cause. It is 
different from advertising in that it is usually carried by the media for free 
and without indication of the source; it also can be more credible than 
advertising. An active public information officer for the EMS organization is 
required to ensure maximum publicity.

Publicity is a creative challenge for an EMS organization as it finds ways to 
use media to tell its story and express its need for support. It is critical for 
an organization to check the effectiveness of its publicity by finding out how 
well the public is getting its message.

20 

It is publicity that plays a key role in creating impressions and perceptions 
and needs to be current, clear, and realistic as it comes across to the public.

3. Promotion. Promotion is defined as marketing activities that project the EMS 
organization's message other than by advertising, publicity, and personal 
selling. Promotional efforts might include displays, speakers bureau 
presentations, and booths at local fairs and events. These efforts are usually 
unique and are not necessarily expected to occur again. The creative minds 
within the EMS organization can be stimulated to think of positive ways to gain 
attention and share information with the public.

4. Personal Selling. The effective EMS manager understands that some of the best 
recruiters for the organization are satisfied volunteers who relate their 
positive experiences and encourage others to become involved. Satisfied donors 
and supporters can and do play the same role through their contributions and 
their influence with others.

The catch in understanding personal selling, however, comes when this activity 
is separated into its two components: spontaneous and targeted. For the most 
part, the contacts made by volunteers and supporters are sporadic and unplanned. 
This is spontaneous personal selling and is difficult to measure or control. 
Most of the individuals involved in this form of selling do not even realize 
what it is; they are simply sharing their pleasure with others. The second type 
of personal selling--targeted selling--is planned and involves people who are 
interested in participating in events the public is expected to attend. The 
volunteers involved in targeted selling could even be coached as to what to say, 
how to act, and what to wear.

Communications There are many ways to communicate the EMS organization's 
Strategies message. Depending on the demographics of the market or the audience, 
some communications strategies will work better than others.

General Considerations 

It has been demonstrated that spending a lot of money doesn't necessarily pay 
off with big results. Small items listed in newspaper want ads may produce 
better results than custom-made ads on news pages. Similarly, an ad in a flyer 
handed directly to an individual may be more effective than the same ad run in a 
local newspaper. If there is more than one EMS organization in your area, you 
may want to pool resources and share the cost of advertising in print

21 

media. Some local newspapers periodically publish a listing of volunteer 
opportunities. 

Direct ads that ask individuals to volunteer are one form of advertisement, but 
the media also can be used to give information about an EMS program and its 
activities that has a positive effect on recruitment. News coverage, photographs 
of accomplishments, and news stories that describe the role of EMS volunteers 
are important opportunities for conveying information that make a positive 
impression. For this reason, an EMS organization's manager or public information 
officer should maintain good relations with press reporters even though it is 
not always easy to respond immediately to their requests for information.

There are other ways to get the volunteer message out. If you have volunteers 
who like to speak to the public, their appearances before community groups are 
also excellent opportunities for recruitment. A listing of opportunities for 
volunteering may be kept by the public library or by the city or county 
government volunteer office. Local radio and TV stations may air public service 
announcements at little or no charge.

Message Content

The content of the message is as important as the way it is communicated. Short, 
memorable one-liners can capture a listener's or reader's interest and have the 
positive effect desired. The use of a visual image in combination with a one-
line message is a very effective approach. An ad that enables someone to put 
himself or herself in the picture will attract those who are motivated by civic 
responsibility or social duty.

Organizational Image 

The facilities, vehicles, equipment, and uniforms of an EMS organization may 
capture the interest of some individuals and operate as an incentive for 
volunteering. Pagers, beepers, and mobile phones may make the opportunity to 
join an EMS organization appear more attractive and interesting to some 
volunteers. For this reason, the EMS manager should be conscious of the 
different kinds of equipment used, the cost of the equipment

22 

to volunteers, and the use of other technical apparatus that increases the job 
challenge. Potential volunteers may be reluctant to join an EMS organization if 
they have to pay for their uniforms and equipment. 

Use the EMS PIER Manual 

The EMS PIER Manual (Publication FA-151/ September 1994) distributed by the U. 
S. Fire Administration and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 
provides guidance for EMS organizations in creating, maintaining, and enhancing 
their public information, education, and relations programs. This manual is an 
excellent, practical guidebook and is highly recommended for use by all EMS 
organizations. It may be obtained for free from either the USFA or NHTSA. 
Consult the Resources unit of this manual for the mailing address and telephone 
number for these federal agencies.

Recruitment Reminder: Be Realistic 

Being realistic with potential recruits is especially important when they are 
volunteers, who usually have fewer and weaker ties to an organization than 
regular employees. When volunteers, especially EMS volunteers, decide the job is 
more than they bargained for, they can and will quit. Volunteers must not be 
given the impression that the job is all glamour and happy endings. They need to 
be aware of the difficult problems they will face so that when a crisis occurs 
they are not completely surprised. If the EMS organization fails to provide 
volunteers with sufficient notice as to the difficult situations EMTs may face, 
the unanticipated emotional trauma of an emergency run with an unsatisfactory 
result may lead to the volunteer's subsequent failure to show up for calls or 
even to resignation.

By the same token, potential volunteers should be encouraged to be honest about 
what they have and can do and what their own personal limitations are. 
Volunteers may develop an ability to deal with difficult situations, but if they 
are faced with tough problems they are not ready for, they are likely to quit. 
Volunteers may not know how they will react to the misfortune of others and 
should be encouraged to think this through and make a realistic assessment of 
what they can handle.

There are many ways to bring reality into the decision to volunteer. Shared 
experiences, films, and roleplaying exercises are techniques that can be used to 
develop a fair assessment by both the recruiter and a potential volunteer as to 
whether or not that individual should volunteer for EMS work. Realistic 
recruitment doesn't mean dwelling on the negative parts of the job, but it does 
mean providing an accurate picture of what is likely to happen. The bottom line 
is that volunteers themselves must have enough information about what

23 

they will do in the EMS organization to make a decision that is right for them. 

Written job descriptions and signed commitment statements are useful tools for 
ensuring that both the volunteer and the EMS organization have shared 
expectations as to the volunteer's role in organizational activities.

What Motivates Them to Volunteer for EMS 

People do different things for different reasons, and their reasons may change 
over time. There is no specific formula about what or how much of something 
makes a person decide to volunteer for EMS. Everyone is different. Nevertheless, 
many things are known about what motivates individuals to join and stay in 
voluntary organizations.

Opportunity for Friendships and Cooperative Activities 

The opportunity to develop friendships and to work cooperatively with other 
people in a rewarding activity is a major reason why volunteers enlist and 
remain in EMS organizations. Therefore, it's important that EMS teams work well 
together and have a successful partnership when responding to emergency calls.

Day-to-day activities and special events that allow friendships to develop and 
grow also are going to be important factors for retaining volunteers in EMS. 
Moreover, because a volunteer's family also is affected by the demands of EMS 
work, special efforts need to be made to involve spouses and other family 
members in the EMS organization.

Needs related to friendship and working together can be met in many different 
ways. EMS managers should decide how they can make volunteers feel they are part 
of a team and prevent them from becoming isolated and excluded from the group. 
The manager could either assume or delegate responsibility for seeing that new 
volunteers have a buddy assigned to help them become part of the group.

At the same time, it must be remembered that the cliques that often form in 
social groups may make some volunteers feel like outsiders and eventually may 
lead to their dropping out. The isolated volunteer needs to be integrated into 
the group.

Symbols of belonging to a group or organization are important reinforcers of 
allegiance and membership. Uniforms, caps, insignias, or logos on equipment and 
clothing promote loyalty and a sense of belonging to the group.

Feeling of Satisfaction and Importance 

The satisfaction and importance that many EMS volunteers feel as a result of 
taking charge of an emergency situation and providing lifesaving emergency care 
is another strong motivational force. 

Altruism 

A powerful reason to join and remain in organizations is the nature of the work 
itself--providing onscene emergency medical care. EMS work enables the volunteer 
to feel like he or she is giving something beneficial to others, an altruistic 
motive. Many Americans are motivated to volunteer as a result of a desire to do 
something helpful for their community, and the belief that citizens should give 
something back to society is strong in many communities.

Sense of Achievement and Self-Esteem 

EMS volunteers may develop a sense of achievement and self-esteem from being 
able to do the right thing at the right time. Achievement grows with skill and 
ability. Individuals who are 

25 

motivated by achievement need the chance to feel like they are developing 
expertise and competence as an EMS volunteer. 

Successful Performance 

Successful performance is a strong motivator for continued volunteer service. 
The EMS manager needs to communicate to some volunteers the realization that 
they have been successful by making them aware of their own personal wins and 
accomplishments. After considering the cultural differences among individuals, 
the EMS manager can convey a sense of success by acknowledging a volunteer's 
accomplishments to the organization, in the media, or at special events. By 
asking volunteers for their advice and ideas about how to get things done, the 
manager also demonstrates that their accomplishments have been recognized.

Participation in Decisionmaking 

It's important for EMS personnel to be able to participate in deciding how work 
should be organized and who can and should do what. They need an opportunity to: 

Feel that they are doing what they do best. 
Have some ability to decide how things should be done. 
Be challenged by problems that are the right scale for them to solve. 
Get a sense of accomplishment for the work they do. 
Feel that they are improving in their skills and ability. 
Feel that they can manage the tasks assigned. 

The demands of a crisis will challenge and energize volunteers if they are 
prepared for such events and are adequately trained and properly supported. They 
need the confidence that their support teams and equipment will not let them 
down. 

Following Up After the Application Is Received 

Bringing someone on board is not just getting them to fill out an application. 
Initial followup is the key to getting someone who is interested and has applied 
for membership to become a volunteer. Feedback information should be provided to 
new recruits within the first ten days after they apply for membership. The 
application process should be completed efficiently so that applicants know the 
results within a month. Potential volunteers can be invited to special events or 
activities so they have an opportunity to become

26 

acquainted with the other volunteers and the way the EMS organization operates.

Post-Application Interview

A special interview should be conducted at the volunteer's home or at the EMS 
station soon after an application for membership has been received. This 
interview is the responsibility of the volunteer coordinator or recruitment 
officer, but it can be delegated to others within the organization,

The recruit interview gives the EMS organization the chance to provide more 
information about the organization as well as to learn more about the potential 
volunteer and what he or she expects and is prepared to give. It also may afford 
an opportunity to explain the social aspects of the organization and the way 
other family members can enjoy activities or events related to EMS.

The spouse and family of the volunteer should be included in the interview. It 
is important for married individuals to be able to have their spouses included 
in the EMS organization's activities whenever possible. The interviewer should 
explain to the recruit's spouse the level of involvement available to the 
recruit, the need for specialized volunteers, and the specific opportunities 
available to the spouse for participating in the activities of the organization. 
All or some of the following steps may be included in the post-application 
interview with each recruit:

1. Exchange of information (both written and oral). The interviewer should 
request the recruited volunteer to share such information as past work 
experience, interests and skills, reasons for volunteering, and time available.

The interviewer in turn should share with the recruit such information as the 
nature of the screening process, the organizational purpose, structure, and 
policies, an overview of volunteer service, the jobs other than EMT that are 
available, and the general expectations and limitations of volunteers. This is 
the opportunity for the organization to shine. The interviewer must present a 
glowing report on the EMS organization; the positive things about the 
organization should be emphasized. The interviewer who is negative may turn off 
the volunteer before ever getting started.

2. Discussion and clarification of the information. Both the volunteer and the 
interviewer should be given an opportunity to ask

27 

questions and make sure there is mutual understanding as to the volunteer's job.

3. Initial screening. Initial screening as to whether the volunteer should 
become a member of the organization is mutually accomplished by the volunteer 
and the interviewer.

4. Followup interview. A second, more indepth interview with the officer of the 
EMS station or activity to which the volunteer is expected to be assigned should 
be conducted. The officer should discuss the specific type of job for the 
volunteer, the closeness of the organization, and the relationship of the 
membership. The officer should be allowed to express both the officer's and 
organization's expectations for the volunteer.

5. Matching (negotiation of responsibilities). EMS managers often forget about 
matching or placement. Matching of the volunteer is an important aspect of the 
interview process. Most of the time that a volunteer will spend in the service 
will not be spent on emergency calls; instead, the majority of time will be 
spent at the station. The orientation to station life can be a difficult one for 
the volunteer. There are many things that need to be done around the station, 
and the volunteer must realize that those responsibilities are as important to 
the organization as the emergency duties.

The job description for the volunteer's position may provide for a trial period 
and explain how matching is negotiated when a change in the volunteer's work 
assignment is needed by the volunteer or the organization. The use of a written 
job description ensures that the responsibilities of the volunteer and the 
organization are understood and agreed upon.

The job description should include specific and measurable tasks that can be 
used to evaluate the performance of the volunteer. Criteria should be 
established to evaluate the volunteer's performance of the assigned tasks. These 
criteria for rating volunteers can be as simple as above standard, at standard, 
below standard, or no activity.

The job description also should include an estimate of the time involved and 
identification of the supervisor to whom the volunteer reports and is 
responsible. Unity of command is extremely important to new volunteers because 
they want to please everyone, but if they are responsible to more than one 
supervisor, they will become confused and possibly frustrated to the point where 
they will resign soon after joining the organization.

28 

Top 13 Interviewing Tips 

The interviewer can ensure that an interview with a recruited volunteer is 
effective and productive by using the following tips for successful 
interviewing: 

1. Try to establish mutual trust and understanding. This initial exposure of the 
potential volunteer to the EMS organization offers an opportunity for the 
interviewer to engage in good public relations even if a job is not found that 
fits the volunteer's needs.

2. Let the potential volunteer know that the information shared during the 
interview is confidential and will not be divulged to others.

3. Practice effective communications: provide information clearly, have written 
information and visual aids to reinforce oral communications, and listen and 
check to ensure that he or she is understood and understands the volunteer. Good 
communication is a two-way exchange.

4. Value each person by remaining nonjudgmental, except in relation to the 
volunteer's ability to work within the organization in the positions available. 
Try not to make assumptions.

5. Look for ability and willingness to do a job. Be alert to whether or not the 
volunteer's values are compatible with the values of the organization.

6. Encourage the volunteer to do the talking by using open-ended questions, such 
as: "What made you decide on the organization?"

7. Keep the conversation moving without losing sensitivity to the volunteer.

8. Share enough of yourself to put the volunteer at ease. The volunteer wants to 
know that the people in the organization are real.

9. Be honest about the organization and the job expectations and limitations.

10. Guide the volunteer to avoid overextending. Enthusiasm may cloud the 
volunteer's ability to make a realistic decision. It's better to start slowly, 
then add hours and responsibilities after a trial period if the volunteer still 
wants to make a greater commitment.

29 

11. Include the spouse and family of the volunteer in the interview. It is 
important for married individuals to be able to have spouses included in the 
organization's activities whenever possible.

12. Don't talk a volunteer into something he or she really doesn't want to do. 
Make sure the volunteer understands the commitment necessary in order to remain 
active with the organization.

13. Look for nonverbal cues. The volunteer's "body language" will help the 
interviewer understand the feelings of the volunteer.

Avoiding Common Mistakes During the Interview 

The interviewer should be aware of the common mistakes made during recruit 
interviews and consciously ensure that these errors are avoided: 

Talks too much. 
Does not let the volunteer answer the interviewer's questions. 
Does not stay on the topic. 
Does not address the real concerns of the volunteer. 
Does not hear the unasked questions. 
Lacks detailed information. 
Is unable to respond to the volunteer's concerns for safety or time constraints. 
Lets prejudices influence his or her judgment. 

The Unspoken Concerns of Volunteers 

Potential recruits may have a number of concerns about themselves and the EMS 
organization that they do not express. The interviewer must ensure that these 
"unasked questions" are addressed:

What do I really have to do? Can I manage it? Do I have the skill? Can I handle 
it emotionally? 

How much time will it demand? Is there enough to keep me interested? Will it put 
pressure on my regular job or family? 

What danger will I be in? What are the risks? 

Who benefits? Why should I do this? 

30 

If a waiting list for new volunteers is maintained, the EMS organization should 
have some system for periodically recontacting the wait-listed volunteers to let 
them know they are still in line for a position and that the organization is 
looking forward to the chance to work with them. This followup also provides an 
opportunity to remove from the list those volunteers who are no longer available 
for various reasons. To maintain the interest of volunteers on the waiting list, 
the EMS organization should try to engage them in organizational events and 
activities, and, if possible, they should be used in some capacity until an EMS 
post opens up.

Matching Volunteers to Jobs 

Successful job performance by volunteers is affected by a number of factors, 
many of which are beyond the control of EMS managers and supervisors. One thing 
that managers can do is to ensure that an appropriate match is made between the 
kind of skills volunteers have and the demands that will be made on them in an 
emergency situation. Matching is based on the old idea that you can't fit a 
square peg into a round hole.

Mismatches between volunteers' abilities and the jobs they are expected to 
perform leave everyone unsatisfied. The victim is not satisfied with the quality 
of service or treatment he or she receives, the volunteer EMT is frustrated by 
his or her inability to treat the victim properly, and the EMS team is 
dissatisfied with the impression it makes on the community or hospital 
personnel. Matching skills and tasks correctly is a key to good performance. 
This means that managers need to assess the training requirements for volunteers 
and to think carefully about the assignments they make.

Matching the right person to the job also means that the first volunteer through 
the door may not be the right person for the EMS job that is being filled. 
However, a volunteer who is not appropriate for an EMS job may be able to 
perform other functions for the organization that are useful and important to 
the overall effort. Many EMS organizations report successful experiences with 
volunteers who do not make EMS runs but turn out to be critical players on the 
team. For example, volunteers may have some of the following needed 
capabilities:

mechanical skills; 
accounting skills; 
telephone skills; 
purchasing and inventory control skills; 
equipment maintenance and repair; 
public speaking ability; or 
fundraising skills. 

31 

Matching doesn't involve just linking the skills and abilities of volunteers 
with the duties they are expected to perform. Matching also means making an 
appropriate connection between the personal needs people have for achievement, 
friendship, and importance, for example, and the kinds of things the EMS 
organization offers. If the social aspects of participation are important to 
volunteers and the organization doesn't have many social activities or provide 
time for social contact, a good match is not likely to occur. The volunteers 
will not feel satisfied with the return they get for volunteer service and are 
likely to quit.

EMS managers also can try to match the expectations that individuals have about 
the demands volunteering will make on them and the actual demands that are 
placed on them. The assignment of work based on the volunteers' expectations of 
the workload, rather than distribution of the work evenly among all volunteers, 
may serve to fulfill the expectations of many volunteers and increase their 
willingness to serve. Some volunteers will want to give much time and personal 
energy to the EMS organization, while others will join with the expectation of 
making a weekly call at most. Tempering demands with expectations may prevent 
volunteers from feeling that they are overloaded or underutilized.

EMS managers can enhance the match between volunteers and the EMS organization 
by not promising things they cannot deliver. The number and nature of emergency 
calls are beyond the control of any manager, although experience may provide 
some reasonable indication of what can be expected on a weekly or even daily 
basis.

Finally, matching means that the volunteers should believe that there is a 
reasonable balance between what they give and what they get back in order to 
keep them satisfied as members of the EMS organization. Some volunteers may 
start to think about quitting if they believe they are giving more than they are 
getting back. Volunteers, like paid staff, want to feel that they are getting a 
fair exchange for their contribution. This is why it is so important for EMS 
managers to understand each volunteer's needs and expectations.

Retention 

Keeping volunteers in EMS organizations has become more difficult. An EMS 
organization's efforts to retain its volunteers are as important to the success 
of an EMS organization as its recruitment program. The best recruitment program 
is of little value if the organization cannot retain its members. EMS managers 
must identify and respond to the social, organizational, and job-related 
conditions that contribute to early or increased turnover if they are to 
maintain an adequate level of qualified volunteer staff for the organization. 
There are many reasons why individuals discontinue volunteer service. Today's 
lifestyles and work patterns mean that many have less extra time for volunteer 
work in general. Two-career and single-parent families feel sharp time 
constraints. The changes in volunteers' lives may make it difficult for them to 
continue to serve for the same length of time in the same capacities as in the 
past.

The demands within EMS organizations also can have a negative effect on 
retention. The requirements for becoming and remaining an EMS professional, 
volunteer and career, are more stringent. Meeting additional training and 
certification requirements is time-consuming and even costly. Internal 
conflicts, potential health and safety risks, work-related stress, and lack of 
confidence in the use and performance of specialized equipment may contribute to 
early volunteer resignations.

EMS managers need to identify alternative options and develop a strategy for 
retaining their most valuable resource--the existing staff of trained, competent 
volunteers. The factors within the control of the manager that contribute to 
turnover need to be recognized and eliminated if possible. The EMS manager needs 
to adjust to those factors that cannot be controlled. For example, opportunities 
for reduced levels of participation could be provided for volunteers whose 
personal life or job require them to reduce their time commitment to the 
organization. Volunteers suffering from boredom or stress in their present 
positions could be reassigned to new or less stressful jobs at least on a 
temporary basis. Specific retention techniques are described in the Recruitment 
and Retention Strategies unit.

Volunteer Leadership Issues

There are several issues concerning the leadership of the EMS organization that 
can affect the satisfaction of volunteers and their continuation with the 
organization: the management style of the organization, the management skills of 
the EMS manager and the

33 

organization' s officers, the communication skills of the EMS manager, the image 
of the organization, and the organizational climate. 

Management Style 

People want more responsibility for their own work today, both in their places 
of employment and in volunteer organizations. Rigid and hierarchical leadership 
styles are increasingly ineffective, but all people expect someone to take 
charge and act like the leader. Most people want to know what is expected of 
them. They prefer that policies, rules, and regulations be spelled out, posted, 
or available for reading.

Volunteers need to feel a sense of control over their own work and 
responsibility for their accomplishments. They expect respect from others and 
want to be included in decisionmaking. For example, volunteers could be allowed 
to set their own goals and objectives for improvement and performance.

Organizing people to work in teams is more common today and many people thrive 
in that sort of work arrangement. Some with very high friendship needs will need 
time for conversation and will want to avoid tension and conflict in the work 
place.

Management Skills 

Volunteers may assume that the leaders of the EMS organization at all levels 
have the requisite skills to serve as managers; however, leaders who are not 
managers in their private jobs may lack fundamental management skills. Extensive 
training is required and provided for volunteers who provide emergency medical 
services; however, training may not be offered to volunteers who provide 
management services. Volunteers who are dissatisfied with the management 
abilities of the officers of the organization and their treatment by those 
officers will be disinclined to remain with the organization. Training for 
volunteers who are promoted to management positions should be considered as an 
important retention tool. Management training may be available for free or for a 
modest fee through local, regional, and state programs provided by EMS 
academies, colleges and universities, and EMS offices.

Communication Skills 

Volunteer members sometimes hear what an EMS manager says differently than the 
way the manager thought it was said. 

34 

Communication patterns differ between women and men and also across cultural 
groups. Communication includes an unspoken effort to achieve status or 
friendship. Messages meant to convey instructions can be garbled and misleading 
to the receiver. Developing good communication skills comes partly from 
observing reactions to the way the EMS manager speaks: Do they change their 
posture toward you Do they grasp the meaning of your ? instructions?

A variety of techniques to communicate effectively with volunteers may need to 
be used because they are in and out of the station and seldom all together at 
the same time. The EMS manager should consider routine meetings, newsletters, 
written SOPS, bulletin boards, electronic mail, orientation packets, and 
videotaped presentations.

The Image of the Organization 

Each EMS organization develops its own image and spirit. These things are 
transferred to the community and make an impression on potential volunteers. EMS 
managers can instill a sense of pride in volunteers as well as a special 
camaraderie. A positive image affects the way an EMS organization is thought 
about, and research tell us that people are more interested in belonging to 
organizations that they think have a positive image and are more prestigious.

Organizational Climate 

Each organization has its own personality and a unique climate that develops 
from the mix of people, tasks, equipment, and external pressures that make up 
the organization. A critical task for an EMS manager is to define common goals 
for organizational members and harness the volunteers' energies into achieving 
those shared goals. Analysis of the organization's climate will help to 
determine if the EMS manager must work to make the organization a cooperative 
workplace where people strive to maintain good work relationships.

Where the fundamental expectations of volunteers about what they will get from 
being a member of an EMS organization are in conflict with their experience, the 
organization's environment will become increasingly dysfunctional. The EMS 
manager should think about the importance of matching individuals and 
organizations for both good performance and retention, To that end, it might be 
helpful to ask volunteer members the following questions concerning the 
organizational climate:

Do you think that our organization offers you the chance to have the kind of 
volunteer job that you will want in the future? 

To what extent are you made to feel that you are really a part of our 
organization? 

To what extent have you made social friendships with people you have met through 
volunteering in our organization? 

How do you feel about the appearance of our organization's stations? 

How do you feel about the appearance of our emergency-response apparatus? 

How do you feel about our organization's image with the public at large? 

When you first volunteered, how well were our organization's policies explained 
to you? 

Do you think that there is sufficient opportunity for advancement in our 
organization? 

When you were first contacted, did the people who talked with you about the 
organization and the opportunities within it describe them fairly and honestly? 

How do you feel about our organization's training program? 

Does the organization keep you informed about its activities and plans? 

How often do you get involved in planning and decisionmaking in our 
organization? 

How do you feel when you tell people that you are a member of this organization? 

To what extent do you understand just what work you are supposed to do and what 
your duties are? 

Do you find the work assigned to you challenging and interesting? 

In general, how well do you like your present position? 

If you were to start again, do you feel you would volunteer for our 
organization? 

Do the officers and supervisors on the job set a good example in their own work 
habits? 

When you seek information or help on a difficult problem, how likely are you to 
get the help you need? 

Are you encouraged to offer ideas and suggestions for new or better ways of 
doing things? 

Do you think that your personal problems will be given adequate attention if you 
brought them to a supervisor's attention? 

When you are given new duties and responsibilities, how well are they explained? 

How do you feel about the officer-member interaction? 

Please tell us any way in which we can improve our organization. 

Stress Management 

The decision to quit or drop out of an EMS organization is a function of three 
different kinds of factors that affect a volunteer's satisfaction with his or 
her membership: concern about the job, conflict with management, and pressure 
from family. Demands that cannot be managed create a stress level that may 
become intolerable. Any one factor or a combination of factors may produce 
enough personal stress to cause someone to withdraw from volunteer service.

At the same time, the presence or absence of other options for volunteer service 
may provide the impetus for staying with or leaving the EMS organization. If the 
other opportunities exist and

37 

are as rewarding as participation in the EMS organization, the stressed 
volunteer may be motivated to join another volunteer organization. 

Critical Incident Stress Management 

EMS personnel are a unique group of people, but they are also human like 
everyone else. Those individuals who deliver emergency medical services see 
other humans when they are most vulnerable as a result of a life-threatening 
condition or event. Death cannot always be prevented despite the best efforts of 
EMS personnel. There are so many incidents that an EMS person responds to that 
could affect the psyche of the volunteer that it is necessary for the EMS 
organization to have a system in place to care for the emotional well-being of 
its volunteers. Volunteers who respond to these life-threatening emergencies are 
subject not only to the stresses of life but also to the effects of being 
exposed to excessive risks, destruction, and human misery.

The effect of this stress can be seen in the premature resignation of the 
volunteer or disruption of their health and happiness. If the right steps are 
taken early enough, the loss of volunteers can be minimized. It is imperative 
that EMS managers recognize the effects of stress on volunteers and implement a 
critical incident stress management system.

The U. S. Surgeon General has estimated that 80 percent of the people who die 
due to nontraumatic causes actually die of stress-related diseases. Stress is 
not designed by nature to kill, but rather to enhance life. Some stress is 
helpful and actually essential for a full and productive life. Without stress 
there would be no change, growth, or productivity.

It is extremely important that a stress management system that provides 
psychological support services be developed for the EMS organization by someone 
familiar with the special personalities, operational procedures, stressors, and 
needs of EMS personnel.

To assure EMS organizations that the very best support services for their 
personnel are available within the community, it is important that a special 
psychological support team be created. This team, usually referred to as a 
critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) team, must be prepared specifically 
to address the special personalities, job-and family-related stressors, and the 
support needs of EMS personnel.

If you are not aware of a CISD team, contact your local hospital or mental 
health organization. 

Health and Safety Risks Equipment Concerns 

Concern for our safety is a basic human need. Nevertheless, individuals vary 
significantly in the amount of risk they are willing to take and the things they 
consider threatening or dangerous. Good management can't change human nature, 
but it can minimize unnecessary fears about personal safety. Safety 
consciousness is good management in its own right.

Individuals who volunteer for EMS may not be overly concerned about personal 
risks, but they still want the EMS organization to provide valid information 
about the risks they may face and to take proper precautions for their well-
being, particularly in the areas of health, safety, and equipment maintenance.

People in general are increasingly aware of the possibility of contracting a 
contagious disease. Providing full and understandable information about the 
nature of health risks EMS volunteers might incur on the one hand and 
establishing careful procedures to follow to avoid such risks on the other are 
part of the trust between volunteers and an EMS organization. This trust means 
providing safety equipment and training for EMS volunteers in the proper use of 
such equipment to protect them from diseases like hepatitis, AIDS, and 
tuberculosis. Information about keeping equipment and supplies clean and 
sterile, when appropriate, and discarding contaminated supplies is part of this 
training as well. Having safety precautions in place protects EMS volunteers, 
minimizes concerns for health risks, and enables them to reassure family members 
that they are not taking unnecessary risks. Good health practices also reduce 
the spread of infectious diseases among the clientele served.

An EMS manager who is concerned about retention as well as recruitment will 
enforce the health and safety policies and procedures of the organization. If an 
EMS volunteer is injured or contracts a disease because rules weren't enforced, 
the EMS organization may have to be rebuilt in whole or part because of the 
adverse effect on existing members and the organization's recruitment effort.

Materials concerning the prevention and control of health and safety risks 
involved in EMS work are available from the U. S. Fire Administration, the 
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and the Centers for Disease 
Control and Prevention.

Equipment must be kept in good condition. Ambulances and other vehicles must be 
in proper working order, repairs should not be put off, and maintenance 
schedules should be followed regularly. No

39 

one wants to make an emergency run with a vehicle that doesn't operate properly.

The inventory and proper storage of equipment ensures that the right apparatus 
and gear are available at the moment they are needed. Making a run without the 
right equipment can frustrate and endanger volunteers and potentially compromise 
medical treatment.

The regular maintenance of equipment ensures that EMS personnel can rely on the 
fact that equipment is operable and in the proper location. Inventory control 
procedures and a checklist for outfitting emergency vehicles are critical for 
emergency response. The maintenance of safety equipment must be a high priority.

Equipment-related concerns can put stress on an EMS volunteer who is uncertain 
about how the equipment will perform or whether needed equipment is in the 
proper location. These concerns may create a sense of not being in control of 
the situation that many volunteers will find intolerable and may reduce their 
pride and self-esteem in being an EMS volunteer. For those who are motivated by 
a desire to help others, failures related to faulty or missing equipment may 
make them feel useless and frustrated.

The Performance Review as a Retention Tool 

Periodic reviews or evaluations of the performance of volunteers by their 
supervisors are an essential part of EMS management. When handled effectively, 
these reviews can help in closing the gap between what volunteers do and what 
the EMS manager needs them to do. They also can increase the likelihood of a 
volunteer's continued participation in the organization by identifying and 
responding to any dissatisfaction that volunteers have with job assignments, 
training, management, and fellow volunteers.

Handling performance reviews effectively, however, is not as easy as it might 
seem. A number of things can get in the way of an effective review: the design 
of the evaluation forms, a heavy workload that leaves little time for what seems 
like extra activities, and the challenge of getting volunteers to accept what 
the EMS manager has to say. These factors can, but need not, complicate the 
review process and limit its effectiveness. There are ways to avoid most 
complications and to make the review process work the way it should.

Defining the Purpose of the Interview 

What the purpose of the performance review process is, of course, will depend to 
some extent on the policies established by the EMS organization, but experience 
has demonstrated repeatedly that the 

40 

most effective reviews are those that serve only one purpose: to help the 
volunteer work closer to his or her potential. Everything that will help a 
volunteer belongs in the review session unless it can be handled more 
effectively at some other time.

For example, the correction of a volunteer's tendency to prolong projects 
certainly would help to ensure that tasks are completed in a more timely manner; 
however, the correction shouldn't be postponed until review time. It should be 
made when it is first noticed that the volunteer is not meeting deadlines.

Clarifing the Purpose of the Review to the Volunteer 

The volunteers in many EMS organizations do not clearly understand how their 
work is evaluated or what performance appraisals are all about. If the 
volunteers are not sure about what's at stake in their reviews and what's really 
going on, they tend to hold back during evaluation sessions. When pressed, they 
may become defensive or angry or even more passive than usual.

By clarifying the purpose of the review before it is conducted, the reviewer can 
avoid a negative response from the volunteers and save a lot of time. If the 
reviewer and the volunteer being reviewed are absolutely clear about the purpose 
of the review, it will be much easier to stick to the essential points in the 
review session and get the important things done.

Conducting the Review as an Exchange of Information 

Performance reviews usually involve the completion of an evaluation form that 
has a "report card" quality to it. The evaluation form is only a tool to help 
make reviews more objective and more consistent from volunteer to volunteer. 
Whether it does so depends on how it is designed and used. Even a excellent 
evaluation form used under ideal conditions is only a means (a basis for 
discussion) to an end (helping the volunteer).

Report-card-type reviews seldom produce significant or lasting improvements in 
volunteer performance. Grades may or may not be motivational for children in 
school, but for most adults, being graded on a job for which you are not paid 
may provide little incentive to improve.

A more productive approach is to consider the review itself as something that 
happens between the reviewing officer and the volunteer. It takes the 
involvement of both sides to make an effective review. There is little chance 
for improvement unless

41 

there is agreement that improvement is needed and possible, and it is unlikely 
that agreement will be reached without honest and frank discussion. That's why 
conducting a review as an exchange of information is better than the grade-
giving approach. It's not only easier to handle, it's more practical.

Structuring the Interview 

The reviewer should organize his or her approach to the discussion of the topics 
covered in the interview and explain to the volunteer how the interview will be 
structured. One approach that many managers and supervisors have found useful is 
the R-A-P review model:

Review the past. 
Analyze the present. 
Plan the future. 

With this approach, the reviewer can trace through time each of the basic topics 
(such as the job proficiency) from the past through the present and on into the 
future. This simple chronological sequence is both logical and easy to remember. 
Consequently, when the R-A-P approach is used, most people have no difficulty in 
keeping track of where the discussion is going and what progress has been made 
to date. Another significant feature of this approach is the emphasis it places 
on the future. Discussion of the past and present is much less important than 
planning for the future if the goal is really to help volunteers work closer to 
their potential. Approximately 25 percent of the review time should be spent on 
the past, 15 percent on the present situation, and a full 60 percent on the plan 
for the future, which the reviewer and volunteer work out together.

Specifying the Essential Topics to Be Covered 

Once the information exchange begins, it may be difficult to stay on target, One 
way the interviewer can keep the discussion focused is to let the volunteer know 
in advance the general topics that will be covered in the review. Three 
essential topics that should be covered are job performance, working 
relationships with others, and a comparison of what has been accomplished since 
the last review with what was planned. To establish a sense of two-way 
communication, which is crucial for an effective interview, the reviewer also 
should ask the volunteer if there are other topics that

42 

he or she wishes to discuss. Volunteers usually want answers to the following 
questions: 

How am I doing? 
What can I do to improve? 
Do I have a chance for advancement? 
what will be expected of me before the next review? 
How will my work be evaluated during that time? 
What kind of help or attention can I expect from my supervisor? 
What changes are likely in the organization in the months ahead and how will 
they affect me? 

The Exit Interview as a Retention Tool 

Many EMS organizations do not conduct exit interviews with volunteers who are 
leaving the organization because of a perception that the organization does not 
need that volunteer anymore. In reality, the exit interview can be one of the 
most important aspects of a retention program if, done in a proper, timely, and 
professional manner. The information gathered will help the organization in 
planning for future success.

The purpose of an exit interview is to gather information from each volunteer 
leaving the EMS organization in order to identify changes or improvements that 
might be made to reduce turnover of volunteers in the future.

The exit interview may provide the EMS manager with an opportunity to get to the 
root of a problem or specific reason for leaving and possibly change the 
volunteer's mind or perception of the situation. It is an excellent time for the 
leader to determine the specific problem.

There are many reasons for not doing exit interviews, but the primary reason 
given by most EMS managers is the time required. It can also be an unpleasant 
task for the EMS manager because the volunteer may try to affix blame for the 
problem on the manager or another volunteer. This is not the time to place blame 
but instead a time to determine problems.

Everyone who leaves an EMS organization should be given the opportunity to 
reply, either in person or in writing to the questions

43 

included in the exit interview. A standard questionnaire that can be completed 
in a face-to-face interview or in writing, should be designed for use in all 
exit interviews. The following questions should be considered for inclusion in 
the standard exit interview form.

Retention of Career Staff 

The turnover of compensated personnel in EMS organizations staffed by combined 
career-volunteer personnel or career personnel only presents problems and 
requires solutions that differ from those associated with the turnover of 
volunteers.

Career personnel leave because of factors that exist both within and outside the 
EMS organization and the control of its managers. External factors, such as 
changes in lifestyles, family demands, and other social responsibilities, affect 
the attitudes of career personnel toward their jobs. Internal factors within the 
EMS organization, such as job satisfaction, also affect the attitudes of career 
personnel

44 

toward their work and their desire to seek a new position elsewhere. To retain 
career employees, an EMS manager must keep these internal and external factors 
in mind and try to make necessary accommodations in the workplace when 
necessary.

The work performed by a career person, including the routine, daily activities 
of the job, must be appropriately challenging to the employee. People differ in 
the extent to which they need change in their jobs and the rate at which they 
are ready for change. However, a job that is no longer challenging is a major 
reason why employees become restless and dissatisfied. Employees who feel like 
they are in over their heads because of the demands of the job also will look 
for a way out. It is the responsibility of the EMS manager to determine what is 
appropriate for each individual and to be careful to notice the way people 
differ from what is thought to be typical in capabilities, interests, and 
motivations.

Variety is an important part of the workday for many career personnel, but there 
are certain aspects of their jobs where they want a significant degree of 
predictability. Volatile relationships between managers and employees or 
unharmonious relations among employees themselves may make career personnel 
apprehensive about what to expect on the job and may create an intolerable 
tension at work. Jobs that become routine and boring may fail to sustain the 
interest of career employees. EMS managers need to understand the differing 
needs for predictability and constancy that career personnel have and to adjust 
the work environment and job assignments to satisfy those needs.

Being an employee is only one of many roles we all perform. The responsibility 
for small children, aging parents, or ailing relatives is one of many external 
factors that can place significant demands on a career employee. When the 
workplace lacks flexibility in both formal and informal rules, employees may 
feel that they cannot accommodate their other nonwork roles with their role as 
employee. They may feel pressured to look for a job that is more flexible in 
terms of work time and time off. The EMS manager should consider the adoption of 
flexible work schedules; however, to be successful, flexible schedules have to 
respond to employees' needs and constraints as well as to the work requirements 
of the EMS organization.

Career employees also may need flexibility as they grow older. They may desire 
to reduce the physical demands of the job or to make time for other activities 
that they have postponed. For these career EMS personnel, opportunities for 
partial employment may be a key factor to their retention. Employees start 
thinking about how they want to organize their retirement at increasingly early 
ages.

45 

Partial retirement can be a viable alternative to the loss of a good employee 
who is ready to do something else or who finds full-time employment too 
demanding. Partial retirement can be structured in a wide variety of ways, 
including shorter work days, reduced work weeks or months, or even seasonal 
employment. Partial retirement options extend the working lives of many 
employees and are attractive for people in their early fifties as well as those 
closer to the traditional retirement age. Partial retirement is particularly 
useful where the work is physically stressful, but also is attractive to 
employees in a wide range of different occupational groups.

Market factors play an important role in an employee's willingness to remain in 
an organization. Obviously, in depressed economic periods when other employment 
opportunities are scarce, employees are likely to remain in an organization, 
even when they are dissatisfied with the conditions of their job. As soon as the 
market improves, however, they are likely to leave for other employment. Low 
turnover therefore cannot be assumed to mean a satisfied workforce. The demand 
for the skills that EMS personnel have may also increase because of changes in 
the market. In these cases, the competition for and retention of employees may 
become a matter of the organization's ability to pay. Most employees, however, 
will not move from a satisfactory job just for higher pay. Their daily routine, 
social life, professional identity, and job satisfaction may be more important 
to them than higher pay. If the pay differential between a career employee's 
present job and outside opportunities is relatively small, EMS management needs 
to point out the positive conditions of the job, other than compensation, as a 
way of retaining employees who have outside opportunities. To the extent that 
the EMS organization provides opportunities for career development and personal 
growth, there is a good chance that career personnel can be retained.

46 

Recruitment and Retention Strategies 

An effective recruitment and retention program for an EMS organization consists 
of a package of methods, techniques, or strategies that identify, attract, and 
keep qualified volunteer members. There is no right or perfect package of 
strategies, but there are strategies that are more effective than others. The 
recruitment and retention strategies selected for inclusion in the 
organization's package or program should be those that have demonstrated 
effectiveness, can be implemented by the organization at a reasonable cost, and 
meet the needs of the organization and its membership.

EMS organizations with exemplary recruitment and retention programs were 
identified by state EMS directors and specialists in EMS recruitment and 
retention. An analysis of these exemplary programs revealed those recruitment 
and retention strategies that have been proved effective in actual practice. 
Either individually or in combination with other strategies. These effective 
strategies (and the number of the page where the description of each strategy 
begins) are:

Annual volunteer recognition event (p. 50) 
Availability of nonoperational opportunities (p. 51) 
Buddy system (p. 53) 
Clearly written job descriptions (p. 54) 
Competitive testing for promotions (p. 55) 
Encouragement of family participation (p. 56) 
Formal recognition system (p. 57) 
Free insurance (p. 59) 
Free meals during long-distance runs (p. 60) 
Free personal equipment and protective clothing (p. 61) 
Free training (p. 63) 
Informal recognition system (p. 65) 

47 

Length of service awards program (LOSAP) (p. 66) 
Mentoring (p. 68) 
Movie theater advertisement (p. 70) 
Multilingual recruitment (p. 72) 
New, well-maintained vehicles (p. 73) 
Open house (p. 75) 
Out-of-town conferences (p. 77) 
Participation-based compensation (p. 79) 
Physical activities (p. 82) 
Piggybacking of recruitment activities (p. 83) 
Print advertisements (p. 84) 
Recruiter incentives (p. 86) 
Stipend (service account) for volunteers who meet minimum weekly participation 
requirements (p. 88) 
Targeted recruitment (p. 90) 
24-hour central telephone access by prospective volunteers (P. 92) 
Vacancy announcements (p. 94) 
Volunteer EMT week (p. 95) 
Welcome wagon (p. 97) 
Youth development programs (p. 98) 
Youth education (p. 100) 

A description of each of these strategies is provided in the following pages. 
For each strategy the following information is presented: (1) its applicability 
(is it appropriate for recruitment, retention, or both?), (2) a general 
description of the strategy, (3) any special implementation requirements, (4) 
the strengths of the strategy, (5) any drawbacks or deficiencies of the 
strategy, (6) its cost, (7) its 

48 

overall effectiveness as a recruitment and/ or retention tool, (8) an example of 
its use if known (i. e., the experience of at least one EMS organization that 
has used the strategy successfully), and (9) the name, address, and telephone 
number of a person who can be contacted to obtain more information about using 
the strategy.

49 

METHOD ANNUAL VOLUNTEER RECOGNITION EVENT 

APPLICABILlTY Retention 

DESCRlPTlON An annual event is conducted to recognize publicly the contributions 
made by volunteers. The event may be a banquet, dinner dance, or other evening 
ceremony at which the contributions of volunteers are acknowledged by means of 
awards and other forms of recognition.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS A public-recognition event requires careful 
planning. Arrangements must be made for such requirements as a facility, food 
service, entertainment, recognition certificates or plaques, event programs and 
reports, floral displays, souvenirs, gifts, or mementos, and publicity. A 
coordinator or committee to plan and implement the event will need to be 
designated.

STRENGTHS Recognition events provide positive reinforcement of the significant 
value of the contributions made by volunteers and elicit a sense of personal 
accomplishment and pride by individual volunteers. Public acknowledgment that 
the contributions made by volunteers are appreciated will increase the 
likelihood that they will continue as members of the EMS organization. The 
events also provide an opportunity to publicize the valuable contribution made 
by the organization and its volunteers to the community.

DRAWBACKS The cost of the event may be a problem for some organizations. COST 
There may a significant cost for the recognition events: however, this cost may 
be covered by inclusion as a planned item in the organization's budget and by 
contributions of time, products, and services by volunteers and local 
businesses.

FFFECTIVENESS Appreciation events are considered to be an essential, valuable 
retention method.

EXAMPLE The Odenton Volunteer Fire Company 28 of Odenton, Maryland, is a %-
person, largely volunteer organization that provides fire-suppression and basic-
life-support/ transport services for a community of 25,000. The fire company 
conducts an annual spring dinner dance to observe the anniversaries of the 
establishment of the fire company and its ladies auxiliary, acknowledge the 
achievements of all of its volunteers, and specifically recognize the 
outstanding achievements of the top ten volunteers in terms of fire responses, 
EMS responses, total responses, university training hours, practical training 
hours, and instructional training hours. The printed program for the dinner 
dance acknowledges the volunteer contributions and provides statistics on the 
company's activities for the previous calendar year. A two-person banquet 
committee plans and coordinates the dinner dance.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Charles D. Rogers, Chief 
Odenton Volunteer Fire Company 28 
1425 Annapolis Road 
Odenton, MD 21113 
(410) 674-4444 

METHOD AVAILABILITY OF NONOPERATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION EMS agencies have a need for many nonmedical services that can be 
provided by volunteers. These nonoperational services include such diverse 
activities as equipment maintenance, community relations, public education, 
training, dispatching, administration, planning, clerical support, photography, 
mapping, coordination of social functions, and even recruitment. Many potential 
volunteers do not qualify or do not wish to participate as operational personnel 
(EMTs or paramedics) because of age, physical disability, or lack of interest, 
but still are willing or can be motivated to serve as a volunteer in a 
nonoperational capacity. In addition, operational personnel suffering from 
burnout or loss of interest often are reinvigorated and achieve satisfaction by 
performing nonoperational functions. Many EMS organizations provide a range of 
nonoperational volunteer opportunities as an alternative path for participation 
by volunteers.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The EMS organization must identify the needed 
services that can be performed by other than operational personnel, define the 
knowledge and skill requirements for the nonoperational jobs, and expand its 
recruitment program to target and enlist nonoperational volunteers to perform 
the needed services.

STRENGTHS The provision of nonoperational services by volunteers reduces or 
eliminates the need to use operational personnel to perform those functions 
instead of or in addition to their life-support functions. The use of 
nonoperational volunteers enables the EMS organization to draw on a larger pool 
of potential volunteers to meet its needs. The community image of the 
organization is enhanced by the variety of citizens able to participate in its 
activities. Operational personnel whose participation might be decreased or even 
terminated because of stress or loss of interest can continue with the 
organization in a nonoperational role.

DRAWBACKS There do not appear to be any significant drawbacks: however, if a 
volunteer EMT or paramedic is reassigned to a nonoperational job, the 
organization may lose its investment in time and money.

COST There are no significant costs: in fact, the use of nonoperational 
volunteers may result in a decrease in costs since the financial investment 
involved in training and qualifying operational personnel is not required.

EFFECTIVENESS Many staff or support functions of an EMS organization can be 
performed effectively by nonoperational personnel, and the organization can be 
successful recruiting volunteers who are not able or interested in serving as an 
EMT or paramedic. The turnover rate for nonoperational volunteers will be 
similar to that of operational volunteers. The involvement of nonoperational 
volunteers is a very efficient use of available volunteer manpower.

51 

EXAMPLE The Sedona Fire Department of Sedona, Arizona, is a combined career-
volunteer organization that provides fire and ALS services from 8 stations for a 
sparsely populated tourist area covering 126 square miles. The EMS division of 
the department has a 76 -person staff, including 14 full-time and 3 part-time 
paid personnel and 59 volunteers. The department makes extensive use of 
nonoperational volunteers to perform tasks that otherwise would need to be done 
by operational staff or that it could not otherwise provide. The following 
departmental needs are filled by appropriately trained volunteers: mapping, 
photography, maintenance, clerical services, and preplanning. The department's 
management and operational personnel have given the nonoperational volunteers a 
high approval rating.


CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Gary Zimmerman  Public Information Officer 
Sedona Fire Department 
2860 Southwest Drive 
Sedona, AZ 86336 
(602) 282-6800 

52 

METHOD BUDDY SYSTEM 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION The buddy system is a recruitment method that targets the personal 
contacts of existing members as potential recruits. Each existing member is 
enlisted as a recruiter and is expected to solicit individuals. with whom the 
veteran member is familiar, usually friends and relatives, as volunteer members 
of the EMS organization. The EMS organization may set annual recruitment goals: 
the usual target is one new volunteer per veteran member each year.

REQUIREMENTS
The EMS organization must formalize the "buddy system" by requiring or at least 
encouraging veteran-member participation in recruitment setting recruitment 
goals for the membership, and providing recruitment information (e. g., 
promotional handout or brochure) to veteran members.


STRENGTHS The existing members are an excellent source of informed recruiters. 
They are aware of the requirements for satisfactory job performance, tend to 
associate with individuals who have similar interests, capabilities, and work 
schedules, and want the organization to continue as an rganization. They know 
their friends and relative  as therefore are well situated to assess, contact, 
and

DRAWBACKS Good emergency-care providers are not necessarily good recruiters. 
Some existing members may be reluctant to solicit friends and acquaintances to 
become members or to take any responsibility for recruitment. The recruitment of 
buddies may result in "inbreeding" that does not contribute to a diverse 
membership. If the existing membership does not include females, blacks, non-
English speakers, or other minorities, the buddy system may prepetuate 
organization staffing that is not representative of the area served.

COST There is minimal additional cost, if any, but the time expended by the 
entire membership on recruitment will increase. 

EFFECTIVENESS The buddy system will increase the number of recruits, but alone 
will not meet the volunteer staffing needs of the organization. 

EXAMPLE The Basalt Fire Protection District, headquartered in Basalt, Colorado, 
is responsible for fire, rescue, and emergency-care services for a low-
population, mountainous, 494-square-mile resort area. Basalt Fire and Rescue 
provides BLS and ALS services through its 28-member, all-volunteer EMT staff: 19 
ALS ambulance personnel and 9 first responders. The "buddy method" is the 
primary recruitment technique used by the department. Each veteran member Is 
expected to recruit at least one new volunteer per year, and most new members 
are signed up by means of the buddy system.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATlON 

Steven G. Howard, Chief 
Basalt Rural Fire Protection District 
P. O. Box 801 Basalt, CO 81621 
(303) 927-3365 

METHOD CLEARLY WRITTEN JOB DESCRIPTIONS 

DESCRlPTlON The EMS organization develops and distributes written descriptions 
for all job classes or positions within the organization for both volunteer and 
paid personnel. The written descriptions clearly and succinctly lay out for each 
job the position title, a general summary of the position, the minimum time 
requirements, the training and certification requirements, the tasks assigned to 
the position, and the criteria for evaluating performance.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The organization management must specify and write 
job descriptions for all occupational classes or positions within the 
organization. Personnel publications are available to provide guidance for the 
development of job descriptions; sample descriptions may be obtained from other 
local EMS organizations on state-level EMS, fire, or rescue agencies or 
associations.

STRENGTHS Well-written, clear job descriptions ensure that prospective and 
current members of the organization understand the expectations established for 
each occupational class or position and the basis for evaluating performance: as 
a consequence, these individuals are better able to decide whether to volunteer 
as a member or to seek promotion. The written descriptions provide organization 
managers and supervisors an objective basis by which to establish 
accountability, evaluate performance, and make initial enlistment and subsequent 
promotional decisions.

DRAWBACKS None. 

COST The only cost is the time required for the development or acquisition and 
periodic review of job descriptions. 

EFFECTIVENESS Written job descriptions contribute to the overall effectiveness 
of the entire recruitment and retention process, although they alone will not 
have any significant impact on the process. 

54 

METHOD COMPETITIVE TESTING FOR PROMOTIONS 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION Competitive testing is a formal procedure for the ranking and 
selection of candidates for promotion within an EMS organization on the basis of 
objective personnel evaluation criteria. Points are assigned to each applicant 
for an occupational class, slot, or position within the organization on the 
basis of seniority, written-test results, and oral-interview results. Applicants 
then are listed in rank order according to total points received. The applicant 
highest on the ranking list is offered the next open slot for which the 
applicant has qualified. Formal promotional procedures are administered by a 
review or merit board established by the governing body for the EMS 
organization.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The promotional procedures prescribed in any 
applicable state or local legislation must be observed. If state or local law 
does not apply, the governing body for the organization must authorize and 
specify the promotional process, including the frequency of the testing (often 
annually) and the points to be assigned for seniority, written tests, and oral 
interviews. If permitted by law, the written testing or the entire competitive-
testing process can be contracted out to a private testing service or operated 
internally by the organization through a review or merit board. If the process 
is not contracted out, the organization must write or purchase objective written 
tests, administer and grade the tests, assign points, and post the test results. 
Personal interviews must be scheduled, conducted, and scored: the final ranking 
lists must be posted.

STRENGTH The objectivity of the process ensures that the most qualified members 
are promoted. Favoritism is eliminated because the process is administered in a 
fair, impartial, and equal manner and is open to all organization members. 

DRAWBACKS Competitive testing removes control of promotions from organization 
managers, who have had the opportunity over time to know and observe the 
leadership potential and other qualifications of applicants. The cost of 
administration of a formal promotional process may be too much for many 
agencies, especially smaller departments. The testing may be more appropriate 
for larger agencies that have numerous candidates for open positions.

COST Contracting out the promotional process can be costly. If the process is 
administered within the organization, there will be a significant cost in terms 
of time and money (e. g., purchase of testing instruments). 

EFFECTIVENESS Competitive testing will have a modest positive impact or 
retention. Some members may be encouraged to remain with the organization if 
fair opportunity to advance to leadership or desirable positions. 

55 

METHOD ENCOURAGEMENT OF FAMILY PARTICIPATION 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION The family-oriented approach to EMS staffing involves the active 
recruitment of volunteers from the same household, especially husband-wife 
pairs. Recruitment efforts emphasize the benefits to both the community and the 
family of members in the same household working together in a shared volunteer 
activity.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS Recruitment activities target families as potential 
volunteer members. 

STRENGTHS Family-oriented recruitment can attract more volunteers for the same 
effort. The participation of multiple members from the same family can result in 
a greater commitment to and a longer duration of participation within the local 
EMS organization. The involvement of husband-wife teams can lessen the stresses 
on family life that often result when only one spouse is an EMS volunteer.

DRAWBACKS Family involvement may result in greater-than-normal membership losses 
when a single volunteer decides to resign for whatever reason. Families that 
participate together in EMS will tend to leave together. 

COST No additional cost. 

EFFECTIVENESS Famiily recruitment often can result in family enlistment. Even if 
only one family member participates, the EMS operation has not expended any 
additional effort for the recruitment of the single participant.

EXAMPLE The New Durham Fire Department of New Durham, New Hampshire, provides 
fire-supression and rescue services for a New England community of 2,300 
population. The department is staffed by 30 volunteers, including 8 fire-
trained, 2 EMS-trained, and 20 cross-trained personnel. Recruitment is by word 
of mouth; family and female participation is encouraged. Five husband-wife teams 
have joined the service.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Terry Jarvis, Captain 
New Durham Fire Department 
Box 100 New Durham, NH 03855 
(603) 859-3220 

56 

METHOD FORMAL RECOGNITION SYSTEM 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION A formal recognition system is the regular practice of an EMS 
organization to acknowledge the contributions and achievements of Its volunteer 
members by the presentation of awards to those members who meet eligibility 
criteria set and publicized internally by the organization. Anything can be used 
as an award, although they typically include, either alone or in combination, a 
printed acknowledgment with the recipient's name inscribed (such as a 
certificate or plaque), an item of value (such as a cash or gift certificate), 
and a recognition event (such as an awards dinner for members and their 
spouses). Awards may be presented for any significant achievement: length-of-
service milestones, meritorious acts, overall performance (e. g., "EMT of the 
Year"), level of participation, promotions, and skill-development achievements 
(e. g., certification, completion of training program). Many organizations 
believe that as many awards as possible (including humorous awards) should be 
given as long as the volume of awards does not diminish the value and 
credibility of the recognition system.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS An awards committee or task force should be 
designated to design and administer the recognition system, arrange for the 
production and presentation of awards, and make recommendations concerning the 
recognition system to agency management. The type and frequency of the awards to 
be given, the qualification criteria for receipt of awards, and the process for 
the nomination of recipients for competitive awards must be specified by the EMS 
organization through its awards committee and publicized within the 
organization. The organization must develop and observe an internal procedure 
for monitoring and acknowledging members who qualify for automatic awards, such 
as length of service or promotions. The process for nominating, evaluating, and 
selecting the recipients of competitive awards must be implemented on a regular 
cycle according to the frequency with which the awards are given. Spouses of the 
recipients of major awards should also be recognized, perhaps with a corsage or 
companion plaque, in order to acknowledge the important role of family members 
of volunteer members and to stimulate interest by other spouses. After the 
recognition system has been announced and expectations created, teh awards must 
be made as promised in fair and consistent manner.

STRENGTHS Formal recognition creates interest in reaching acheivable goals, 
promotes pride in the organization, promotes a competitive spirit 
among volunteer members, and demonstrates the organization's appreciation for 
the efforts of it's members. 

DRAWBACKS The value of awards may be diminished if the organization fails to 
recognize the volunteers who meet the criteria for receipt of an award, gives 
out undeserved or unearned awards, or requires award recipeints to pay of the 
costs associated with the award (e. g., tickets to a recognition dinner-dance). 
If too many awards are given, the recognition system may lose it's 
meaningfulness and credibility.

COST There are modest costs associated with the purchase or production of awards 
(plaques cost $15-20 each): however, some costs may be reduced or avoided. For 
example, certificates can be prepared with a personal computer and laser printer 
or by a volunteer member with graphics-design skills.

EFFECTIVENESS Formal recognition is a effective, low-cost management practice 
that maintains the interest, morale, and level of participation of volunteer 
members and thereby contributes to lower and less frequent turnover of members.

58 

METHOD FREE INSURANCE 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION The EMS organization pays the premiums for health, disability, 
workmen's compensation, and/ or life insurance to cover its volunteer members.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The provision of insurance requires approval by the 
governing body for the EMS organization and an appropriation by the applicable 
fiscal body. The types and coverage of and carrier for the insurance to be 
provided must be selected. Premiums must be paid regularly according to the 
amounts and schedule prescribed by the carrier. Any state requirements must be 
observed.

STRENGTHS Free insurance coverage demonstrates that the EMS organization cares 
for the health and welfare of its volunteer members. Organization-pald insurance 
either eliminates the need for members to assume the cost for insurance or 
allows them to supplement their existing coverage.

DRAWBACKS Cost. 

COST Insurance plans can be expensive depending on the number of volunteers to 
be insured and the types of insurance to be provided, although a larger 
organization may realize lower rates because of the greater pool of individuals 
to be insured.

EFFECTIVENESS People respond to financial inducements that remove the need for 
out-of-pocket expenses that would otherwise need to be paid. Free insurance is a 
financial incentive that is less attractive than compensation but obviously more 
appealing than no coverage. Organization-provided insurance coverage contributes 
positively to the overall recruitment and retention effort.

59 

METHOD FREE MEALS DURING LONG-DISTANCE RUNS 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRlPTlON Free meals are provided by an EMS organization for volunteer members 
who make long-distance ambulance runs beyond a minimum distance or running time 
to an emergency-care facility. The meal cost is assumed by the organization by 
reimbursement of the out-of-pocket meal expense by eligible volunteer members or 
by maintenance of an organizational charge account at one or more restaurants 
that may be used by volunteer members.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS A free-meal Incentive requires an appropriation to 
pay for the meals  and a procedure to provide compensation for the meals.

STRENGTHS The free meals show that an EMS organization appreciates its 
volunteers. By taking time to consume a free meal, the volunteers are able to 
rest, relax, and refresh themselves before the return trip. This time out 
enables them to wind down and prepare for a safe return.

DRAWBACKS There is a cost for this retention incentive. 

COST There is a modest cost for this perquisite, which is the product of the 
number of long-distance runs times the number of staff per run times the average 
cost per meal. For example, if an EMS organization makes 200 long-distance runs 
per year, each run Includes a 2-person staff, and the average cost per meal is 
$5, the total annual cost is $2,000.

EFFECTIVENESS A free-meal policy alone is not a significant retention incentive, 
but as part of a package of strategies that demonstrate that an EMS organization 
values its volunteers members it can contribute to a reduced turnover rate.

EXAMPLE The Upper San Juan Hospital District, which has its headquarters in 
Pagosa Springs, Colorado, is a special service district specifically organized 
to deliver ambulance service for a rugged, rural, 1,800-square-mile area in the 
southern part of the state. ALS services are provided by a 33-person staff: 3 
career members and 30 volunteers who are compensated by call ($ 15 for local 
runs, $40 for runs to Durango). The nearest hospital is located in Durango, 
Colorado, 65 miles from the district headquarters. Volunteer members make about 
350 round-trip runs to Durango each year. In addition to their compensation per 
call, volunteers who travel to the Durango hospital are provided a free meal at 
one of the two Durango restaurants where the EMT association representing 
district members has a charge account. The hospital district donates $2,000 
annually to the association, and the association uses the unrestricted donation 
to pay for the meals in Durango. The free meals are a small perquisite that is 
highly valued by the volunteer members, who appreciate the opportunity to eat 
for free and rest before returning from Durango.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Eric Schmidt 
Upper San Juan Hospital District 
P. O. Box 4189 
Pagosa Springs, CO 81157 
(303) 731-5811 

METHOD FREE PERSONAL EQUIPMENT AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION Personal equipment and protective clothing are provided by an EMS 
organization at no cost to its volunteer members, either as standard issue or as 
an earned reward based on performance, to ensure that they have essential 
personal gear for undertaking emergency-care or rescue procedures. The free gear 
may include a fully equipped jump bag (stethoscope, BP cuff, splints, bandages, 
and other medical supplies), a seperate stethoscope and BP cuff, an oxygen 
regulator, a glass punch or seat-belt cutter for vehicle extrication work, or 
protective clothing for rescue work.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The personal gear must be purchased and distributed 
to eligible members. If the EMS organization provides personal gear based on the 
level of participation of volunteers, it must establish the criteria (runs, in-
service hours, points) for receipt of the free gear.

STRENGTHS The provision of free personal gear ensures that recipeints have the 
necessary tools to perform their jobs, demonstrates that recipeints are valued 
members of the organization, and increases the personal confidence and 
satisfaction of reipeints in performing their jobs. Individually issued personal 
gear can be maintained in the member's personal motor vehicle and will be 
available for immediate use.

DRAWBACKS There is a significant cost to providing free gear. If a free-gear 
policy has not been in effect previously, the start-up costs for providing free 
gear to veteran members will require substantial one-time expenditures. COST The 
cost of providinfg free gear is substantial (e. g., $100-$ 200 for a jumpsuit 
and $300-$ 500 for a properly equiped jump bag).

EFFECTIVENESS A free-gear policy demonstrates that volunteer members are valued 
members of the organization and that each member's personal capabilities and 
readiness are important. The policy results in increased pride in and commitment 
to the organization and, as a result, reduced turnover of volunteer personnel.

EXAMPLE The Danville Life Saving Crew Of Danville, Virginia, is an all-
volunteer, nonprofit organization that provides ALS services for Pittsylvania 
County, a largely rural area covering 293 square miles and including a 
population of 83,000, of which 60,000 reside in Danville. The organization Is 
staffed by 130 volunteers: 25 paramedics, 20 cardiac technicians, and 85 EMT-As. 
The vehicle fleet includes 6 ALS units, 2 crash trucks, and 2 quick-response 
vehicles.

The crew provides everything required by a volunteer member at no charge. Crew 
members receive free training, clothing, and two-way portable radios. The 
clothing provided includes three coats (lightweight, heavyweight, and dress), 
shirts, slacks, shoes, and coverall suits. The medical packs stored in the 
personal vehicles of members may be stocked with crew-provided supplies. The 
$200,000 annual budget of the crew is funded entirely through public and 
corporate donations.

61 

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Douglas Young 
Public Information Officer 
Danville Life Saving Crew 
202 Christopher Lane 
Danville, VA 24541 
(804) 792-2739 

62 

METHOD FREE TRAINING 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION The EMS organization provides free onsite training for its 
membership and/ or reimburses its members for participation in off-site 
training. The training programs may be basic, entry-level (BLS), advanced-level 
(ALS), supervisory or leadership, and in-service or continuing-education 
learning opportunities.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS Any in-house training requires the planning and 
coordination of an annual Instructional program: arrangement and scheduling of 
appropriate facilities: identification, scheduling, and payment of qualified 
instructional staff: development or procurement of instructor's materials and 
audiovisuals: identification and procurement of appropriate student materials 
and expendables: development and Implementation of course evaluation procedures: 
purchase/ development and maintenance of testing materials and records: and 
development and maintenance of attendance records. Many organizations maintain 
an in-house library of audiovisual materials and reference texts. Reimbursement 
for offsite training must be authorized by the governing body of the 
organization, reimbursable expenses (e. g., lodging, food, travel, and 
registration fee) must be specified, and appropriate funding for reimbursement 
of allowable expenses must be provided.

STRENGTHS Free training benefits both the participating members and the EMS 
organization. Free educational opportunities, especially training that is 
required for membership with the organization or for state certification, are a 
strong inducement to attract potential volunteers who otherwise would be 
required to assume the significant cost of mandatory training. Free training at 
any level increases knowledge and skill levels, improves the capability of the 
participating members and the organization to provide competent services, 
increases the confidence of the participating members in performing their 
duties, reduces the risk of liability of the participating members and 
organization for any unintended outcomes in providing emergency care, and 
facilitates education-based advancement within the organization.

DRAWBACKS Training is expensive, especially offsite training programs, and 
requires a substantial commitment of time and energy by participating members. 
Significant training requirements, even if met by in-house training programs, 
may operate as a disincentive to recruitment and an obstacle to continued 
retention, especially if the combined training and regular work load are 
perceived as being too burdensome.

COST There are significant costs in providing or reimbursing members for 
participation In training programs. Reimbursable offsite training is more 
expensive than organization-provided training as the full tuition and other 
participation costs must be paid. Organization-provided, in-house training Is 
much less expensive: the major costs are for any outside instructors ($ lO-$ 25 
per hour) required, student materials, and consumables. Payment for offsite 
training may be prohibitive for many departments.

63 

EFFECTIVENESS 

Free training is considered to be a very effective recruitment tool by removing 
the need for assumption of significant out-of-pocket expenses for required 
training by prospective volunteers. Since many members are reluctant to expend 
their own monies for advanced or leadership training but are willing to devote 
their personal time to participate in training, free training eliminates a 
serious impediment to participation by existing members. Free continuing and 
advanced training encourages existing members to remain and progress within the 
organization.

EXAMPLE Fire Company No. 1 of the Hanover Fire Department in Hanover, 
Pennsylvania, offers BLS service for a municipality of 14,300 and part of an 
adjoining township. ALS support is provided by a local hospital. The fire 
company is a combined career-volunteer operation with two full-time career staff 
and 30 volunteers. The career personnel staff a single ambulance during 
weekdays, while the volunteers provide weekday backup and primary coverage at 
other times.

Each volunteer member of the fire department is allocated $750 per year to be 
expended for any kind of fire-or EMS-related training or education, as well as 
for protective clothing and necessary equipment. The allowable training expenses 
include tuition or registration fees and a per diem of $75 per day for meals and 
lodging: travel costs are not reimbursable. Application for training funds must 
be made to and approved by the fire commissioner and ambulance captain and be in 
accordance with guidelines of the state and the firemen's relief association of 
the fire department. At least 10 volunteer members use their allowance for 
additional training each year.

The source of the funding for the annual allowances is the state-required 2% 
assessment on the value of fire insurance policies issued in Pennsylvania by 
out-of-state Insurance companies. The 2% assessment is distributed to and 
administered by the firemen's relief association of each local fire department 
according to a formula based on property values and population. The funds may be 
used for training, purchase of protective clothing and equipment, and death-
benefit and retirement plans for volunteers. The Hanover Fire Department 
receives $40,000 per year in 2% funds for its three fire companies.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
James Roth Fire Commissioner 
Hanover Fire Department 
44 Frederick Street 
Hanover, PA 17331 
(717) 637-3877 

METHOD INFORMAL RECOGNITION SYSTEM 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION An informal system for the recognition of the important 
contributions made by volunteer members of an EMS organization is as essential 
as a system of formal awards to acknowledge member achievements. Informal 
recognition is accomplishaed in numerous, personal ways by organization 
managers: saying "thank you" to members for specific activities, involving 
members in the decision making process of the organization, inquiring about the 
welfare of the member's family, treating volunteers as equal members of the 
organization with paid staff, sending notes of appreciation to the member's 
family, remembering the member's birthday, and celebrating the member's 
anniversary date with the organization. Informal recognition is accomplished in 
any way that communicates to the member and the member's family that they are 
valued as individuals and as key members of the organization family.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The only requirement is continous concern, 
attentiveness, and thoughtfulness by EMS managers in recognizing the role and 
contributions made by each individual member and the member's family.

STRENGTHS Informal recognition reinforces in a personal way that individual 
volunteers and their families are important, valued members of the EMS 
organization and Increases the likelihood that members will wish to continue to 
serve a friendly, caring organization.

DRAWBACKS None. 

Cost None. 

EFFECTIVENESS The intangible effects of personal concern and attention to 
individual members and their families cannot be weighed but should not be 
underestimated. Most individuals desire to be acknowledged for their efforts and 
to participate in a caring, friendly, and supportive organization. Informal 
recognition contributes in an immeasurable way to the continued participation of 
volunteer members of an EMS organization.

65 

METHOD LENGTH OF SERVICE AWARDS PROGRAM (LOSAP) 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION A Length of Service Awards Program (LOSAP) is a deferred-
compensation or "pension" program for volunteer members of an EMS organization. 
Monthly benefits are paid to members who qualify after a minimum number of years 
(typically 5 to 10 years) of active service (i. e., the member becomes 
"vested"). Benefits are usually based on a fixed monthly dollar amount per year 
of active service and may be paid when the member retires from the organization 
at a prescribed retirement age. Benefits to vested members typically may be 
drawn down at different retirement ages, usually not less than 55, but may be 
paid at reduced levels at the earlier retirement ages. Benefits are paid 
automatically to vested members when the members reach any agency-imposed 
mandatory retirement age. LOSAPs are funded by contributions by the organization 
or local appropriating body to a self-administered local LOSAP plan or a state 
or private plan.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUlREMENTS A feasibility study of the anticipated cost of 
contribution/ compensation alternatives at different retirement ages for a LOSAP 
must be conducted. A determination must be made as to whether to have a self-
administered plan or buy into a state or private plan. The minimum period for 
vesting, the age( s) of optional or mandatory retirement, the monthly payments 
(including any payments based on years of service), the basis for earning years 
of service, and the desirability, amount, and duration of survivor's benefits 
must be determined. Contributions must be made to the LOSAP plan administrator 
in the amount and according to the schedule prescribed for the plan. Appropriate 
monthly payments must be made to vested retired members or their survivors. The 
timely submission of paperwork is vital to ensure benefits are not jeopardized 
and are paid in a timely manner.

STRENGTHS LOSAPs are a strong inducement for volunteers who are older (35 years 
of age) to enlist with the organization or who have served for some time (8 to 
10 years) to remain with the organization in order to qualify for the LOSAP 
benefits.

DRAWBACKS LOSAPS require a significant outlay, regardless of the type of plan 
involved, and may be prohibitively expensive. Self-administered plans require 
time and expense to administer and involve financial risk in planning 
investments. LOSAPs do not appear to be very effective in recruitment or 
retention with younger, shorter-term members.

COST LOSAPs are very costly ($ 150 to $200 per month payout premium). Total cost 
is dependent on the size of the pool of LOSAP participants and the target 
monthly payout.

EFFECTIVENESS LOSAPs contribute positively to the recruitment and retention of 
older 
individuals, but are less effective with younger individuals. 

EXAMPLE Emergency medical services in Montgomery County, Maryland, a highly 
populated area northwest of Washington, DC, are provided by the 1,700 career and 
volunteer members of the 17 independent fire departments and 2 independent 
rescue squads operating in the county. The Montgomery County Fire and Rescue 
Commission develops and implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, 
rescue, and emergency medical services provided within the county. The 
Department of Fire and Rescue Services, a division of county government, 
supports the commission and the fire and rescue corporations and is the employer 
of all paid fire, rescue, and EMS personnel in the county,

Montgomery County provides a LOSAP for volunteer fire, rescue, and EMS personnel 
that is funded through annuities and general-budget appropriations. Volunteers 
are entitled to retirement compensation as follows: (1) 25 years of credited 
service, eligible for retirement at age 60 with $200 per month for life plus $10 
per month for each additional year of credited service over 25 years: (2) 15 
years of credited service, eligible for retirement at age 65 with $10 per month 
for each year of credited service: and (3) 10 years of credited service, 
eligible for retirement at age 70 with $10 per month for each year of credited 
service. Spouses of deceased members vested under LOSAP are entitled to one-half 
of the members' retirement entitlement as a survivor's benefit. Years of service 
are credited on the basis of a point system. The accumulation of 50 points 
within a year entitles the member to one year of credited service. Points are 
earned according to a schedule of pointable activities such as participation in 
drills, training, standbys, sleep-ins, and emergency responses.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Donald D. Flinn 
Volunteer Coordinator Montgomery County Department of Fire and Rescue Services 
101 Monroe Street 
Rockville, MD 20850 
(301) 217-2484 

67 

METHOD MENTORING 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION Mentoring is the process by which new members of an EMS organization 
receive the support and guidence of an experienced, veteran member during the 
first 6 months to 2 years of the new member's participation with the 
organization. The mentors serve as a volunteer "big brother/ sister" or "buddy" 
to new members during the time, typically a formal probation period, when they 
face the greatest uncertainties, stresses, and self-doubts relating to their 
participation as a volunteer.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS A mentoring program requires the internal 
recruitment of a cadre of volunteer mentors with the experience, interpersonal 
skills, and interest to assume the additional responsibility of adviser to one 
or more new members of the organization. A mentor coordinator to administer the 
mentoring program needs to be appointed. The mentor coordinator is responsible 
for the recruitment of new mentors and the matching of mentors with new members 
according to mentor-member similarities, member needs, and mentor strengths. 
Guidelines must prepared to define the role of the mentors and the advisory 
services each mentor is expected to provide. A brief training program for new 
mentors should eloped for presentation by the mentor coordinator or a veteran 
mentor.

STRENGTHS Mentoring exploits an existing resource (i. e., veteran volunteer 
members) to increase the volunteer retention rate. Veterans who have experienced 
the same uncertainties, stresses, and self-doubts are well suited to assist new 
members In avoiding and overcoming the common problems that all new members 
face. Careful matching of mentors with new members increases the likelihood that 
their relationship will be successful and that their will be few early dropouts.

DRAWBACKS There may be an insufficient number of qualified existing personnel 
who are willing to assume the additional responsibility as a volunteer mentor.

COST There is little additional cost since mentoring involves the use of 
existing members who provide extra service as volunteer mentors.

EFFECTIVENESS Mentoring is a low-cost, effective retention tool that decreases 
the number of volunteers who resign from the organization during the time when 
the risk of dropping out is the greatest (i. e., from Initial enlistment through 
the first year).

EXAMPLE Emergency medical services In Montomery County, Maryland, a highly 
populated area northwest of Washington DC, are provided by the 1,700 career and 
volunteer members of the 17 independent fire department and 2 Independent rescue 
squads operating in the county. The Montgomery County Fire and Rescue Commission 
develops and implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, rescue, and 
emergency medical services provided within the county.

EXAMPLE (continued) Each new volunteer or paid member of a fire or rescue 
company or the Department of Fire and Rescue Services is assigned a veteran 
member to serve as a mentor during the first two years of the new member's 
service. In addition, members undergoing ALS training are assigned an ALS-
trained preceptor for the duration of the training period. A 2-hour mentor 
orientation is provided for new mentors; new preceptors receive longer, more 
formal training. Mentors receive a distinctive "mentor" badge and each month are 
assigned one to two new members to advise. Mentors are matched with new members 
according to their similarities, such as sex, personality, and likes/ dislikes. 
A checklist is provided as a guide for mentors to follow during the initial 
orientation for the new members with whom they have been matched. Each mentor 
and assigned new member determine the kind of relationship they will have, 
including the nature and frequency of their contacts. The mentoring program has 
reduced turnover by increasing the number of recruits who become full members by 
fulfilling the training requirements and satisfactorily completing the one-year 
probationary period.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Donald D. Flinn 
Volunteer Coordinator 
Montgomery County Department of Fire and Rescue Services 
101 Monroe Street 
Rockville, MD 20850 
(301) 217-2484 

69 

METHOD MOVIE THEATRE ADVERTISEMENT 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION A promotional slide or movie clip encouraging volunteer 
participation in the local EMS organization is run before each showing of a 
feature movie in local theaters.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The managers or advertising representatives for 
independent or chain movie theaters in the EMS service are are contacted 
concerning the showing of the promotional ad before each movie on each screen in 
the affected theaters. A movie clip or slide may need to be produced by the EMS 
organization for each screen on which the ad is to be displayed. A charge for 
the showing of the ad will need to be paid if the theater does not display 
public-service announcements for free.

STRENGTHS The movie-theater advertising is an inexpensive way to reach a captive 
audience of potential volunteers and, at the very least, to publicize the 
service within the community. In addition, the audience reached by the ad is one 
that apparently has uncommitted evening or week-end time available for 
recreation and perhaps for volunteer activities.

DRAWBACKS Some theaters may not accept public-service or commercial 
advertisements. EMS candidates who express an interest in volunteering as a 
result of the ad will need to be screened carefully to identify the few who meet 
the qualifications for acceptance, including time demands and probable longevity 
of service.

COST There may be a cost for the production of a slide or film clip if the EMS 
organization cannot obtain the service for free by a local advertising agency or 
a volunteer proficient in desktop publishing with a personal computer. Theaters 
that charge for the showing of the ad may handle the production of a slide upon 
the submission of rough copy and any photographs to be included.

EFFECTIVENESS The movie-theater ad approach can contribute as a sufficient low-
cost or even no-cost component of an overall volunteer recruitment program. The 
ad alone, however, could never attract a sufficient number of volunteers to meet 
the staffing needs of an EMS organization. The ad also serves a public-relations 
function by reminding the community of the important service provided by the 
volunteer organization.

EXAMPLE The Bethesda-Chevy Chase Rescue Squad of Bethesda, Maryland, is a 
combined volunteer-paid organization with 140 uncompensated volunteers and 8 
paid staff that provide ambulance and rescue services to Bethesda, Chevy Chase, 
and upper northwest Washington, DC. The rescue squad recruits volunteers by 
means of newspaper and theater ads, billboards, brochures distributed at fairs, 
stores, and libraries, and contacts during the annual fundraising drive.

70 

EXAMPLE [continued) The movie-theater advertisements are promotional slides 
shown in the 10 theaters of a cinema chain located in the rescue squad's service 
area. The rescue squad arranged for the placement of the ads by contacting the 
account manager for the cinema chain. For approximately $250 per week, the slide 
is shown for several seconds, along with other commercial ads, before each 
feature film at each of the theaters. The ad is displayed about 210 times each 
week (3 showings of each movie x 10 theaters x 7 days) for a cost of about $1.20 
per display. The slide was produced by the cinema chain for free upon submission 
of rough copy and a photograph by the rescue squad. The rescue squad estimates 
that 5% to 10% of the volunteers accepted by the squad had applied for 
membership after viewing the ad: the total number of theater goers who contacted 
the squad as a result of the ad is not known.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Lewis German, Assistant Chief 
Bethesda-Chevy Chase Rescue Squad 
5020 Battery Lane 
Bethesda, MD 20814 
(301) 652-0077 

71 

METHOD MULTILINGUAL RECRUITMENT 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION Mulitlingual recruitment is employed in areas where English is not 
the primary languarge of a significant portion of the population. Recruitment 
materials and presentations are provided in both English and a non-English 
language, which usually is Spanish, of a significant segment of the public in 
order to create a volunteer and career workforce that is representative of the 
community as a whole.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS Multilingualism in recruitment requires the 
replicant of recruitment materials and media in the non-English languages anf 
the selection and assignment of volunteer and/ or paid personnel proficient in 
the non-English languages to serve as recruiters.

STRENGTHS Multilingual recruitment promotes a diverse volunteer membership 
representative of the community. The use of non-English recruitment materials, 
media, and personnel, coupled with the targeting of the non-English recruitment 
effort to areas where English is not the primary language, will increase the 
number of volunteer members of the EMS organization and will contribute to the 
development of a diverse volunteer membership.

DRAWBACKS Multilingual recruitment may increase recruitment costs. 

COST Multilingual recruitmentmay increase recruitment costs; however, the costs 
of replicating recruitment materials and media in a second language may well be 
offset to an extent by a decreased need to produce as many English-language 
recruitment materials and media.

EFFECTIVENESS Multilingual recruitment is targeted recruitment and such as is 
effective in increasing the involvement of the targeted audience, which in this 
case is the non-English-speaking population that the EMS organization serves and 
from which it recruits new members.

EXAMPLE Volusia County Fire Services, which is headquarters in DeLand, Florida, 
provides fire, rescue, and nontransport BLS and ALS services for a population of 
168,000 residing in the 1,200-square mile unincorporated area of Volusia County. 
The department is staffed 76 career and 620 volunteer personnel, including 22 
career and 6 volunteer paramedics. Twenty-two rescue vehicles, including 4 ALS 
rescue trucks, operate out of 20 stations. The department serves a multiethnic 
region with a significant Hispanic population. As a result, firefigthers are 
required to learn Spanish, and recruitment is conducted in both English and 
Spanish.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Frank Pocica, Quad Chief. 
Volusia County Fire Services 
123 W. Indiana Avenue 
DeLand, FL 32720-4619 
(904) 736-5941 

72 

METHOD NEW, WELL-MAINTAINED VEHICLES 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION The EMS organization periodically purchases new ambulances and other 
vehicles and ensures that they are well maintained and clean. 

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The acquisition of new vehicles requires approval of 
the governing body of the organization and an appropriation. Design 
specifications must be prepared and standard equipment-acquisition procedures 
implemented. A preventive-maintenance schedule for all vehicles must be 
established and observed. All vehicles must be washed and waxed as needed to 
ensure they are always clean and presentable.

STRENGTHS The general public and potential recruits are attached to new, shiny, 
clean equipment. The vehicles therefore serve as a magnet for inducing 
prospective volunteers to approach the EMS organization and its personnel and to 
inquire about membership in an organization that provides attractive, well-
maintained vehicles for its membership. The availability and use of such 
vehicles creates pride, confidence, and enthusiasim among the existing 
membership.

DRAWBACKS Thereis a significant cost in purchasing and replacing organization 
vehicles. The high cost of vehicle acquisition may limit the ability of some 
organizations to replace or add vehicles as frequently as desired.

COST Ambulances and other EMS-related vehicles are expensive; however, since 
ambulances are required In any event, there are no new initial costs in 
implementing this strategy. The frequency of replacement of existing vehicles 
will be the critical factor in determining the ultimate long-term costs for 
vehicle acquisition and whether the organization can maintain a fleet that is as 
new as preferred. Any costs for vehicle maintanece and cleansing should already 
be provided for in the organization's existing budget.

EFFECTIVENESS Clean, well-maintained, relatively new vehicles have a positive 
magnetic effect on both present and prospective volunteer members of the EMS 
organization. The quality and condition of the organization's vehicle fleet 
contribute in an unquantified way to the overall effectiveness of its 
recruitment and retention program. 

EXAMPLE The Manchester Volunteer Recue Squad of Chesterfield, Virginia, near 
Richmond, is an all-volunteer, independent nonprofit organization that provides 
BLS and ALS services for a population of 115,000. The rescue squad is staffed by 
80 senior members (including 34 EMT-As, 16 cardiac technicians, and 3 
paramedics), 13 junior members (ages 16 to 21), and 33 auxiliary members. An 
average of 9 to 10 emergency runs are made by the squad each day.

The rescue squad has six ambulances: five ALS vehicles, one BLS vehicle, and one 
ALS quick-response vehicle. All vehicles are either rechassied or replaced every 
five years. A new ambulance has been purchased

EXAMPLE (continued) 



each year for the past four years. Each vehicle is evaluated periodically by the 
squad's new vehicle committee, which determines which vehicle 
should be refurbished or replaced each year. An allocation of $75,000 out of a 
total squad budget of $210,000 is earmarked for the vehicle 
improvement program. The squad is supported by public donations 
received during semiannual fundraising, license tag monies, and 
auxiliary contributions. By having the highest-quality, best-looking 
vehicles, the rescue squad believes that the public is impressed and is 
more willing to contribute to the organization: potential recruits are 
attracted to the squad: and existing members are motivated to 
maintain the vehicles. 

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Kathy Langley Training Officer 
Manchester Volunteer Rescue Squad 
P. O. Box 198 
Chesterfield, VA 23832 
(804) 276-4349 

METHOD OPEN HOUSE 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION An open house is a public enevt conducted by an EMS organization at 
its facilities to provide community education that promotes the public health 
and safety (e. g., injury or fire prevention or use of 9-1-1), to inform the 
public as to the nature and value of the services provided by the organization, 
and to attract and recruit potential volunteer members for the organization. The 
open house typically consists of activities that have public appeal 
(demonstration of EMS and rescue techniques and equipment and inspection of the 
organization's facilities and its ambulance, rescue, and fire vehicles) coupled 
with educational displays, videotapes, and free items for distribution (e. g., 
posters, brochures, smoke detectors). Attendance at the event by individuals 
interested in EMS affords an apportunity for recruitment of new volunteers. 
Recruitment may be accomplished by setting up a designated recruitment table or 
booth staffed by organizational personnel, making recruitment materials 
(brochures, sign-up forms) available, and continuous showing of promotional 
videotape

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The recruitment component of an open house requires 
modest preparation. A readily identified recruitment table must be provided; 
knowlegeable, verbal, and presentable staff must be scheduled to staff the 
table; and print materials (brochures and sign-up forms) must be made available. 
If videotapes are used, arrangements must be made for a TV an VCR.

STRENGTHS The open house enables the EMS organization to realize multiple 
objectives, such as community education, public relations, and volunteer 
recruitment, for a single outlay of time and money. Recruitment can be conducted 
with success on the organization's premises with a receptive population that has 
demonstrated its interest in the organization's activities by virtue of 
attendance at the open-house event.

DRAWBACKS The open house is not a selective recruitment method and may therefore 
attract individuals who are not well suited to be EMS volunteers.

COST There is little or no additional cost if recruitment is piggybacked on an 
open house whose primary, publicized purpose is other than recruitment (e. g., 
promotion of fire or injury prevention or demonstration of a new ambulance or 
rescue vehicle).

EFFECTIVENESS The open-house method is a shotgun approach intended to attract as 
many people tp the station as possible. A significant number of volunteers can 
be recruited from the large pool of attendees. 

EXAMPLE The Radnor Volunteer Fire Company of Wayne, Pennsylvania, is a private, 
nonprofit corporation that provides fire and BLS services for a community of 
32,000 located outside Philadelphia. The BLS services are delivered by a 45-
person EMT staff (4 paid and 41 compensated per call), of which 25 perform 
ambulance duty only and 20 are firefighters who also run ambulances.

EXAMPLE (continued) During the annual fire prevention week in October, the 
company conducts an open house at its station to promote fire prevention and 
also to recruit new volunteers. During the two weeks before fire prevention 
week, the company publicizes the open house by announcements in the local 
newspaper, by PSAs on local radio, TV, and cable stations, and by brochures 
distributed during educational visits to all schools in the community. School 
children are urged to attend and bring their parents. At the open house, 
attendees can inspect vehicles, observe demonstrations, and receive fire-
prevention information. A recruit table staffed by members who will present the 
best image of the company is set up at the open house to obtain the names of 
attendees who may be interested in participating as volunteers. Leads obtained 
during the open house and other fire-prevention week activities are followed up 
by the company's review committee. Approximately 2,500 attended the most recent 
open house, and 7 volunteers were recruited during this activity.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
George J. Fielden, Assistant Chief 
Radnor Volunteer Fire Company 
121 S. Wayne Avenue 
Wayne, PA 19087 
(610) 687-3245 

76 

METHOD OUT-OF-TOWN CONFERENCES 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION The EMS organization pays the cost for the attendance of its members 
at state and national EMS and fire/ rescue conferences. The expenses incident to 
each conference (registration fee, per diem, travel, lodging) are assumed by the 
agency for each approved attending member.

The agency offers the opportunity to members who meet its eligibility criteria 
concerning (1) the member's status within the agency (e. g., a minimum of one 
year of service or regular, nonprobationary membership), (2) the maximum number 
of paid conferences per member per year (e. g., one paid conference per year), 
and (3) the priority for approval of attendance if there are more applicants 
than paid slots available (e. g., preference is given to members whose previous 
paid attendance at a conference is not the most recent). The organization may 
require the conference participants to attend all sessions and to provide a 
written or oral report concerning the conference.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The practice of paying for attendance in out-of-town 
conferences requires the approval of the governing body of the EMS organization 
and appropriate funding. Criteria for approval of attendance and receipt of 
reimbursement for eligible expenses must be specified and applied.

STRENGTHS Agency-paid conference participation improves both the attending 
members and the EMS organization. Participants obtain new job-related 
information and learn new relevant skills and techniques; they also have an 
opportunity to network with their peers and gain insights and ideas from this 
interaction. The organization also benefits: the attending members will become 
more motivated and knowledgeable, the information gained by the attendees can be 
passed along to nonattending members, and the overall morale of the agency will 
be improved.

DRAWBACKS The major drawbacks are the cost involved and the loss of the member's 
time and services for regular duty while attending a conference.

COST The cost of organization-funded participation in conferences varies 
according to the location and duration of each conference. The estimated per-
member cost for attendance at a 3-day event is $250-$ 500 (lodging, per-diem, 
and registration fee) plus travel expenses. The estimated per-member cost for 
each conference will, of course, affect the number of conference-trips the 
organization can subsidize each year.

EFFECTIVENESS The provision of agency-funded participation in out-of-town 
conferences generally is a positive tool that contributes to continued 
retention. For most members, attendance at conferences increases their 
motivation and commitment to the organization. Some members, however, may have 
no interest in conferences or even resist attending them if the opportunity is 
offered.

EXAMPLE The Danville Life Saving Crew of Danville, Virginia, is an all-
volunteer, nonprofit organization that provides ALS services for Pittsylvania 
County, a largely rural area covering 293 square miles and including a 
population of 83,000, of which 60,000 reside in Danville. The organization is 
staffed by 130 volunteers: 25 paramedics, 20 cardiac technicians, and 85 EMT-As. 
The vehicle fleet includes 6 ALS units, 2 crash trucks, and 2 quick-response 
vehicles.

The organization provides everything required by a volunteer member at no 
charge. Crew members receive free training, clothing, and two-way portable 
radios. Attendance at conferences is paid for: each member is automatically 
authorized to attend three state conferences each year. All expenses for 
participation in specialized, offsite training, symposia, or conferences will be 
paid for if justified and funds are available. The $200,000 annual budget of the 
crew is funded entirely
through public and corporate donations. 

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Douglas Young 
Public Information Officer 
Danville Life Saving Crew 
202 Christopher Lane 
Danville, VA 24541 
(804) 792-2739 

METHOD PARTICIPATION-BASED COMPENSATION 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION A participation-based financial reward program provides a variable 
economic incentive to attract, encourage the active Involvement of, and retain 
volunteers for an EMS organization. Compensation is earned according to the 
level of participation in eligible activities, such as emergency-response runs, 
in-service training, off-site education, time spent in service or on stand-by, 
and designated nonemergency functions of the organization. The financial reward 
program has a schedule of eligible activities by which a fixed amount of 
compensation or fixed number of incentive points is earned. If compensation per 
run or call is provided, the financial reward earned may be a uniform amount per 
call for all members or a variable amount per call based on the employment 
status of the member (e. g., rank, time in service, pay grade). The compensation 
scheme also may provide for reimbursement of some or all of the out-of-pocket 
expenses of participation in off-site education programs. Incentive-point 
systems typically provide compensation according to a fixed value per point or 
provide for the distribution of a fixed amount of total compensation to be paid 
to all members according to each member's percentage of the total incentive 
points earned by the entire membership. Earned compensation is paid on a 
monthly, quarterly, or annual basis, depending on the type of financial reward 
program adopted.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The method requires the authorization of the 
compensation scheme by the governing body of the organization and an annual 
appropriation: development of regulations governing the scheme, including a 
schedule of compensable activities and, if compensation is to be awarded on a 
per-activity or per-point basis, the values assigned to each activity; 
documentation of the compensation or incentive points earned by the volunteers: 
and a record keeping system for documenting the participation and earned 
compensation for each volunteer and the payment of the earned compensation.

STRENGTHS This program provides attractive incentives for the enlistment and 
participation of volunteers. The variable financial reward program is open to 
all volunteer members and provides compensation in a fair and equitable manner, 
i. e., according to each volunteer's contribution to the organization.

DRAWBACKS The cost of the program may be prohibitive. If volunteers are paid on 
a hourly basis, the federal Fair Labor Standards Act requires minimum 
compensation of $4.50 per hour. If an organization has combined career-volunteer 
staffing, the career members may resent the payments to "volunteers." Animosity 
may develop between members with little free time (e. g., members with families) 
and those able to devote considerable time to volunteer work (e. g., unmarried 
members). It is difficult to discontinue a financial rewards system once started 
because many members will have joined in reliance on the promise to provide 
compensation. The provision of compensation gives the appearance that the 
organization is not a volunteer operation and may make it more

DRAWBACKS (continued) difficult to obtain donations and support. This approach 
also may encourage an over response to incidents in order to earn payment or 
incentive points. It may be more difficult to anticipate and budget for the 
total annual cost of the financial rewards because the cost will vary according 
to the number of runs and the members' participation in other compensable 
activities.

COST The cost will depend on the number of volunteers, the dollar value of the 
activities for which compensation can be earned, and the number of compensable 
activities performed. For example, if an EMS organization has 20 volunteer 
members who perform an average of 200 compensable activities per volunteer per 
year with a value of $5 per activity, the annual cost would be $20,000.

EFFECTIVENESS People respond to financial inducements. Participation-based 
compensation schemes are effective in increasing the enlistment of volunteers 
and reducing turnover. They are less expensive than full-time paid staffing but 
more expensive than uncompensated volunteer systems.

EXAMPLE The Kettering Fire Department provides fire, rescue, and paramedic (and 
backup BLS) services for the 61,000 residents of Kettering, Ohio, a suburb of 
Dayton. The fire department is a combined career-volunteer municipal service 
staffed by 50 full-time and 120 volunteer firefighters, including 25 full-time 
paramedics, 10 volunteer paramedics, 25 full-time EMTs, and 37 volunteer EMTs. 
Two paramedic units are manned around-the-clock by the full-time paramedics, 
while two ambulances are available for backup BLS service on an on-call basis by 
the volunteer paramedics and EMTs. The city has a full-time volunteer 
coordinator to recruit, retain, and recognize volunteer firefighters.

The fire department has a volunteer incentive program to provide compensation to 
volunteer firefighters on the basis of incentive points earned. Each incentive 
point has a value of $4. Points may be earned for participation in (1) training, 
(2) emergency responses, (3) company in-service, and (4) management as an 
officer. Volunteers who participate in in-service training earn one incentive 
point per hour for training in excess of 16 hours per quarter, with a maximum of 
40 hours allowed. Volunteers receive a bonus of $350 for EMT-A certification and 
$100 for recertification. Volunteers earn two incentive points for timely, full 
participation in an emergency response, although only 14 total points can be 
awarded for minor, single-engine responses regardless of the number of 
responding volunteer firefighters. All active, certified volunteer firefighters 
share in a company in-service incentive, by which incentive points (maximum of 6 
points per day) are awarded quarterly on the basis of the percentage of time a 
minimum-size volunteer crew for a company Is actually in service. Incentive 
points also are awarded to officers in recognition of their extra efforts. 
Incentive rewards average $500 per quarter for each volunteer firefighter for a 
total annual cost of approximately $240,000.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Joyce Conner 
Volunteer Coordinator 
City of Kettering 
3600 Shroyer Road 
Kettering, OH 45429 
(513) 296-2433 

81 

METHOD PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRIPTION Physical activities for all members of an EMS agency are conducted 
periodically to meet the physical, social, and recreational needs of the 
members, involve their spouses as important members of the agency's "family," 
and promote teamwork and camaraderie among members. Typical physical activities 
include softball, basketball, volleyball, and bowling, Participation in physical 
activities can be formal (e. g., involvement in a community softball league and/ 
or tournament) or informal (e. g., mixed-double bowling competitions among 
members and their spouses).

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS Physical activities must be planned and coordinated. 
A physical activities or fun coordinator or physical activities committee should 
be appointed to schedule and carry out an annual program of physical activities. 
Funding may need to be provided for certain activities (e. g., sports equipment, 
league fees, team t-shirts), although costs can be reduced or avoided through 
business donations and member contributions.

STRENGTHS A well-rounded organization takes care of its members' entire needs, 
including physical exercise and social interaction, and encourages family 
acceptance of the members' participation as volunteers. Recreational activities 
increase the members' ties and commitment to the agency, get the spouses of 
volunteers to "buy in" to the volunteers' active involvement and to participate 
themselves in agency activities, and fosters a spirit of comradeship among 
volunteer members. Members are able to select those activities that will be the 
most fun and the most rewarding.

DRAWBACKS Physical activities require time to plan and implement. Participation 
in recreational activities consume additional amounts of free time of the 
volunteers, although participation is voluntary. Some volunteers may not be 
interested in or receive satisfaction from the physical activities (e. g., 
members whose regular jobs are physically taxing).

COST The cost of recreational functions will vary according to the type of 
activity. Participation in formal activities may require some expense (uniforms, 
league fees, sports equipment): however, costs may be defrayed or avoided 
through contributions from members and through team sponsorship by and donations 
from local merchants. Informal activities may require some expenses (e. g., 
volleyball and net), but many activities require no expenditures by the EMS 
organization (e. g., bowling line charges can be borne by the participants).

EFFECTIVENESS Physical activities are one important factor contributing to 
reduced turnover by satisfying the physical, social, and recreational needs of 
many members, solidifying the commitment of members and their spouses to the 
organization, and promoting camaraderie.

82 

METHOD PIGGYBACKING OF RECRUITMENT ACTIVITIES 

APPLICABILlTY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION Piggybacking involves the inclusion of recruitment in other 
nonrecruitment activities that are provided or paid for by the EMS organization 
and by other organizations. Examples of piggybacking are (1) the insertion of 
recruitment messages In regular mailings or newsletters, such as the mail-out of 
monthly utility bills, (2) the inclusion of recruitment messages in the paid 
commercial advertising on the packaging of products of cooperating businesses 
(e. g., pizza boxes), (3) the addition of a recruitment pitch in presentations 
by EMS organization personnel to community, church, and school groups, and (4) 
the solicitation of volunteers among participants attending first-aid classes 
conducted by the EMS organization and open to the public.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUlREMENTS Opportunities for piggybacking recruitment messages 
first need to be identified (e. g., preexisting mailings that can be used) and 
then followed up on.

STRENGTHS The major value of piggybacking is cost. It is usually free, although 
a modest charge may need to be paid in some cases. 

DRAWBACKS None. 

COST Free or low cost. 

EFFECTlVENESS Piggybacking is efficient: recruiting costs are avoided or 
minimized. Whether piggybacking is effective as a recruitment tool depends on 
the particular event or medium that is piggybacked. 

EXAMPLE The Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department of Latham, New 
York, is a combined volunteer-paid municipal organization that provides ALS and 
rescue services to a 60-square-mile area outside Albany with a population of 
80,000 residents and an additional 120,000 commuters during weekdays. The 
department is staffed by 200 volunteers and an additional 50 paid personnel, who 
provide daytime coverage.

The department uses piggybacked recruitment to reach high-payoff volunteers, i. 
e., individuals who have their roots in the community. As a state-accredited 
training program, the department provides training that is open to the public 
and offers an opportunity for volunteer recruitment: in-station first-aid/ CPR 
training for which a fee is charged and BLS training that is funded by the 
state. First-aid/ CPR training is provided off-site to community associations 
and neighborhood groups. The department also advertises for volunteers at no 
cost in the town newsletter that is mailed periodically to all residents.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Jonathan F. Politis, Director 
Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department 
312 Wolf Road 
Latham, NY 12110 
(5 18) 782-2645 

METHOD PRINT ADVERTISEMENTS 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION Print ads are specially designed, visual advertisements produced for 
display in any print medium that accepts print advertising, such as newspapers, 
magazines, newsletters, and billboards.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The implementation of every print ad requires 
concept development, design and layout of reproducible copy, and printing or 
publication of the ads. The print media in which the ads will be published or 
displayed must be identified and arrangements made for publication or display, 
including the cost, timing, and duration of presentation of the ads. Print 
advertising can be expensive: however, many of the costs can be avoided through 
in-kind contributions. The ad concept and ad design/ layout could be provided at 
no or reduced charge by commercial advertising firms, freelance advertising 
consultants, or graphics designers: the concept, as well as camera-ready copy, 
might be obtained for free from other EMS organizations that have implemented 
successful print advertising campaigns. Printers and publishers can be requested 
to waive or reduce their charges for the publication or display of the ads as a 
public service.

STRENGTHS Print ads can reach a wide audience of potential volunteers. The 
targeting of the ads can be focused (as with company or neighborhood-association 
newsletters) or unfocused (as with newspapers and magazines), depending on the 
recruitment strategy of the EMS organization. Print ads are also a good public-
relations tool to publicize the volunteer-contributed services provided to the 
community

DRAWBACKS The cost of producing and publishing/ printing print ads can be 
expensive unless the costs are waived or reduced. The EMS organization may need 
to allocate additional personnel for answering telephone or mail responses to 
the print ads, for screening the additional anticipated applicants, and for 
training and outfitting.

COST The cost of print ads can be prohibitive for many EMS organizations without 
a significant budget for recruitment. One EMS organization that carried out a 
print-ad recruitment campaign reported a cost of about $150 per person who 
responded to the ad and became a volunteer member.

EFFECTlVENESS Print advertising enables an EMS organization to compete 
aggressively for potential volunteers. Print ads, especially those placed in 
media that enable the organization to target the recruitment message to the 
types of persons the organization hopes to attract, can be very effective.

EXAMPLE Eleven independent, volunteer rescue squads of Virginia Beach, Virginia, 
provide BLS and ALS services without charge for the seaside community of 
400,000. The rescue squads operate under the umbrella of the Virginia Beach 
Department of Emergency Medical Services, a municipal organization that oversees 
the local EMS system and trains

84 

EXAMPLE (continued) volunteers for all squads. Virginia Beach reportedly has the 
largest all-volunteer system in the country with 850 volunteer members. In 1988, 
when faced with a rising call demand and a shortage of volunteers, the Virginia 
Beach Rescue Squad spearheaded a 3-week advertising campaign to recruit 
additional volunteers for all rescue squads. Using advertising concepts 
developed at no cost by a Norfolk marketing firm, the Virginia Beach squad paid 
about $15,000 for the production and publication of print advertisements in a 
local tabloid newspaper, which also ran a cover story on the campaign. The 
campaign resulted in a flood of calls for information about joining the rescue 
squads. As a result of the campaign, about 150 volunteers became members of a 
rescue squad after completing EMT training. The advertising campaign was 
expanded and repeated in 1990 under the sponsorship of all 11 rescue squads. New 
advertising concepts were developed by the marketing firm at no cost. The squads 
paid about $2,000 for the production of newspaper advertisements, $1,500 for the 
printing of table tents with modified ads for distribution to local businesses, 
and $1,000 for the printing of the modified ads on billboard posters. A local 
hospital paid about $10,000 for the publication of the print ads in a local 
newspaper over a 2-week period, and an outdoor advertising company contributed 
space on 8 billboards for display of the recruitment posters for 45 days. The 
newspaper covered the campaign with an inside story. As a result of the 
campaign, about 175 volunteers became members of a rescue squad after completing 
EMT training.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER  INFORMATION 

Rick Schoew 
Volunteer Public Relations Consultant
Virginia Beach Department of Emergency Medical Services c/ o Rick Schoew 
Marketing 8, Advertising 
4020 Silverwood Boulevard 
Chesapeake, VA 23321 
(804) 484-9603 

METHOD RECRUITER INCENTIVES 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRlPTlON A recruiter incentives program provides inducements for 
participation by existing volunteer members in the recruitment of new volunteers 
for the EMS organization. Awards can be given for the most successful 
recruitments in a year and also for each successful recruitment. The awards must 
be sufficiently attractive in terms of their desirability that volunteer members 
will actively engage in soliciting recruits in order to win an award. The award 
for the most recruitments per year should be substantial, such as a cash bonus 
of $500 to $1,000 or an expenses-paid trip for two to a vacation spot. The 
awards for individual recruitments can be more modest, such as $25 to $100 In 
cash or merchandise.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The incentives program must be authorized by the EMS 
organization's governing body, and an appropriation or budget allocation must be 
provided to fund the program. The ground rules for the program must be developed 
and distributed to the membership. The criteria for what constitutes a 
successful recruitment must be stated unambiguously. These criteria typically 
include a requirement that the volunteer recruit serve with the organization for 
a minimum period of time (often one year) and must specify how a successful 
recruitment resulting from a group recruitment activity (e. g., at a shopping 
mall or open house) will be credited. Records must be kept as to the number of 
successful recruitments per member, and arrangements for presenting the 
recruitment awards, perhaps at an annual dinner, must be made.

STRENGTHS The strengths of the approach are its ability to involve existing 
volunteer members as active recruiters, especially members who have effective 
recruitment skills, its provision of payments to recruiters only for successful 
recruitments, and its generally reasonable cost per successful recruitment.

DRAWBACKS The approach may encourage a shotgun approach to recruitment whereby 
members seek to recruit as many volunteer candidates as possible without regard 
to their qualifications. Some agencies may not be able to afford to provide 
sufficiently attractive recruiter incentives. If the only award given is for the 
highest number of successful recruitments, some members who do not have the time 
or ability to compete with the most successful recruiters may choose not to 
participate at all.

COST The approach involves some cost, which is dependent on the value and number 
of the awards presented. An incentive program that includes an award for each 
recruitment as well as an annual top recruiter award will be more expensive than 
a program that rewards only the recruiter of the year. The cost per recruitment 
could range from $25 to $300, while the cost for the top recruiter will be more 
expensive ($ 500 to $1,000).

EFFECTIVENESS The recruiter incentives approach is very effective recruitment 
tool in attracting new volunteers by providing a valuable inducement for 
existing volunteers to serve as recruiters for the EMS organization.

86 

EXAMPLE Emergency medical services in Montgomery County, Maryland, a highly 
populated area northwest of Washington, DC, are provided by the 1,700 career and 
volunteer members of the 17 independent fire departments and 2 independent 
rescue squads operating in the county. The Montgomery County Fire and Rescue 
Commission develops and implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, 
rescue, and emergency medical services provided within the county. The 
Department of Fire and Rescue Services, a division of county government, 
supports the commission and the fire and rescue corporations and is the employer 
of all paid fire, rescue, and EMS personnel in the county. A full-time 
coordinator within the department assists the fire and rescue corporations with 
volunteer recruitment and retention.

The Fire and Rescue Commission established a volunteer recruitment cash award 
program in 1989 to provide financial incentives for existing volunteer members 
of the independent fire and rescue corporations and the Department of Fire and 
Rescue Services to actively participate in the recruitment of new volunteer 
members. A recruiter award of $100 is paid to each volunteer member who 
successfully recruits or participates in the recruitment of new volunteers. The 
recruiter must have actively sought out and encouraged the recruited volunteer 
to apply for membership in one of the fire or rescue corporations. The volunteer 
member who receives the most recruiting awards during a calendar year is the 
"recruiter of the year" and is given a $1,000 cash award with an accompanying 
plaque. A successful recruitment occurs when the recruited volunteer applies for 
and is accepted for membership by a fire or rescue corporation or the Department 
of Fire and Rescue Services, obtains certification as a Firefighter I or EMT-
Ambulance, and has served as a volunteer for 12 months. The cash award 
recruitment program has operated as an effective incentive for volunteer members 
to enlist new volunteers.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Donald D. Flinn 
Volunteer Coordinator 
Montgomery County Department of Fire and Rescue Services 
101 Monroe Street 
Rockville, MD 20850 
(301) 217-2484 

METHOD STIPEND (SERVICE ACCOUNT) FOR VOLUNTEERS WHO MEET MINIMUM WEEKLY 
PARTICIPATION REQUIREMENTS 


APPLICABILITY Both recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION A stipend or service account program provides a fixed sum of money 
that each volunteer member of a local EMS organization is eligible to receive 
each year by being available for calls for a minimum number of hours per week. 
For each month the stipend eligibility requirements are met, the volunteer may 
draw down l/ 12 of the annual stipend for tax-free EMS-related expenses, such as 
uniforms, black shoes, emergency lights, and basic emergency equipment. The EMS-
related expenses of a qualifying volunteer may be paid either by issuance of a 
purchase order to the vendor or by reimbursing the volunteer, upon presentation 
of a receipt, for eligible out-of-pocket expenses. Any balance in the service 
account at the end of the year is paid to the volunteer in a lump sum as taxable 
compensation. 

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The method requires an annual appropriation, 
documentation of the hours of participation by the volunteers, and a financial 
recordkeeping system for documenting the accumulation of the stipend in each 
volunteer's service account and payment of eligible expenditures from each 
account. 

STRENGTHS The stipend is an attractive incentive that gives the volunteer a 
participation goal to work toward In order to receive the financial reward. The 
volunteer need not make any out-of-pocket expenditures by using an organization-
issued purchase order to obtain EMS-related equipment.

DRAWBACKS The cost of the stipend may be prohibitive. 

COST The cost is the amount of the annual stipend times the number of 
qualifying volunteer members plus the cost of administering the stipend 
program. For example, If the annual stipend Is $500 for an organization 
with 40 volunteer members, the annual cost for the stipends is not more 
than $20,000. 

EFFECTIVENESS The method enables the local EMS organization to budget a precise, 
known sum to obtain the required volunteer services, and everyone receives a 
fair amount. The cost of a regular "compensation for call" system varies 
according to the number of calls. This method for compensating volunteers Is 
less expensive than full-time staffing around the clock, but is more expensive 
than an uncompensated volunteer system. There appears to be little turnover of 
volunteers as a result of the use of the stipend method.

EXAMPLE The Milford Ambulance Service of Milford, New Hampshire, is a 44- person 
municipal service that operates a combines paid/ modified compensated-for-call 
system in a community of 15,000. Four paid staff provide daytime coverage during 
the week, while the 40 volunteers provide service on call on nights, weekends, 
and holidays. Call

88 

EXAMPLE (continued) members are not required to stay at the station if they live 
one to two minutes away. The service provides an annual stipend for volunteers 
who meet a minimum on-call participation requirement per week.

The city budgets $20,000 per annum to fund the stipend or service account 
program for the 40 volunteer members of the ambulance service. Each volunteer is 
eligible to receive $500 per year by being available for calls for a minimum of 
18 hours per week. For each month the stipend eligibility requirements are met, 
the volunteer may draw down $41 for tax-free EMS-related expenses. The balance 
of the $500 remaining in the account at the end of the year is paid to the 
volunteer in a lump sum.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATlON 
Ron Footit, Chief 
Milford Ambulance Service 
1 Union Square 
Milford, NH 03055 
(603) 673-1087 

89 

METHOD TARGETED RECRUITMENT 

APPLlCABlLlTY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION Targeted recruitment involves the direction of recruiting activities 
toward those individuals who are most likely to participate in the EMS 
organization as volunteers and to remain with the organization for a significant 
duration. These individuals tend to be residents who have their roots in the 
community: they work in the community, are married and have families, or own 
their own homes. Nonresidents, such as college students and individuals who work 
but do not live locally, generally do not have a sufficient stake in the 
community and are less likely to be long-term volunteers.

Targeted recruitment focuses on identifying and enlisting the local stakeholders 
as volunteers. The recruitment communications channels and messages are designed 
to reach these stakeholders, including, for example, mailings to homeowners, 
door-to-door contacts in residential neighborhoods, attendance at neighborhood 
association meetings, and distribution of brochures at polling places in 
residential areas.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The activities included in a targeted recruitment 
program will vary according to the opportunities available for reaching local 
stakeholders.

STRENGTHS Targeting will result in a greater percentage of high-payoff 
volunteers being attracted to the EMS organization.

DRAWBACKS There are no drawbacks to a targeted recruitment program: however, no 
recruitment program will be 100% successful in attracting high-payoff, long-term 
qualified volunteers.

COST The cost will vary according to the specific recruitment techniques 
employed. Many free or low-cost opportunities are available to recruit the 
targeted population by piggybacking on existing nonrecruitment activities, such 
as inclusion of a recruitment flyer with the mailing of monthly utility bills or 
the solicitation of volunteer participation by individuals who attend first-aid 
or CPR courses open to the public,

EFFECTIVENESS Targeted recruitment will increase the number of qualified, low-
risk applicants who join the service, reduce the number of applicants who do not 
qualify for membership or will drop out after participating for less than a 
year, and reduce the turnover and costs associated with a high turnover rate.

EXAMPLE The Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department of Latham, New 
York, is a combined volunteer-paid municipal organization that provides ALS and 
rescue services to a 60-square-mile area outside Albany with a population of 
80,000 residents and an additional 120,000 commuters during weekdays. The 
department is staffed by 200 volunteers and an additional 50 paid personnel, who 
provide daytime coverage.

90 

EXAMPLE The department looks for high-payoff volunteers-individuals who live in 
(continued) the community and plan to stay, such as residents who have families 
or are homeowners. The department uses two primary targeted recruitment 
techniques: (1) as a state-accredited training program, the department provides 
first-aid/ CPR and BLS training that is open to the public, many of whom 
subsequently become volunteer members: and (2) the department advertises for 
volunteers In the town newsletter that is mailed periodically to all residents. 
The department obtains 30% to 40% of its volunteers at the first-aid/ CPR 
courses and another 30% to 40% from the town newsletter mailings.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
Jonathan F. Politis, Director 
Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department  
312 Wolf Road 
Latham, NY 12110 
(5 18) 782-2645 

METHOD 24-HOUR CENTRAL TELEPHONE ACCESS BY PROSPECTIVE VOLUNTEERS 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRlPTlON Central telephone access involves the assignment of a single 
telephone number to receive inquiries about volunteering as a member of one or 
more EMS organizations within an area. Telephone access is available 24 hours 
per day by continuous monitoring of incoming calls and/ or by use of an 
answering machine or voice mail. The volunteer information line is publicized 
consistently in all media and materials used to communicate with the public or 
to recruit new members.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS A single telephone number must be assigned as the 
access point for receipt of information about volunteer participation. This 
access point may be the telephone number for an existing line for nonemergency 
communications or a new, dedicated line to be used solely for incoming calls 
from prospective volunteers. The use of a dedicated line will more easily permit 
the use of an answering machine to ensure 24-hour coverage, although agencies 
with voice-mail capability may add a "volunteer information" option for calls 
made through a general nonemergency telephone number. To implement central 
telephone access, the EMS organization must determine whether to use an existing 
or a new dedicated line, make arrangements for a new line if necessary, and 
publicize the central-access telephone number in all organization 
communications, especially recruitment materials. If voice mail is not 
available, an answering machine with extensive message memory must be obtained 
and installed. Knowledgeable volunteer staff to respond to incoming calls on a 
real-time or followup basis must be scheduled.

STRENGTHS The use of central telephone access, especially when volunteer 
recruitment is conducted for more than one EMS or fire organization, is an 
efficient and effective way to ensure that prospective recruits are aware of and 
promptly receive information about volunteer service.

DRAWBACKS There are no significant drawbacks: however, once a central number is 
publicized, the administering organization must staff the line and follow up on 
all incoming calls.

C0ST The only significant cost involved is the price of an answering machine ($ 
100 to $200), although the use of a new, dedicated telephone line will result in 
additional monthly user charges.

EFFECTIVENESS A well-publicized central number can facilitate volunteer 
recruitment. 

EXAMPLE Emergency medical services in Montgomery County, Maryland, a highly 
populated area northwest of Washington, DC, are provided by the 1,700 career and 
volunteer members of the 17 independent fire departments and 2 independent 
rescue squads operating in the county. The Montgomery County Fire and Rescue 
Commission develops and implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, 
rescue, and emergency medical services provided within the county. The

EXAMPLE (continued) Department of Fire and Rescue Services, a division of county 
government, supports the commission and the fire and rescue corporations and is 
the employer of all paid fire, rescue, and EMS personnel in the county. A full-
time coordinator within the department assists the fire and rescue corporations 
with volunteer recruitment and retention.

The volunteer coordinator has a dedicated telephone number for 24-hour volunteer 
recruitment and referral information. This number is advertised in all media 
used by the Department of Fire and Rescue Services to recruit new members, 
including cable TV, fixed and mobile bulletin boards, shoppers' guides, flyer 
inserts, paid newspaper advertisements, brochures, and taxi tops. Calls from 
prospective volunteers on the dedicated telephone line are responded to by the 
volunteer coordinator or a member of the recruitment committee. The volunteer 
information line is serviced by an answering machine to record information 
requests when calls cannot be handled immediately. All telephone calls are 
followed up promptly to answer questions and to provide general information 
about the requirements for participation as a volunteer and information about 
enlistment with specific fire/ rescue companies in the county. A confirming 
letter is mailed to the prospective volunteer, and a referral form is sent to 
the specific company affected. Approximately 400 volunteers per year are 
referred to the fire/ rescue companies as a result of inquiries made through the 
dedicated telephone number.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Donald D. Flinn 
Volunteer Coordinator 
Montgomery County Department of Fire and Rescue Services 
101 Monroe Street 
Rockville, MD 20850 
(301) 217-2484 

METHOD VACANCY ANNOUNCEMENTS 

APPLICABILITY Retention 

DESCRlPTlON The EMS organization announces to the entire membership the 
vacancies or openings in each job class, position, or slot as they occur. The 
vacancies are publicized internally via bulletin-board postings, oral 
announcements at roll calls and other organization functions, and mailings to 
the membership, either in a newsletter or separate mailing.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUlREMENTS The EMS organization must be attentive to the need 
to inform the membership in a timely manner of all job vacancies as they arise 
and to use the normal channels for providing important information to the 
membership.

STRENGTHS Timely, widespread announcement of vacancies ensures that all members 
will have an opportunity to apply for and be considered for open slots, 
eliminates the impression of any favoritism in personnel decisions, and 
demonstrates that the organization intends to fill open slots in a fair, 
impartial, and equal manner accessible to all organization members. Open 
competition for vacancies should result in the advancement of the most competent 
applicants.

DRAWBACKS There are no drawbacks to regularly announcing vacancies: however, if 
the vacant slots announced are not filled in a fair and impartial manner, any 
positive effect of open announcements will be negated.

COST The only cost is the time required for the development and dissemination of 
vacancy announcements, except if separate mailings of the vacancies are sent to 
the membership.

EFFECTlVENESS Regular, timely vacancy announcements as a part of the overall 
retention program may have a modest positive impact on members' decisions to 
remain with the organization: however, these announcements alone will not have 
any significant effect. Some members may be encouraged to remain with the 
organization if there is a fair and open opportunity to advance to leadership or 
other desirable positions.

94 

METHOD VOLUNTEER EMT WEEK 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention 

DESCRIPTION Volunteer EMT Week Is a concentrated 7-day campaign to recruit and 
recognize volunteers for one or more EMS organizations, publicize the Important 
role and activities of an EMS organization, and provide community education that 
promotes the public health and safety (e. g., Injury or fire prevention or use 
of 9-1-1). The week's events combine several individual recruitment and 
retention strategies that could be Implemented independently at any other time 
(e. g., open houses, TV PSAs, and print advertisements).

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The specific implementation requirements will vary 
according to the specific activities and events to be Included in the 7-day 
campaign. Careful planning and coordination is required in any event, and a 
Volunteer EMT Week coordinator or coordinating committee must be appointed to 
plan and manage the week's activities.

STRENGTHS The week combines the strengths of multiple strategies into a single, 
focused campaign that ensures there will be greater public visibility and 
awareness of the need for and rewards to be gained by volunteer membership with 
the EMS organization. The organization can be selective in choosing the 
recruitment/ retention strategies to be included in the campaign In accordance 
with its preferences and past experience and success and the available funding 
and personnel. The costs may shared among several EMS organizations operating 
within an area by conducting a joint campaign.

DRAWBACKS The drawbacks of each lndividual recruitment/ retention strategy will 
be present in a combined campaign, and the cost may be prohibitive for some 
agencies with Inadequate funding or personnel to carry out the campaign.

COST The cost will vary according to the type and scope of the recruitment/ 
retention activities planned for the week and the need for a cash outlay in 
order to undertake any of the activities. 

EFFECTIVENESS An approach that combines multiple recruitment/ retention 
strategies Into a single campaign, such as Volunteer EMT Week, will be more 
successful than any single strategy. If the individual strategies used are 
effective, their use in combination also will be effective, perhaps to a greater 
degree than normally would be expected because of a synergistic effect (1 + 1 = 
3).

EXAMPLE The Kettering Fire Department provides fire, rescue, and paramedic (and 
backup BLS) services for the 61,000 residents of Kettering, Ohio, a suburb of 
Dayton. The fire department is a combined career-volunteer municipal service 
staffed by 50 full-time and 120 volunteer firefighters, including 25 full-time 
paramedics, 10 volunteer paramedics, 25 full-time EMTS, and 37 volunteer EMTs. 
Two paramedic units are manned around-the-clock by the full-time paramedics, 
while two ambulances are available for backup BLS service on an on-call basis by 
the

EXAMPLE (continued) volunteer paramedics and EMTs. The city has a full-time 
volunteer coordinator to recruit, retain, and recognize volunteer firefighters.

An annual Volunteer Firefighter Week is scheduled during the summer to recruit 
and recognize volunteers and to obtain city and community support for the fire 
department and its volunteer program. The week's activities are coordinated by 
the city's volunteer coordinator and conducted in cooperation with neighboring 
township fire departments. The city allocated $1,000 for expenditures associated 
with the week as well as the time of the volunteer coordinator. The most recent 
Volunteer Firefighter Week resulted in the enlistment of 5 volunteer recruits.

Volunteer Firefighter Week activities have included (1) a standard slogan or 
theme used in all recruitment materials (" Part-Time Heroes Needed. Full-Time 
Rewards"), (2) open houses held at all fire stations, (3) recruitment flyers 
distributed by a local pizza company with its deliveries, (4) a donated 
billboard with the recruitment message, (5) specially designed placemats used by 
a local restaurant chain, (6) a fire and rescue demonstration at which 
recruitment information is distributed, (7) paid print advertisements, news 
coverage, feature articles, and supporting editorials in area newspapers, (8) 
"thank you" messages to volunteers in the bulletins and on the outdoor signs of 
local churches and on the marquees and in the lobbies of local businesses, (9) 
gift certificates for volunteers donated by local restaurants, (10) recognition 
of the volunteer firefighter of the year by a local service club, (11) a special 
display in the government center, (12) a city proclamation announcing Volunteer 
Firefighter Week, (13) distribution of flyers publicizing the open houses and 
the fire and rescue demonstration, (14) radio and TV public service 
announcements, coverage of events during the week, and interviews with volunteer 
firefighters, and (15) recruitment inserts included with a local newspaper 
distributed in targeted areas of the city.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Joyce Conner 
Volunteer Coordinator 
City of Kettering 
3600 Shroyer Road 
Kettering, OH 45429 
(513) 296-2433 

METHOD WELCOME WAGON 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION The welcome-wagon approach recruits potential volunteers by 
identifying and following up with new residents in a community. Newcomers can be 
identified by periodically monitoring announcements of real-property transfers 
in the local newspaper, securing a list of new subscribers for utility services 
(water, sewage, trash removal) from the appropriate municipal organization, and 
obtaining the names and addresses of new arrivals from a commercial business 
that sells such Information for a fee or from a community welcoming service such 
as welcome wagon.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUlREMENTS Arrangements must be made to obtain the names and 
addresses of newcomers regularly from the chosen source (e. g., newspaper, 
property records office, utilities office, and/ or commercial or welcoming 
service). Mail, telephone, or in-person contacts need to be made by EMS 
organization staff to explain the nature of the service and need for volunteers 
and to request participation by the newcomers.

STRENGTHS The approach is an inexpensive way to reach new arrivals with 
information about the EMS organization and its need for volunteers. 

DRAWBACKS This approach may not result in great numbers of volunteers and may 
involve a cost if lists of new residents must be purchased. 

COST The information can be obtained for free if newcomer names and addresses 
are obtained from public sources: a cost is involved if the information must be 
purchased.

EFFECTIVENESS The welcome-wagon method is a shotgun approach and therefore will 
result In the enlistment of a modest number of volunteers from the large number 
that are contacted. 

EXAMPLE 
The West Manchester Township Fire Department of York, Pennsylvania, provides 
fire, rescue, first-responder, and medical-assistance services for a community 
of 20,000. The 15-person, all-volunteer EMT staff of the fire department, which 
has a total membership of 100 active volunteers, is BLS-trained and works 
closely with the volunteer West York Ambulance Club, which operates from one the 
fire stations.

The department uses a welcome-wagon approach to identify and contact new 
arrivals to the community about participation as volunteer members. It monitors 
the property-transfer section of the local newspaper to identify new homeowners 
and Is advised by the municipal utility of new arrivals who have signed up for 
hook-ups for garbage service. The new residents are then contacted by letter and 
followup telephone call as to the need for volunteer assistance. This approach 
has not attracted a significant number of volunteers, but at the same time has 
not required much effort to implement.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

John J. Bierling, Chief 
West Manchester Township Fire Department 
2501 Catherine Street 
York, PA 17404 
(717) 792-3505 

METHOD YOUTH DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS 

APPLICABILlTY Recruitment 

DESCRIPTION A youth program is an organized project sponsored by an EMS 
organization to provide precareer education and experience for male and female 
youth 14 to 20 years of age (although many programs are restricted to high-
school-age youth). A youth program typically is called a "cadet program" or, if 
it is affiliated with and approved by the Boy Scouts of America, an "Explorer 
program." The participating youth receive training (CPR, first responder, BLS), 
respond with regular members on emergency runs (but are not allowed to enter 
hazardous environments or to provide emergency medical care), and perform 
nontechnical and other approved tasks (such as restocking supplies and 
equipment). Participating youth are assigned a volunteer adviser or mentor to 
provide guidance and support. Youth programs are intended to provide meaningful 
extracurricular activities for area youth and to serve as a source of future 
volunteer members.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The youth program and its budget must be approved by 
the governing body of the organization, a youth coordinator and/ or youth 
committee must be appointed to plan and coordinate the program, a plan must be 
developed to include a schedule of activities for participating youth, 
eligibility requirements for participation must be specified and distributed to 
sources of potential participants (such as high schools), applicants for 
participation must be screened and accepted, performance guidelines for 
participating youth and youth advisers must be developed and distributed, and 
clothing for the participants must be designed, purchased, and distributed.

STRENGTHS The program provides an opportunity for the participating youth to try 
out EMS as a possible career at a age when career choices are being considered 
and enables them to learn first-responder/ BLS and leadership skills. The 
participants contribute to the EMS organization by providing assistance that 
otherwise would have to be performed by volunteer or paid staff. By conducting 
what is a preservice EMS training program, the organization develops a pool of 
trained, experienced EMS personnel, many of whom will be motivated to continue 
after the program to serve as regular volunteer members, and also performs an 
important community service by offering meaningful educational and developmental 
opportunities for area youth.

DRAWBACKS The program may be too expensive for many departments. At a minimum, 
the youth participants must be provided minimum clothing and gear. The program 
must be structured and supervision and direction provided for the participating 
youth, which means that volunteer or paid staff who otherwise would be engaged 
in other important organization activities must be diverted to the youth 
program. Many members may not wish to work as youth advisers or mentors because 
they do not view an advisory role to be meaningful (e. g., it's "babysitting") 
or do not want to work with teenagers. Consequently, the

DRAWBACKS [continued) organization may have difficulty in enlisting a sufficient 
number of members to serve as youth advisers or may experience a high turnover 
rate among youth advisers. A youth program will not be a productive source of 
future recruits in some areas, perhaps rural farming communities, where most 
youth move away after graduation from high school.

COST A youth program can be expensive. There are costs for clothing and training 
youth participants. Members assigned as youth advisers are not available for 
other organizational activities: as a consequence, the organization may need to 
incur additional costs to recruit, train, and equip more volunteers.

EFFECTIVENESS Youth programs are usually a productive source of future recruits, 
especially where youth are likely to remain in the area after high-school 
graduation.

EXAMPLE Volusia County Fire Services, which is headquartered in DeLand, Florida, 
provides fire, rescue, and nontransport BLS and ALS services for a population of 
168,000 residing in the 1,200-square mile unincorporated area of Volusia County. 
The service is staffed by 76 career and 620 volunteer personnel, including 22 
career and 6 volunteer paramedics. Twenty-two rescue vehicles, including 4 ALS 
rescue trucks, operate out of 20 stations.

The service operates a coed Explorer program affiliated with the Boy Scouts of 
America for high-school youth 14 to 18 years of age. The six stations chartered 
by the BSA as Explorer Posts provide an opportunity for the current 48 
participants to investigate and prepare for a fire-service-related career. 
Explorers are supervised by volunteer advisers and learn basic firefighting and 
first-responder skills and often participate in community-related projects, such 
as fire-prevention and recruitment activities. They are not permitted to enter 
burning buildings or administer emergency medical care. It costs the sponsoring 
station approximately $1,800 from its budget to provide uniforms and protective 
gear for each Explorer. Over one-half of the Explorers subsequently remain with 
the service as fire-rescue volunteers.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Karen Munson 
Volusia County Fire Services 
123 W. Indiana Avenue 
DeLand, FL 32720-4619 
(904) 736-5940 

METHOD YOUTH EDUCATION 

APPLICABILITY Recruitment 

DESCRlPTlON Youth programs are organized activities conducted by the EMS 
organization to teach youth of various ages how to recognize, avoid, and manage 
major risks to their health and safety. Educational events can have a single 
focus (e. g., fire safety) or a comprehensive focus covering all major risks. 
They can be targeted at certain age groups, such as preschoolers or 5th graders, 
or at all youth (e. g., children frequenting a mall). They can be provided at a 
station of the EMS organization, a community facility, or wherever young people 
are found: schools, malls, summer camps, day care centers, Boys/ Girls clubs, 
YMCAs/ YWCAs, or fairs. The education can be a brief intervention, as in the 
case of a safety-belt promotion at a local mall, or last for one to three days 
in the case of more comprehensive efforts.

IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS The presentation of a youth education program 
requires careful planning in identifying the risks and target group to be 
addressed and in arranging for the educational event. An educational program 
with appropriate audiovisual and print materials must be developed. A facility 
must be identified and booked. Promotional materials must be produced and 
disseminated. If the event has limited capacity for participation, a 
registration process must be organized and implemented. Materials or items to be 
distributed to participants must be identified, ordered, and purchased, if 
necessary. Organizational staff and outside speakers who will participate must 
be identified and scheduled. Arrangements may need to be made for the appearance 
or use of special vehicles or equipment.

STRENGTHS Youth education can prevent harmful events that affect youth and their 
families and ensure that youth are prepared to respond appropriately when a 
harmful event occurs. Youth programs can serve as a "farm system" for future 
volunteers: many participating youth will be motivated to join an EMS 
organization when they are older. These programs are also good public relations. 
They give public visibility to the organization and its commitment to promote 
the welfare of the community and its children.

DRAWBACKS The only drawback may be the diversion of resources of the EMS 
organization (staff time, vehicles, and some funding) that may be required 
elsewhere for the direct delivery of EMS services.

COST The out-of-pocket expense for youth education is modest. Educational 
materials and media usually can be obtained for free or on loan. The time 
required for participation of volunteer staff is the major "cost."

EFFECTIVENESS Youth education can be an effective longer-term recruitment tool, 
even though recruitment should be thought of as a secondary objective for youth 
programs. Many participating youth will be motivated to see EMS as a desirable 
volunteer or even career opportunity. At the least, the participants in youth 
programs will become community supporters of the EMS organization.

100 

EXAMPLE The Mathews Volunteer Rescue Squad of Mathews, Virginia, is an all-
volunteer, nonprofit independent organization that provides EMS and rescue 
services for a very rural tourist area of 8,000 located on Chesapeake Bay. The 
squad is staffed by 54 volunteers: 4 paramedics, 9 cardiac technicians, 1 shock 
trauma technician, 33 EMTs, and 7 drivers.

The squad operates "Camp Rescue" twice a year for area youth aged 9 to 13. Each 
Camp Rescue program runs for one day (9 a. m. to 4 p. m.) for a maximum of 40 
participants. The agenda for the program includes both lectures and practical 
exercises to teach the participants about the major life-threatening risks they 
or their families may face, such as fire, electrocution, storm and tornado 
threats, heart attacks, motor vehicle and bicycle crashes, poisons, and drugs, 
and the actions that can be taken to avoid or respond to these risks. The 
participants learn about the use of 911, the Heimlich maneuver, opening an 
airway, rescue breathing, fire safety, bleeding control, poison prevention, burn 
management, water safety, tornado safety, drug avoidance, recognition and 
response to heart attacks, electrical safety, street safety, bicycle safety, and 
the use of safety belts. Each participant is provided refreshments and snacks, a 
first-aid kit, and a "Camp Rescue" cap. "Camp Rescue" T-shirts may be purchased 
at cost. Each program costs about $200. Approximately one-third of the 
participants will join the rescue squad when they are older.

CONTACT PERSON FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Judy Ward 
Camp Rescue Coordinator 
Mathews Volunteer Rescue Squad 
P. O. Box 723 
Mathews, VA 23109 
(804) 725-2800 

Annotated Bibliography 

Recent publications and articles concerning motivation, recruitment, retention, 
and volunteerism in EMS organizations are identified and synopsized in this 
unit. For the most recent information concerning these topics, there are two 
excellent sources of bibliographies and photocopies of published materials: the 
Learning Resource Center of the National Emergency Training Center in 
Emmitsburg, Maryland, and the Florida EMS Clearinghouse in Tallahassee, Florida. 
Contact information for these sources is included in the Resources unit. In 
addition, the EMS PIER Manual--Public Information, Education, and Relations in 
Emergency Medical Services (September 1994) listed in this bibliography provides 
further references to publications concerning EMS recruitment and retention,

Motivation 

Brown, Rohn M. "Volunteer Programs That Work." Emergency (June 1993): 42( 2). 

Description of four innovative programs in Virginia to get and keep qualified 
volunteers: flexible scheduling (40-hour crew), public EMT and CPR training and 
active media and public information program, college student volunteers, and day 
care programs.

Buckman, John S. "Motivating Volunteers. " Fire Engineering (September 1993): 
10( 2). 

Brief examination of the motivational theories that influence volunteer 
firefighters as an aid to recruitment, placement, training, supervision, 
evaluation, and recognition of people. Issues include general observations on 
human motivation, motivating achievers, motivating affiliators, and motivating 
power-oriented people.

Colella, Brian. "Volunteer Motivation: Problems and Solutions." Fire Chief 
(October 1992): 39( 5). 

Description of the major motivational difficulties in the volunteer fire service 
(maintenance, training participation, qualified personnel for staff and line 
positions, fire call attendance, and laziness) and possible responses to those 
problems. Emphasis on an award system, group activities, and assignment of 
members to teams for nonfireground activities as motivating forces.

103 

Schaubroeck, John, and Ganster, Daniel C. "Beyond the Call of Duty: A Field 
Study of Extra-role Behavior in Voluntary Organizations." Human Relations 44: 
569( 14). 

Investigation of the factors influencing voluntary organization members' 
engaging in a specific extra-role behavior, i. e., participation in a telethon, 
on behalf of their organizations. 

Vineyard, Sue. Secrets of Motivation--How to Get and Keep Volunteers and Paid 
Staff Downers Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing, 1991.

Explanation of the connection between motivation and volunteering, the reasons 
why people volunteer, motivational theories as to what turns people on and off, 
and ways to keep volunteers and paid staff. "Watch for the Early Signs of 
Burnout. " The Pryor Report 9: 7. Explanation of the need to recognize signs of 
burnout in oneself and in employees and to take steps to promote a balanced 
sense of self throughout the organization. A self-diagnosis for stress is 
included. Suggestions for supervisors: make well-defined job functions, open 
lines of communication, seek staff input, and establish an unbiased review 
system.

Recruitment 

Adams, Rich. "Dealing with Population Growth." Firehouse 18 (June 1993): 14. 

Consideration of recruitment/ retention and public image as demographics change 
from rural to suburban. 

Barsan, William G. "Emergency Medicine." JAMA 265 (June 19, 1991): 3115( 4). 

Report of a study that demonstrates that well-trained paramedics can perform 
multiple advanced trauma life-support procedures with minimum delay and patient 
salvage.

Beck, David M. "Help Wanted (We Will Train)." JEMS 13 (June 1988): 43( 7). 

Description of the evolution of EMS and its prospects in the future. Good 
reference source that presents the demographics of volunteer fire service.

104 

Best, Jonathan. "EMS: A System of Response." Firefighters News 11 (October/ 
November 1993): 26( 2). 

Discussion of whether EMS provided by firefighters or health care professionals 
offers the best care for a community's money. 

Bierwiler, David G. "Recruiting to Reduce Turnover." Fire Command (August 1987): 
42( 4). 

Identification of recruiting techniques from application to selection. Emphasis 
on screening application, physical-agility test, interview, and physical 
examination. 

Burhoe, D. A. P., and Nagele, Richard. "Recruiting in the 80s." Firehouse (April 
1988): 68( 5). 

Discussion of recruitment issues: reasons for joining volunteer fire 
departments, identification of problems, and development of recruitment 
campaigns.

EMS Volunteers for EMS Volunteers. Volunteer Emergency Medical Systems. A 
Management Guide. Blacksburg, Virginia: The Institute for Leadership and 
Volunteer Development, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, no 
date.

Handbook prepared by regional EMS directors in Virginia and Virginia Tech's 
Institute for Leadership and Volunteer Development to provide management 
guidance for EMS squads. Management topics addressed include organizations and 
administration, corporate structure and state licensure, risk management, 
financial management, fundraising, organizing the membership, effective 
leadership, planning and evaluation, public relations, and participation in the 
EMS system and sources of help.

Gilbertson, Michael. "The Volunteer Crisis--Sources and Solutions." JEMS (June 
1988): 6( 2). 

Analysis of the reasons for the staffing crisis volunteer ambulance services are 
facing and recommendation of steps that can be taken to solve the staffing 
problems. Haines, Mike. Volunteers: How to Find Them . . How to Keep Them? 
Publisher and date unknown.

Handbook with ideas, questions, and exercises concerning the planning of a 
recruitment program, including preparation for recruitment, the procedures to be 
used once people begin to volunteer, and the methods of recruitment to be used.

105 

Holden, Roger, and Miller, Laurie. "Selecting Officers for Trauma Teams, " 
Corrections Today 55 (August 1993): 190. 

Role of CISDs in reducing the stressful effects of traumatic events. Hudgins, 
Edward. "Volunteer Incentives: Solving Recruitment and Attrition Problems." JEMS 
(June 1988): 58( 4). 

Listing of incentives used to attract and retain volunteer emergency response 
personnel. 

Lynch, Rick. "Targeted Volunteer Recruiting." Voluntary Action Leadership (Fall 
1990): 24( 5). 

Eight steps for marketing a product effectively: (1) what is the job that needs 
to be done? (2) who would want to do it? (3) where will we find them? (4) how 
will we communicate with them? (5) what are the motivational needs of these 
people? (6) what will we say to them? (7) who will administer? (8) and how will 
they know what to do?

Marinucci, Richard A. "Volunteer Recruiting: A Success Story." Fire Engineering 
(August 1988): 98( 4). 

Discussion of volunteer motivation, marketing, and obstacles. 

McCurley, Steve. "Recruiting Volunteers for Difficult Positions." Voluntary 
Action Leadership (Fall 1990): 22( 3).

Tips for overcoming the challenges for high skill volunteers: redesigning the 
job, saturating the market, undertaking a group effort (team volunteering, 
cluster volunteering), conducting proper orientation, and training up.

McCurley, Steve, and Vineyard, Sue. 101 Tips for Volunteer Recruitment. Downers 
Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing, 1988. 

Lists of information and tips for conducting an effective volunteer recruitment 
program. 

Morrissey, John. "Here to Stay? Recruiting EMS Volunteers." JEMS (February 
1993): 53( 4). 

Tips for establishing a proactive program for recruiting and retaining volunteer 
members of an EMS organization. 

Nestor, Lorretta Gutierrez, and Fillichio, Carl. "Research and Recruitment 
Strategies: What the American Red Cross Discovered." Voluntary Action Leadership 
(Winter 1992): 15( 2). 

Report of research by the American Red Cross to discover what motivates 
volunteers. Thirteen recommendations are made. 

New York State Department of Health. Emergency Medical Services Volunteers--A 
Recruiting and Retention Guide for Emergency Medical Service Agencies. Albany, 
New York: New York State Department of Health, November 1987. 

Guidance designed to provide EMS managers and members who serve as recruiters 
with a step-by-step approach to finding, enrolling, and keeping volunteers. Six 
steps to successful recruitment are recommended: (1) analyze and plan, (2) 
advertise and promote, (3) prospect for potential recruits, (4) contact and 
interview prospects, (5) enroll and follow up, and (6) retain.

Nordberg, Marie. "The Case of the Missing Volunteer." Emergency Medical Services 
18 (June 1989): 13( g). 

Outline of societal factors affecting the rate of volunteerism and description 
of recruitment and retention strategies to deal with shortages. 

Perez, Carlos, et al. EMS PIER Manual--Public Information, Education, and 
Relations in Emergency Medical Services. Report No. FA-151 /September 1994. 
Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U. S. Department 
of Transportation, and U .S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management 
Agency, 1994. 

Guidance directed to all types of EMS services for creating, maintaining, and 
enhancing a public information, public education, and public relations program, 
Topics addressed include starting a PIER program, selling a PIER program, 
networking, funding a PIER program, media relations, legal issues, onscene PIER, 
public relations, measuring success, and resources for obtaining help.


Perkins, Kenneth B., and Weiderhold, Robert. Volunteer Firefighters in the U. S. 
: A Summary of Social Characteristics and Commitment. National 
Volunteer Fire Council, no date. 

Statistics about volunteer firefighters. 

107 

Perkins, Kenneth B., and Wright, Terry. Characteristics and Survival Potential 
of Volunteer Nonprofit EMS Corporations: A Virginia Sample. Blacksburg, 
Virginia: The Center for Volunteer Development, Virginia Polytechnic Institute 
and State University, February 1989. 

Description of the findings of research concerning the characteristics of 
volunteer nonprofit EMS personnel in Virginia and their perceptions of problems 
faced by volunteer EMS squads in the state and a discussion of the policy 
implications suggested by the research that could affect the survival of 
volunteer EMS corporations.

Skeen, D. Trace. "Public/ Private Sector Partnership: Myth or Reality." 
Firefighters News 11 (October/ November 1993): 58( 4). 

Description of ways to identify and integrate public/ private services and 
needs. 

Snook, Jack W., and Olsen, Dan C. The Volunteer Firefighter: A Breed Apart. Fort 
Collins, Colorado: Emergency Resource Inc., 1989. 

An instructional package, including videotapes and printed materials, designed 
to provide an overview of the history of volunteerism, the information and 
skills necessary to determine the need for volunteers and plan for new members, 
an understanding of the recruitment process, the elements of a successful 
volunteer training program, leadership skills and techniques to apply in a 
volunteer environment, ways to motivate volunteers, and ideas on incentive 
programs.

Swan, Thomas H. "Recruiting EMS Volunteers." JEMS 13 (June 1988): 51( 4). 

Discussion of challenges administrators face in meeting the need for EMS 
volunteers. Focus is on volunteer utilization, recruitment, and training. 

Sylvia, Dick. "Tapping Your Wealth of Volunteer Resources." American Fire 
Journal (August 1987): 22( 2). 

Advantages that a volunteer fire department has in bringing a variety of outside 
skills to the station house. Discussion of the need for good 
trainers and educators and for a diversity in disciplines represented. 

Thorn, Don. "Could a PR Firm Help You?" Fire Chief (September 1987): 46( 2). 

Worthington, Kentucky, fire department's use of a PR firm. Recommendations made 
for defining a department's need, obtaining recommendations, and selecting a PR 
organization that will consider departmental needs seriously and develop an 
appropriate strategy.

108 

Thompson, Justin J. Recruitment and Retention of Volunteer Firefighters. May 18, 
1992. 

Report of data concerning volunteers and their employers (good background). 
Virginia Department of Health, Office of Emergency Medical Services. 

Looking Your Best, Getting the Best, Keeping the Best. Virginia EMS Recruitment 
and Retention Action Kit. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Department of Health, no 
date.

Package of materials to aid EMS organizations in Virginia in planning and 
implementing an effective EMS recruitment and retention program. Virginia 
Department of Health, Office of Emergency Medical Services. 

Tune Into the EMS Support Team Network. Supplemental Materials to Help Start 
Your EMS Support Team. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Department of Health, no 
date.

Guidebook for recruiting and using volunteers to serve as nonoperational support 
staff for an EMS organization. 

Wanous, John P. "Effects of a Realistic Job Preview on Job Acceptance, Job 
Attitudes, and Job Survival," Journal of Applied Psychology 58: 327( 6). 

Report of a field experiment conducted in a telephone company to assess the 
effects of a realistic job preview versus an unrealistic (i. e., "traditional") 
preview. 

"What if You Called and Nobody Came?" Size Up (October 1988): 8( 2). 

Flyer for recruiting volunteer firefighters: benefits, training, apprentice 
firefighters, need, and time.

Whiting, Mark D. "Lasting Impressions." Emergency (June 1993): 44( 6) 

Pragmatic suggestions for rural EMS agencies in establishing and maintaining 
proactive media relations. Coverage includes the reasons for using the media, 
ways to get started in developing relations with the media, and ways to maintain 
a continuing relationship with the media.

Williams, Robert A. "The Future of the Fire Service." Firehouse (April 1989): 
72( 4). 

Benefits of establishing contacts with youth groups. 

109 

Wilson, Marlene. How to Recruit Today's Volunteers. Boulder, Colorado: Volunteer 
Management Associates, 1983. 

Training package consisting of a videotape and related materials that provides 
information on demographics, motivations for volunteering, recruitment tips, and 
keys to volunteer retention. 

Retention 

Cordes, Cynthia L., and Dougherty, Thomas W. "A Review and an Integration of 
Research on Job Burnout." Academy of Management Review 18 : 621( 3 6). 

Review of the literature on burnout and presentation of a conceptual framework 
to improve the understanding of burnout. 

"Critical Incident Stress Debriefing." Commish (April 1992): 3( 3). 

Discussion of how firefighters handled stress prior to the 1980s. Identification 
of two ways to assist departments in dealing with stress: CISD and employee 
assistance programs. 

El Sanadi, Nabil. "High Performance EMS." Firehouse (May 1993): 68. 

Discussion of the elements of high-performance EMS systems: personnel, 
structure, and equipment and supplies. 

Fullerton, Carol S.; McCarroll, James E.; Ursano, Robert, J.; and Wright, 
Kathleen M. "Psychological Responses of Rescue Workers: Fire Fighters and 
Trauma. " American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 62 (July 1992): 371( 8). 

Examination of the psychological responses of two groups of firefighters 
following the performance of rescue work. 

Goldfarb, Bruce. "Under Pressure." American Medical News (November 16, 1992): 
23( 2). 

Discussion of burnout and its impact on New York City EMS workers and methods 
for dealing with stressed personnel: psychological screening to weed out the 
most fragile applicants and the use of CISD and EAP programs to help workers 
deal with stress. 

Goldfeder, William. "Retaining and Recruiting Members." Fire Engineering (May 
1992): 10( 3). 

Presentation of effective activities that volunteer departments may use in 
retaining active volunteers and recruiting new members. 

110 

Herman, Roger E. "Challenge of the Future: Keeping Good People. " Ambulance 
Industry Journal (September/ October 1992): 8( 3). 

Suggestions for retaining employees in the prehospital care industry: find and 
hire good people, keep good people, create a positive working environment, build 
positive relationships, help people grow, and learn why good people work for the 
organization. 

Kipperman, Stephanie. "Training Volunteers for Success." Leadership (July/ 
September 1993): 20( 2). 

Goals and objectives, content and focus, and means and techniques of volunteer 
training programs. 

Leibowitz, Zandy B.; Schlossberg, Nancy K.; and Shone, Jane E. "Stopping the 
Revolving Door. " Training and Development Journal 45: 43( 4). 

Innovative strategies for new employee orientation. Three models--self-managed 
peer groups, rolling out the red carpet, and learning the big picture--that 
treat new employee adaptation as an ongoing empowerment process are profiled. 

Lipp, John L. "The Top 25 Methods to Retain Volunteers." Voluntary Action 
Leadership (Spring 1992): 25( 2). 

List of 25 methods to retain volunteers. Best method is to engage entire paid 
staff in the process. 

Lynch, Richard. "Designing Volunteer Jobs for Results." Voluntary Action 
Leadership (Summer 1983): 20( 4). 

Discussion of the four most important principles for designing a rewarding job 
for volunteers. 

Macduff, Nancy. "Retention: The + and -of Volunteers." Voluntary Action 
Leadership (Winter 1992): 19. 

Role of paid staff in affecting volunteer retention rates. Advantages and 
disadvantages of volunteers. Five questions that should be asked: (1) who 
volunteers? (2) who doesn't volunteer? (3) why don't certain people volunteer? 
(4) why do current volunteers give their time? and (5) what benefits arise from 
volunteering? 

MacKenzie, Marilyn. Dealing With Difficult Volunteers. Boulder, Colorado: 
Volunteer Management Associates, 1988. 

Explanation of the volunteer retention cycle, the types of difficult volunteers, 
and principles for dealing with difficult volunteers. 

111 

Martin, Kathleen R. "Pulling Together to Cope With the Stress." Nursing (May 
1992): 38( 4). 

Discussion of the Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) program and the 
seven phases of debriefing (introductory, fact, thought, reaction, symptom, 
teaching, and closure). 

Matin, Scott A., and Lester, David. 'Attitudes of Emergency Medical Service 
Providers Towards AIDS." Psychological Reports 67 ( 1990) : 1314. 

Report on a study of 19 mobile, intensive care paramedics and 21 RNs scored 
concerning their attitudes towards AIDS, their treatment of AIDS patients, and 
the effect of AIDS on their continuing in emergency-care operations. 

McLeod, John. "Stress: How to Recognize It and What to Do About It." Fire and 
Rescue (January 1992): 22. 

Description of the reliable, established strategies that fire brigades can use 
to minimize the negative effects of stress problems: self-help, organizational 
change, counseling, and Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD). 

Miller, Lynn E.; Powell, Gary N.; and Seltzer, Joseph. "Determinants of Turnover 
Among Volunteers." Human Relations 43 : 90l( 17). 

Examination of the causal sequencing of attitudes, personal situations, and 
behavioral intentions as determinants of turnover among hospital volunteers. 

Nordberg, Marie. "Is Stress Killing New York's EMTs?" Emergency Medical Services 
22 (July 1993): 50( 4). 

Report of a study of New York EMTs' stress following six EMT deaths within an 8-
month period. 

Paulsgrove, Robin F. "Recruiting and Retaining Fire Department FPEs." NFPA 
Journal 87 (January/ February 1993): 58( 6). 

Recommendations made in response to turnover in a Texas fire department: 
revising advertising procedures, introducing career ladders, developing 
comprehensive orientation programs, and expanding roles. 

Pendleton, Michael; Stotland, Ezra; Spiers, Philip; and Kirsch, Edward. "Stress 
and Strain Among Police, Firefighters, and Government Workers: A 
Comparative Analysis." Criminal Justice and Behavior 16 (June 1989): 196( 15). 

112 

Comparison of matched samples of police officers, firefighters, and other 
municipal workers with regard to self-reports of stress and various mental, 
physical, and behavior problems reflecting strain resulting from stress. 

"Postponing the Advent of Paid Firemen." New Haven Register, January 17, 1989: 
8. 

The contribution of pension plans to the retention of volunteer firefighters. 

National Volunteer Fire Council. Communications Committee. "White Paper: 
Retention and Recruitment in the Volunteer Fire Service." March 1993. 

Discussion paper for a Retention and Recruitment Workshop held in Emmitsburg, 
Maryland, on March 27-28, 1993. 

National Volunteer Fire Council. Retention and Recruitment in the Volunteer Fire 
Service--Problems and Solutions. Report No. FA-138/ September 1993. 

Emmitsburg, Maryland: Federal Emergency Management Agency, U. S. Fire 
Administration, August 1993. 

Report on the general nationwide problems and solutions concerning recruitment 
and retention in volunteer fire and rescue services. 

Selig, Suzanne M., and Borton, Danny. "Keeping Volunteers in EMS." Voluntary 
Action Leadership (Fall 1989): 18( 3). 

Analysis of information about EMS personnel (volunteers and paid) in a Michigan 
county and their satisfaction/ dissatisfaction with EMS work. 

"Stress Management in the Aftermath of Disaster." Straight Tip 3: 6( 2). 

Presentation of excerpts from the booklet Prevention and Control of Stress Among 
Emergency Workers for planning for postdisaster stress 
management. 

Swan, Thomas H. "Keeping Volunteers in Service." JEMS (June 1988): 55(3). 
Recommended techniques for retaining experienced volunteers in EMS agencies by 
meeting important psychological needs. 


Swan, Thomas H. "Volunteers on Duty." Emergency (September 1994): 68(2). 

Importance of formally scheduling EMS volunteers for specific duty shifts. 

113 

Taylor, Vickie Harris. "Firefighters: Stress and the Psychological Profile." 
Fire and Rescue (January 1992): 20. 

Discussion of recurring general psychological characteristics of firefighters: 
obsessive-compulsive, histrionic, action-oriented, control, family-oriented, 
instant gratification, highly dedicated, or risk taker. 

U. S. Fire Administration. Emergency Medical Services Management Resource 
Directory. Report No. FA-119/ November 1992. Emmitsburg, Maryland: USFA, 1992. 

Quick-reference document to assist the EMS practitioner or scholar in 
identifying or researching EMS resources, including pertinent organizations and 
associations, computer databases, and current reference materials, Directory 
includes a listing of contacts intended to expand the network of information 
concerning EMS and identifies the colleges and universities that offer 
certification and degree programs in the field of EMS.

U. S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency. EMS Safety--
Techniques and Applications. Report No. FA-144/ April 1994. Emmitsburg, 
Maryland: USFA/ FEMA, 1994. 

Comprehensive manual that addresses the hazards faced by EMS providers and 
describes ways in which emergency responders can and should deal with these 
risks. 

U. S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency. Guide to 
Developing and Managing an Emergency Service Infection Control Program. Report 
No. FA-112March 1992. Emmitsburg, Maryland: USFA/ FEMA, 1992. 

Guidebook to assist managers of emergency service organizations in developing, 
implementing, managing, and evaluating infection control programs. 

Vineyard, Sue. Beyond Banquets, Plaques and Pins: Creative Ways to Recognize 
Volunteers. Boulder, Colorado: Volunteer Management Associates, 1988. 

Techniques for recognizing and responding to the needs of volunteers. 

114 

Zimmerman, Jr., Don. "Rewarding Your Volunteers--A Retirement System Any 
Department Can Afford," Firehouse (March 1993): 46( 2). 

Proposal for a retirement system for volunteer fire departments in which a 
department's investment in a volunteer's retirement is determined by a activity-
based point system. The cash value per point is computed by dividing the funds 
available for retirement investment by the total points earned by all 
volunteers. 

Volunteerism 

Council for Volunteerism. "For the Newcomer: A Brief Look at Volunteer 
Administration." Voluntary Action Leadership (Winter 89-90): 23( 5). 

Concise presentation of important issues in volunteer administration: 
recruiting, interviewing, orientation, training, supervision, relationships, 
recognition, firing, and evaluation. 

Eden, Dov, and Kinnar, Joseph. "Modeling Galatea: Boosting Self Efficacy to 
Increase Volunteering." Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (1991): 770( 11). 

Report of a study of the Galatea effect, which is a boost in performance caused 
by raising volunteers' self-expectations. 

Hutchinson, David C. "Writing Rules for Volunteers." Fire Chief (July 1987): 52. 

Importance of a clear definition of rules and roles for the professionalization 
of an organization and the value of maximum volunteer participation in the 
development of the rules in increasing efficiency. 

Krajick, Kevin. "Fighting Fire With . . . What?" Newsweek 122 (December 13, 
1993): 730. 

Description of the decline in the number of volunteer firefighters and the 
problems of volunteer fire companies. 

Mabra, Russell. "The American Volunteer: Unpaid Professional." Firehouse 17 
(March 1992): 32( 2). 

Description of the typical volunteer, the reasons for volunteering, and methods 
for keeping volunteers involved. 

McCurley, Steve. Volunteer Management Policies. Boulder, Colorado: Volunteer 
Management Associates, 1990. 

Brief guidelines for conducting volunteer programs: management procedures, 
recruitment and selection, training and development, supervision and evaluation, 
and volunteer support and recognition.

McCurley, Steve, and Vineyard, Sue. 101 Ideas for Volunteer Programs. Downers 
Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing, 1986. 

Checklists and suggestions concerning the management of volunteer programs. 

Snook, Jack W. "Volunteerism in America: Past, Present and Future." Capstone 
paper presented at Lewis and Clark College, May 1991. 

Overview of the importance of American volunteerism. The concerns and problems 
currently experienced by organizations using volunteers and the difficulties 
expected in recruiting, training, and retaining volunteers in the future are 
identified.

Thompson III, Alexander M., and Bono, Barbara A. "Alienation, Self-
actualization, and the Motivation for Volunteer Labor." Review of Radical 
Political Economics 24 (Summer 1992): 115( 9). 

Exploration of the issue of worker motivation by examining volunteer 
firefighters and why they engage in this essential activity without pay. 

Thompson III, Alexander M., and Bono, Barbara A. "Work Without Wages: The 
Motivation for Volunteer Firefighters." The American Journal of Economics and 
Sociology 52 (July 1993): 323( 21). 

Theoretical and empirical exploration into the motivation of volunteer 
firefighters. 

"Volunteer Program Guide." Corrections Today 55 (August 1993) : 66( 5). 

Guidelines for starting and maintaining a volunteer program, identification of 
the qualities of a good volunteer, and some suggestions and rules for 
volunteers. 

Wright, Brenda White. "Some Notes on Recruiting and Retaining Minority 
Volunteers." Voluntary Action Leadership (Winter 1992): 20. 

Fourteen tactics for increasing minority volunteer involvement. 

116 

Resources 

American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) 1909 K Street, N. W. Washington, 
DC 20049 (202) 434-2277 

Florida EMS Clearinghouse 1317 Winewood Boulevard Tallahassee, FL 32399 (904) 
487-1911 

International Association of Fire Chiefs EMS Section/ Volunteer Section 4025 
Fair Ridge Drive, Suite 300 Fairfax, VA 22033 (703) 273-0911 

National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians 9140 Ward Parkway 
Kansas City, MO 64114 (800) 346-2368 

National Emergency Training Center Learning Resource Center 16825 South Seton 
Avenue Emmitsburg, MD 21727 (800) 638-1821 (outside Maryland) (301) 447-1030 
(Maryland only) 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Office of Enforcement and 
Emergency Services EMS Division 400 Seventh Street, S. W. Washington, DC 20590 
(202) 366-5440 

National Volunteer Fire Council 1050 17th Street, N. W., Suite 701A Washington, 
DC 20002 (202) 887-5700 

117 

Points of Light Foundation (includes former National Volunteer Center) 
1737 H Street, N. W. Washington, DC 20006 (800) 879-5400 

Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE) 409 Third Street, S. W. 
Washington, DC 20024 (202) 205-6762 

U. S. Fire Administration Fire Technical Programs 16825 S. Seton Avenue 
Emmitsburg, MD 21727 (301) 447-1231