Veterinary

Abou Madi, N., G.V. Kollias, R.P. Hackett, N.G. Ducharme, R.D. Gleed, and J.P. Moakler (2004). Umbilical herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(2): 221-5.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations. Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large (approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site healed with no further complications.
Descriptors: umbilical hernia, anesthesia, zoo animals, umbilical hernia diagnosis, umbilical hernia surgery, treatment outcome, wound infection.

Agatsuma, T., R. Rajapakse, V. Kuruwita, M. Iwagami, and R. Rajapakse (2004). Molecular taxonomic position of the elephant schistosome, Bivitellobilharzia nairi, newly discovered in Sri Lanka. Parasitology International 53(1): 69-75. ISSN: 1383-5769.
NAL Call Number: QL757.P3747
Descriptors: Bivitellobilharzia nairi, molecular genetics, phylogeny, Asian elephant, parasites, hosts, Elephas maximus, Sri Lanka, adult worm, schistosome.

Agnew, D.W., L. Munson, and E.C. Ramsay (2004). Cystic endometrial hyperplasia in elephants. Veterinary Pathology 41(2): 179-83.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 P27
Abstract: Most captive female elephants are nulliparous and aged and many have endometrial disease, factors that may hinder fertility. This study characterized the pathologic features and demographic distribution of endometrial lesions from 27 captive Asian (Elephas maximus) and 13 African elephants (Loxodonta africanus), 12- to 57-years of age. The principal lesion was marked cystic and polypoid endometrial hyperplasia (CEH), present in 67% of Asian and 15% of African elephants ranging from 26 to 57 years. The lower prevalence in African elephants likely reflects their younger age range in this study. Fourteen of 15 affected elephants with breeding information were nulliparous. These results suggest that CEH and polyps are common in aged nulliparous elephants, and the severity of these lesions may impair fertility. These findings will be useful in the interpretation of ultrasonographic findings during reproductive examinations of potential breeding cows. Also, breeding programs should focus on younger animals.
Descriptors: zoo animals, endometrial hyperplasia, endometrium pathology, fertility physiology, polyps, endometrial hyperplasia pathology, histological techniques, polyps pathology, species specificity.

Agrawal, D.K. and J.L. Singh (2003). Electrocution in an Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) - a case report. Indian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 23(1): 58. ISSN: 0970-051X.
NAL Call Number: SF703.I54
Descriptors: animal pathology, case reports, clinical aspects, death, diagnosis, electricity, electrocution, wild animals, Elephas maximus.

Ashoka Dangolla, I. Silva, and V.Y. Kuruwita (2004). Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus). Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 31(4): 276-279. ISSN: 1467-2987.
NAL Call Number: SF914.V47
Descriptors: acepromazine, anesthesia, anesthetics, analgesics, diprenorphine, drug combinations, etorphine, heart rate, neuroleptics, pharmacodynamics, respiration rate, telemetry, tracking, wild animals, Elephas maximus.

Ashwani, K. and S. Neetu (2004). Diseases of Indian elephants: an overview. Veterinary Practitioner 5(2): 179-183. ISSN: 0972-4036.
Descriptors: bacterial diseases, cardiovascular diseases, digestive disorders, granuloma, kidney diseases, liver diseases, nervous system diseases, parasitism, skin diseases, viral diseases, Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana.

Atthi, R., P. Chuaplaivech, W. Pintawong, S. Takoonwong, P. Sunpachudayan, N. Ruksri, and W. Teerathavorawan (2003). Comparison of serum antibody responses in domestic elephants to three different haemorrhagic septicaemia oil adjuvant vaccine formulations. Journal of the Thai Veterinary Medical Association 54(3): 29-37. ISSN: 0125-0620.
Descriptors: adjuvants, antibody formation, disease control, disease prevention, disease resistance, hemorrhagic septicemia, immune response, immunity, vaccination, vaccine development, vaccines, wild animals, Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana, Pasteurella multocida, ELISA.
Language of Text: Thai, with English summary.

Bajpai, S.K. and V.P. Chandrapuria (2003). Experience of using melonex for sprained joint of an elephant. Intas Polivet 4(1): 109-110. ISSN: 0972-1738.
Descriptors: case reports, clinical aspects, drug therapy, joint diseases, Elephas maximus.

Ball, R.L., J.L. Brown, J. Meyer, J. St. Leger, and J.H. Olsen. (2004). Treatment of anestrus due to hyperprolactinemia with cabergoline in a captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Wildlife Disease Association: Health and Conservation of Captive and Free-Ranging Wildlife. Joint Conference, San Diego, California, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: p. 363-365. 660 p.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, anestrus, treatment, hyperprolactinemia, Elephas maximus, cabergoline, plasma, serum prolactin levels, hormones, prolactin, ovary.

Bhupen Sarma (2004). Corneal abrasion and iridocyclitis in an elephant. Intas Polivet 5(1): 128-129. ISSN: 0972-1738.
Descriptors: abrasion, atropine, cornea, drug therapy, eye diseases, eyes, gentamicin, healing, zoo animals, Elephas maximus.

Dangolla, A., I. Silva, and V.Y. Kuruwita (2004). Neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus maximus). Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 31(4): 276-9.
NAL Call Number: SF914.V47
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the suitability of etorphine with acepromazine for producing prolonged neuroleptanalgesia in wild Asian elephants. ANIMALS: Ten adult wild elephants (four males, six females), free-roaming in the jungles of the north-western province of Sri Lanka. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ten wild elephants were tranquilized for attachment of radio transmitter collars from September to November 1997, using Large-Animal Immobilon (C-Vet Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK), which is a combination of etorphine (2.45 mg mL(-1)) and acepromazine (10 mg mL(-1)). This was injected using projectile syringes fired from a Cap-Chur gun (Palmer Chemical Co. Inc., Atlanta, USA). A volume of 3.3 (2.5-4.5) mL Immobilon (6.12-11.02 mg of etorphine and 25-45 mg acepromazine) was injected intramuscularly after body mass estimation of individual elephants. RESULTS: The body condition of all darted elephants was good, and the mean (minimum-maximum) shoulder height was 225 (180-310) cm. The average approximate distance to elephants at firing was 26 (15-50) m. The average time to recumbency after injection was 18 (15-45) minutes. Nine out of 10 elephants remained in lateral recumbency (and did not require additional dosing) for a period of 42 (28-61) minutes. The respiratory and heart rates during anaesthesia were 7 (4-10) breaths and 52 (40-60) beats minute(-1), respectively. An equal volume (8.15-14.67 mg) of diprenorphine hydrochloride (Revivon, 3.26 mg mL(-1) diprenorphine; C-Veterinary Products, Leyland, UK) was given intravenously when the procedure was completed. Recovery (return to standing position) occurred in 6 (2-12) minutes after diprenorphine injection. Immediately afterwards, all elephants slowly retreated into the jungle without complications. Continuous radio tracking of the animals involved in this study indicated no post-operative mortality for several months after restraint. CONCLUSIONS/CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Etorphine-acepromazine combinations can be used safely in healthy wild Asian elephants for periods of restraint lasting up to 1 hour.
Descriptors: acepromazine administration and dosage, physiology, etorphine administration and dosage, hypnotics and sedatives administration and dosage, neuroleptanalgesia, wild animal physiology, intramuscular injections.

de Oliveira, C.A., G.D. West, R. Houck, and M. Leblanc (2004). Control of musth in an Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) using leuprolide acetate. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(1): 70-6.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: The results of long-term administration of leuprolide acetate (LA) depot in a 52-yr-old Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) for control of musth are presented. Twelve injections were administered for 6 yr during our interpretation of early musth or "premusth." Intervals between musth periods during the study varied from 2 to 34 mo. Blood samples, drawn weekly, were assayed for serum testosterone concentrations; mean levels were 11.78 +/- 1.97 nmol/L throughout the first 26 mo of the study, 7.28 +/- 1.28 nmol/L during the following 21 mo, and 0.45 +/- 0.035 nmol/L in the last 34 mo of this study. Early musth signs ceased within 3 days of drug administration after 10 of 12 injections. The mean serum testosterone concentrations were significantly decreased by the last 34 mo of the study. The results suggest leuprolide is a suitable alternative for controlling or preventing (or both) musth in captive Asian elephants, although permanent reproductive effects may occur. Zoos and wildlife conservation institutions could benefit from the use of LA in Asian elephants to increase the male availability in captivity, consequently ensuring genetic diversity and the perpetuation of the species.
Descriptors: drug effects behavior, physiology, gonadorelin agonists, leuprolide administration and dosage, drug effects on aggression, blood, drug effects on eliminative behavior, leuprolide pharmacology, drug effects on sex behavior, social dominance, testosterone.

Dumonceaux, G., R. Isaza, D.E. Koch, and R.P. Hunter (2005). Pharmacokinetics and i.m. bioavailability of ceftiofur in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28(5): 441-6.
NAL Call Number: SF915.J63
Abstract: Captive elephants are prone to infections of the feet, lungs, and skin. Often treatment regimens are established with no pharmacokinetic data on the agents being used for treatment in these species. A pharmacokinetic study using ceftiofur (1.1 mg/kg) was conducted in four adult female captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida. Elephants were given both i.v. and i.m. administrations in a complete crossover design with a 3-week washout period between treatments. Blood samples were collected prior to drug administration and at 0.33, 0.67, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h postadministration. Ceftiofur analysis was performed using a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrophotometric (LC/MS) assay. Plasma concentrations for the i.m. samples were lower than expected. The mean C(max) following i.m. administration was 1.63 microg/mL with a corresponding T(max) of 0.55 h. Following i.v. administration, the median V(d(ss)) was 0.51 L/kg and a median Cl(p) of 0.069 L/kg/h. Mean i.m. bioavailability was 19%. The results indicate that ceftiofur used at 1.1 mg/kg i.m. could be useful in elephants when given two to three times a day or alternatively, 1.1 mg/kg i.v. once daily, depending upon the MIC of the pathogen.
Descriptors: cephalosporins pharmacokinetics, metabolism, area under curve, biological availability, cephalosporins administration and dosage, cephalosporins blood, intramuscular veterinary injections.

Fickel, J., D. Lieckfeldt, L.K. Richman, W.J. Streich, T.B. Hildebrandt, and C. Pitra (2003). Comparison of glycoprotein B (gB) variants of the elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) isolated from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Veterinary Microbiology 91(1): 11-21. ISSN: 0378-1135.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V44
Abstract: The recently described elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) have been associated with the deaths of numerous captive elephants. A proposed tool for the detection of EEHV infection in elephants is the PCR-based screening for EEHV-DNA in whole blood samples. Unfortunately, this detection method has only been successful in post-mortem analyses or in animals already displaying clinical signs of EEHV disease, thus rendering this method unsuitable for identification of carrier elephants. Here, we focus on glycoprotein B (gB) for serologic assay development, since gB is an envelope protein known to induce a neutralising antibody response in other herpesvirus infections. We sequenced the entire gB gene from five Asian elephants with EEHV, representing four different gB variants. Computer-aided methods were used to predict functionally important regions within EEHVgB. An extra-cytoplasmic region of 153 amino acids was predicted to be under positive selection and may potentially contain antigenic determinants that will be useful for future serologic assay development.
Descriptors: Elephas maximus, viral proteins, glycoproteins, disease transmission, detection, polymerase chain reaction, cytoplasm, amino acid sequences, molecular sequence data.

Hildebrandt, T.B., R. Hermes, P. Ratanakorn, W. Rietschel, J. Fickel, R. Frey, G. Wibbelt, C. Reid, and F. Goritz (2005). Ultrasonographic assessment and ultrasound-guided biopsy of the retropharyngeal lymph nodes in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus ). Veterinary Record 157(18): 544-8.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Abstract: Endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes a fatal disease in young Asian elephants, but there are no methods for identifying latent carriers of the virus. During the postmortem study of one female African elephant and three male and two female Asian elephants, a lymph node located bilaterally caudoventral to the parotid gland, approximately 1.5 to 5 cm below the skin, was identified as suitable for transcutaneous ultrasound-guided biopsy. An ultrasonographic assessment and two biopsies were performed on 39 Asian elephants, and these lymph nodes were classified ultrasonographically as active, inactive or chronically active. The calculated mean (se) volume of 10 active lymph nodes was 17.4 (6.9) cm(3), and that of three chronically active lymph nodes was 10.6 (1.0) cm(3), whereas the mean volume of 17 inactive lymph nodes was 3.1 (0.6) cm(3). The presence of lymph node tissue in samples obtained by ultrasound-guided biopsy from three animals that were maintained under conditions that allowed for additional sampling was confirmed histologically. The dna extracted from the lymphoid tissue and the whole blood of all the elephants was negative for endotheliotropic herpesvirus by PCR.
Descriptors: DNA viral isolation and purification, herpesviridae isolation and purification, herpesviridae infections, lymph nodes pathology, zoo animals, fine needle biopsy methods, disease reservoirs, disease reservoirs virology, Herpesviridae pathogenicity, Herpesviridae infections epidemiology, Herpesviridae infections pathology, lymph nodes ultrasonography, lymph nodes virology, polymerase chain reaction, prevalence, virus latency.

Hildebrandt, T.B., T. Strike, E. Flach, L. Sambrook, J. Dodds, N. Lindsay, C.F. Furley, P.S. Glatzel, and M. McGowan. (2003). Fetotomy in the elephant. Erkrankungen der Zootiere: Verhandlungsbericht des 41 Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere. Proceedings of the Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, No. 5, Rome, Italy, p. 315-318.
NAL Call Number: SF996.I5
Descriptors: fetotomy, dystocia, fetus, surgery, Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana, reproduction.

Hoyer, M.J., M.J. Kik, F.A. Vestappen, M.S. Wolters, H.H. van der Kolk, and M. Treskes. (2004). Medical management of a geriatric bull elephant (Elaphus maximus) with multiple problems, a case report. In: Proceedings: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Wildlife Disease Association: Health and Conservation of Captive and Free-Ranging Wildlife. Joint Conference, San Diego, California, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: p. 357-362. 660 p.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, Elaphus maximus, diseases, disorders, geriatric male, multiple problems, medical management, case report.

Hunter, R.P., R. Isaza, and D.E. Koch (2003). Oral bioavailability and pharmacokinetic characteristics of ketoprofen enantiomers after oral and intravenous administration in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). American Journal of Veterinary Research 64(1): 109-14.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3A
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To assess oral bioavailability (F) and pharmacokinetic characteristics of the R- and S-enantiomers of ketoprofen administered IV and orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). ANIMALS: 5 adult Asian elephants. PROCEDURE: Elephants received single treatments of racemic ketoprofen at a dose of 2.2 mg/kg, administered IV and orally, in a complete crossover design. Blood samples were collected at intervals during the 24 hours following treatment. At least 4 weeks elapsed between drug administrations. Samples were analyzed for R- and S-ketoprofen with a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopic assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by use of noncompartmental analysis. RESULTS: The enantiomers of ketoprofen were absorbed well after oral administration, with median F of 101% for R-ketoprofen and 85% for S-ketoprofen. Harmonic mean half-life ranged from 3.8 to 5.5 hours, depending on route of administration and enantiomer. The area under the concentration-time curve, mean residence time, apparent volume of distribution, plasma clearance, and maximum plasma concentration values were all significantly different between the 2 enantiomers for both routes of administration. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Ketoprofen has a long terminal half-life and complete absorption in this species. Based on the pharmacokinetic data, a dosage of ketoprofen of 1 mg/kg every 48 hours to 2 mg/kg every 24 hours, PO or IV, is recommended for use in Asian elephants, although the safety and efficacy of ketoprofen during long-term administration in elephants have not been determined.
Descriptors: anti inflammatory agents, non steroidal pharmacokinetics, metabolism, ketoprofen pharmacokinetics, oral administration, anti inflammatory agents, non steroidal administration and dosage, anti inflammatory agents, non steroidal blood, area under curve, biological availability, cross over studies, half life, intravenous injections, ketoprofen administration and dosage, ketoprofen blood, random allocation, stereoisomerism.

Isaza, R., B.J. Behnke, J.K. Bailey, P. McDonough, N.C. Gonzalez, and D.C. Poole (2003). Arterial blood gas control in the upright versus recumbent Asian elephant. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology 134(2): 169-76.
NAL Call Number: QP121.A1R4
Abstract: In the elephant, there is concern that lateral recumbency (LR) impairs respiratory muscle and lung function resulting in clinically significant arterial hypoxemia. Using healthy adult female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus, n=6), the hypothesis was tested that, given the O(2) binding characteristics of elephant blood, substantial reductions in arterial O(2) pressure (Pa(O(2))) in LR could be tolerated without lowering arterial O(2) content appreciably. Fifteen minutes of LR decreased Pa(O(2)) from 103+/-2 (upright, U) to 77+/-4 mmHg (P<0.05) and hemoglobin O(2) saturation (U, 97.8+/-0.1, LR, 95.3+/-0.5%, P<0.05). However, due to a recumbency-induced hemoconcentration, arterial O(2) content was unchanged (U, 18.2+/-2.4, LR, 18.3+/-2.1 ml O(2) per 100 ml). In addition, there was a mild hyperventilation in LR that reduced arterial CO(2) pressure (P(CO(2))) from 39.4+/-0.3 to 37.1+/-1.0 mmHg (P<0.05). These data indicate that the Asian elephant can endure at least short periods of LR without lowering arterial O(2) content.
Descriptors: acid base equilibrium physiology, anoxemia, blood pressure physiology, posture physiology, anoxemia blood, arteries, blood gas analysis.

Isaza, R. and R.P. Hunter (2004). Drug delivery to captive Asian elephants - treating Goliath. Current Drug Delivery 1(3): 291-8.
Abstract: Captive Asian elephants have been maintained in captivity by humans for over 4000 years. Despite this association, there is little published literature on the treatment of elephant diseases or methods of drug administration to these animals. Elephants in captivity are generally healthy and require few therapeutic interventions over the course of their lifetime. However, when they become acutely ill, treatment becomes a serious issue. The successful and consistent administration of therapeutics to elephants is formidable in an animal that presents significant limitations in drug delivery options. The single most important factor in administering drugs to an elephant is the animal's cooperation in accepting the medication. Working around elephants can be very dangerous and this is magnified when working around sick or injured animals where the elephant is subject to increased stress, pain, and unusual situations associated with treatment. The large body size of the Asian elephant produces a separate set of issues. In this paper, methods of drug administration and their associated limitations will be reviewed. Considerations of medicating such large animals can serve to highlight the problems and principles of treatment that are inherent in these species.
Descriptors: zoo animal physiology, drug delivery system methods, drug administration routes, veterinary medicine methods.

Kajaysri, J., S. Huayjunteuk, S. Reunpech, C. Thammakarn, N. Warrasuth, and S. Eardmusic. (2003). The condition of paper thin bone layer and fracture by metabolic bone disease in an orphan elephant. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, Subject: Animals and Veterinary Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand: Kasetsart University, Kasetsart University: Bangkok, Thailand, p. 508-515.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, metabolic bone diseases, bone layer, fracture, case reports, clinical aspects, diagnosis, treatment, fracture fixation, Elephas maximus.
Language of Text: Thai, with English summary.

Kongsila, A., N. Thongtip, and N. Yatbantung. (2003). Oesophageal obstruction (choke) in Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus): case report. Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, Subject: Animals and Veterinary Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand: Kasetsart University, Kasetsart University: Bangkok, Thailand, p. 678-683.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, choke, esophageal obstruction, case report, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, Elephas maximus.
Language of Text: Thai, with English summary.

Lewerin, S.S., S.L. Olsson, K. Eld, B. Roken, S. Ghebremichael, T. Koivula, G. Kallenius, and G. Bolske (2005). Outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among captive Asian elephants in a Swedish zoo. Veterinary Record 156(6): 171-5.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Abstract: Between 2001 and 2003, there was an outbreak of tuberculosis in a Swedish zoo which involved elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses and buffaloes. Cultures of trunk lavages were used to detect infected elephants, tuberculin testing was used in the giraffes and buffaloes, and tracheal lavage and tuberculin testing were used in the rhinoceroses. The bacteria isolated were investigated by spoligotyping and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Five elephants and one giraffe were found to have been infected by four different strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Descriptors: disease outbreaks, Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolation and purification, tuberculosis, zoo animals Mycobacterium tuberculosis classification, Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenicity, polymorphism, restriction fr agment length, Sweden epidemiology, tuberculosis diagnosis, tuberculosis epidemiology.

Liu, C.H., C.H. Chang, S.C. Chin, P.H. Chang, Y.X. Zhuo, and C.C. Lee (2004). Fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 16(5): 421-3.
NAL Call Number: SF774.J68
Abstract: A case of fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases in a 54-year-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is described. After pododermatitis of 2 years duration in the right forefoot, a mass developed in the lateral toenail. At postmortem, metastasis to the right axillary lymph node and both lungs was noted. Microscopic examination of primary and metastatic sites revealed infiltrating bundles of spindle cells, with fairly distinct cell borders, variable amounts of eosinophilic cytoplasm, and elongate or oval nuclei. Tumor cells were often arranged in interwoven bundles and herringbone patterns. Mitotic figures were numerous and frequently bizarre. The diagnosis of fibrosarcoma with lung and lymph node metastases was made on the basis of histologic features and positive immunohistochemical staining for vimentin.
Descriptors: zoo animals, fibrosarcoma, secondary lung neoplasms, lung neoplasms, lymph nodes pathology, skin neoplasms, biopsy, fatal outcome, fibrosarcoma secondary, immunohistochemistry, skin neoplasms pathology.

Manna, S. (2003). Enteritis and it's treatment in an Asian elephant. Zoos' Print Journal 18(6): 1130. ISSN: 0971-6378.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, atropine, clinical aspects, diagnosis, diarrhea, drug therapy, enteritis, oxytetracycline, zoo elephant, Elephas maximus.

Manohar, B.M., J. Selvaraj, S.M. Sakthivelan, W.M. Paul, M.G. Jayathangaraj, K.S. Kumar, and Koteeswaran (2004). Pododermatitis in an elephant calf. Indian Veterinary Journal 81(1): 107-108. ISSN: 0019-6479.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 IN2
Descriptors: Asian elephant, calf, pododermatitis, infection.

Martelli, P., S. Herbert, and Oh Soon Hock. (2004). Humeral fracture in a newborn Asian elephant calf (Elephas maximus). In: Proceedings: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Wildlife Disease Association: Health and Conservation of Captive and Free-Ranging Wildlife. Joint Conference, San Diego, California, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: p. 597-600. 660 p.
Descriptors: Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, calf, treatment techniques, forelimb skeleton, injuries, humeral fracture, neonate, successful treatment, case report.

Maslow, J.N., S.K. Mikota, M. Zhu, R. Isaza, L.R. Peddie, F. Dunker, J. Peddie, H. Riddle, and C.A. Peloquin (2005). Population pharmacokinetics of isoniazid in the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis among Asian and African elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana). Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28(1): 21-7.
NAL Call Number: SF915.J63
Abstract: We recently described the clinical presentation and treatment of 18 elephants from six herds infected with TB. Treatment protocols and methods varied between herds to include both oral and rectal dosing using multiple drug doses and formulations. In this paper we present information regarding the pharmacokinetics (PK) of isoniazid (INH) in elephants and provide suggestions regarding initial treatment regimens. Forty-one elephants received INH daily by either oral or rectal administration with different formulations. Population PK analysis was performed using Non-linear Mixed Effect Modeling (NONMEM). Results of oral administration indicated that compared with premixed INH solution, the drug exposure was highest with a suspension prepared freshly with INH powder. When INH was concomitantly given as an admixture over food, Tmax was delayed and variability in drug absorption was significantly increased. Compared with oral administration, similar drug exposures were found when INH was dosed rectally. The data generated suggest that a starting dose of 7.5 mg/kg of INH is appropriate for initial TB treatment in elephants when premixed solution is administered directly into the oropharynx or rectal vault and 4 mg/kg are when INH is administered following immediate suspension from powdered form.
Descriptors: antitubercular agents pharmacokinetics, metabolism, isoniazid pharmacokinetics, oral administration, rectal administration, administration and dosage of antitubercular agents, antitubercular agents in blood, therapeutic use of antitubercular agents, area under curve, isoniazid administration and dosage, isoniazid in blood, therapeutic use of isoniazid, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, tuberculosis drug therapy, tuberculosis.

Maslow, J.N., S.K. Mikota, M. Zhu, H. Riddle, and C.A. Peloquin (2005). Pharmacokinetics of ethambutol (EMB) in elephants. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28(3): 321-3.
NAL Call Number: SF915.J63
Descriptors: antitubercular agents pharmacokinetics, metabolism, ethambutol pharmacokinetics, oral administration, rectal administration, antitubercular agents administration and dosage, antitubercular agents in blood, area under curve, ethambutol administration and dosage, ethambutol in blood.

McAloon, F.M. (2004). Oribatid mites as intermediate hosts of Anoplocephala manubriata, cestode of the Asian elephant in India. Experimental and Applied Acarology 32(3): 181-5.
NAL Call Number: SB940.E9
Abstract: Anoplocephala manubriata (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) is a tapeworm that parasitizes both African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximas) elephants. Its life cycle has not yet been completely elucidated nor have intermediate hosts been previously reported. Soil and substrate was collected in the Kodanadu Forest Range, Ernakulum District and Guruvayur Devaswom Temple grounds, Thrissur District, in Kerala, India. Oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida) were collected from dung piles near captive elephants' bedding and examined for immature stages of the tapeworm. Five species of oribatids were found to contain at least one immature life stage of A. manubriata: Galumna flabellifera orientalis Hammer 1958, Scheloribates latipes (C.L. Koch 1844), S. praeincisus (Berlese 1913), Protoribates seminudus (Hammer 1971), and P. triangularis (Hammer 1971).
Descriptors: Cestoda growth and development, cestode infections, mites parasitology, cestode infections parasitology, cestode infections transmission, India, mite infestations parasitology, mite infestations.

Nath, I., V.S.C. Bose, S.K. Panda, B.C. Das, and L.K. Singh (2003). A case of multiple abscesses in a baby elephant. Zoos' Print Journal 18(11): 1270.
Descriptors: baby elephant, abscesses, multiple, disease, infection.

Oliveira, C.A. de, G.D. West, R. Houck, and M. Leblanc (2004). Control of musth in an Asian elephant bull (Elephas maximus) using leuprolide acetate. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(1): 70-76. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Descriptors: Asian elephant, bull, musth, behavior, testosterone, control, leuprolide acetate, Elephas maximus.

Ollivet Courtois, F., A. Lecu, R.A. Yates, and L.H. Spelman (2003). Treatment of a sole abscess in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) using regional digital intravenous perfusion. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34(3): 292-5.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: Regional digital i.v. perfusion was used to treat a severe sole abscess associated with a wire foreign body in a 19-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) housed at the Paris Zoo. The cow presented with acute right forelimb lameness and swelling that persisted despite 4 days of anti-inflammatory therapy. Under anesthesia, a 10- x 0.5- x 0.5-cm wire was extracted from the sole of the right foot. There was a 2-cm-deep, 7-cm-diameter abscess pocket that was subsequently debrided. Regional digital i.v. perfusion was performed and repeated 15 days later, using cefoxitin and gentamicin on both occasions. Between treatments, the cow received trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and phenylbutazone orally. Within 2 days of administering anesthesia and the first perfusion treatment, the lameness improved dramatically. When phenylbutazone was discontinued 1 wk after the first treatment, the lameness had completely resolved. At the second treatment, there was no evidence of further soft tissue infection, and the abscess pocket had resolved.
Descriptors: abscess, anti bacterial agents therapeutic use, injuries, foreign bodies, hoof and claw pathology, abscess therapy, zoo animals, cefoxitin therapeutic use, debridement, foreign bodies complications, gentamicins therapeutic use, lameness, etiology, perfusion methods, treatment outcome.

Pucher, H.E., C. Stremme, and F. Schwarzenberger (2003). Priapism in a semiwild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Vietnam. Veterinary Record 153(23): 717-718. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: Elephas maximus, penis, case studies, chronic diseases, males, adult animals, male genital diseases, necrosis, medical treatment, sulfonamides, Vietnam, priapism.

Rajakse, R.C., G.U.S.P. Mendis, C.G. Wijesinghe, J. Alahakoon, and L.N.T. De Silva (2005). Treatment and management of an elephant calf with a head injury. Zoos Print Journal 20(9): 1995-1996. ISSN: 0971-6378.
Descriptors: elephant calf, head injury, treatment, management.

Rao, S.S. (2004). Recovery of an elephant calf from articular fracture. Zoos' Print Journal 19(4): 17-18. ISSN: 0971-6378.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, calf, articular fracture, clinical aspects, healing, therapy, tibia, recovery, Elephas maximus.

Sanchez, C.R., S. Murray, R.J. Montali, and L.H. Spelman (2004). Diagnosis and treatment of presumptive pyelonephritis in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(3): 397-9.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: A 37-yr-old female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) presented with anorexia, restlessness, and dark-colored urine. Urinalyses showed hematuria, leukocyturia, isosthenuria, proteinuria, granular casts, and no calcium oxalate crystals. Bloodwork revealed azotemia. Urine culture revealed a pure growth of Streptococcus zooepidemicus resistant to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim but susceptible to cephalosporins. A presumptive diagnosis of pyelonephritis was made based on bloodwork, urinalysis, and urine culture. The animal was treated with intravenous ceftiofur, and intravenous and per rectum fluids were given for hydration. The elephant's attitude and appetite returned to normal, the abnormal blood parameters resolved, and urinary calcium oxalate crystals reappeared after treatment, supporting presumptive diagnosis. Follow-up ultrasonography revealed an abnormal outline of both kidneys with parenchymal hyperechogenicity and multiple uterine leiomyomas.
Descriptors: anti bacterial agents therapeutic use, cephalosporins therapeutic use, blood, urine, pyelonephritis, streptococcal infections, Streptococcus equi isolation and purification, calcium oxalate urine, differential diagnosis, fluid therapy, kidney ultrasonography, leiomyomatosis complications, leiomyomatosis diagnosis, pyelonephritis diagnosis, pyelonephritis drug therapy, streptococcal infections diagnosis, streptococcal infections drug therapy, Streptococcus equi drug effects, uterine neoplasms complications, uterine neoplasms diagnosis.

Sanchez, C.R., S.Z. Murray, R. Isaza, and M.G. Papich (2005). Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of enrofloxacin administered orally to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). American Journal of Veterinary Research 66(11): 1948-53.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3A
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after oral administration to captive elephants. ANIMALS: 6 clinically normal adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). PROCEDURE: Each elephant received a single dose of enrofloxacin (2.5 mg/kg, PO). Three elephants received their complete diet (pellets and grain) within 2 hours after enrofloxacin administration, whereas the other 3 elephants received only hay within 6 hours after enrofloxacin administration. Serum concentrations of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin were measured by use of high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Harmonic mean half-life after oral administration was 18.4 hours for all elephants. Mean +/- SD peak serum concentration of enrofloxacin was 1.31 +/- 0.40 microg/mL at 5.0 +/- 4.2 hours after administration. Mean area under the curve was 20.72 +/- 4.25 (microg x h)/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oral administration of enrofloxacin to Asian elephants has a prolonged elimination half-life, compared with the elimination half-life for adult horses. In addition, potentially therapeutic concentrations in elephants were obtained when enrofloxacin was administered orally at a dosage of 2.5 mg/kg. Analysis of these results suggests that enrofloxacin administered with feed in the manner described in this study could be a potentially useful antimicrobial for use in treatment of captive Asian elephants with infections attributable to organisms, such as Bordetella spp, Escherichia coli, Mycoplasma spp, Pasteurella spp, Haemophilus spp, Salmonella spp, and Staphylococcus spp.
Descriptors: anti bacterial agents pharmacokinetics, metabolism, fluoroquinolones pharmacokinetics, oral administration, animal feed, zoo animals, anti bacterial agents administration and dosage, anti bacterial agents in blood, area under curve, f luoroquinolones administration and dosage, fluoroquinolones blood, half life.

Sarma, K.K. (2004). Extraction of decayed tusk in elephants. Indian Veterinary Journal 81(7): 812-814. ISSN: 0019-6479.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 IN2
Descriptors: decayed tusk, extraction, Asian elephant, injury, infection, clinical signs, treatment, anesthetic management, post operative care, outcome.

Shimada, Y., N. Hama, M. Ashida, K. Ishikawa, Y. Matsuo, A. Yamada, A. Noda, K. Murata, and K. Okuno (2005). Pregnancy and stillbirth of an Asian elephant, Elephas maximus. Journal of Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums 46(2): 41-49. ISSN: 0386-7498.
NAL Call Number: QL77.5.D63
Descriptors: Asian elephant, stillbirth, clinical aspects, prevalence, fetal death, pregnancy, Elephas maximus.
Language of Text: Japanese.

Thongtip, N., M. Damyang, S. Mahasawangkul, A. Kongsila, T. Angkawanich, S. Jansittiwate, C. Thitaram, and P. Phongsopawijit. (2003). Frozen semen artificial insemination in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) using endoscope and ultrasound guide . Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, Subject: Animals and Veterinary Medicine, Bangkok, Thailand: Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 652-657.
Descriptors: Asian elephant, frozen semen, artificial insemination, endoscopy, cervix, thawed semen, ultrasonography, Elephas maximus.
Language of Text: Thai, with English summary.

Vodicka, R. and J. Kral. (2003). Purulent trunk dermatitis in a male Ceylon elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). Erkrankungen der Zootiere: Verhandlungsbericht des 41 Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere, Rome, Italy, p. 151-153.
NAL Call Number: SF996.I5
Descriptors: Asian elephant, trunk, purulent dermatitis, pyoderma, skin diseases, treatment, aggressive male, anesthesia, handling, Elephas maximus.

Weissengruber, G. E, F. Fuss K, G. Egger, G. Stanek, K. Hittmair M, and G. Forstenpointner (2006). The elephant knee joint: morphological and biomechanical considerations. Journal of Anatomy 208(1): 59-72.
NAL Call Number: 447.8 J826
Abstract: Elephant limbs display unique morphological features which are related mainly to supporting the enormous body weight of the animal. In elephants, the knee joint plays important roles in weight bearing and locomotion, but anatomical data are sparse and lacking in functional analyses. In addition, the knee joint is affected frequently by arthrosis. Here we examined structures of the knee joint by means of standard anatomical techniques in eight African (Loxodonta africana) and three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Furthermore, we performed radiography in five African and two Asian elephants and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in one African elephant. Macerated bones of 11 individuals (four African, seven Asian elephants) were measured with a pair of callipers to give standardized measurements of the articular parts. In one Asian and three African elephants, kinematic and functional analyses were carried out using a digitizer and according to the helical axis concept. Some peculiarities of healthy and arthrotic knee joints of elephants were compared with human knees. In contrast to those of other quadruped mammals, the knee joint of elephants displays an extended resting position. The femorotibial joint of elephants shows a high grade of congruency and the menisci are extremely narrow and thin. The four-bar mechanism of the cruciate ligaments exists also in the elephant. The main motion of the knee joint is extension-flexion with a range of motion of 142 degrees. In elephants, arthrotic alterations of the knee joint can lead to injury or loss of the cranial (anterior) cruciate ligament.
Descriptors: knee joint, anatomy, morphological, biomechanical, weight bearing, locomotion, radiography, MRI, magnetic resonance imaging, arthrosis.

Zhu, M., J.N. Maslow, S.K. Mikota, R. Isaza, F. Dunker, H. Riddle, and C.A. Peloquin (2005). Population pharmacokinetics of pyrazinamide in elephants. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28(5): 403-9.
NAL Call Number: SF915.J63
Abstract: This study was undertaken to characterize the population pharmacokinetics (PK), therapeutic dose, and preferred route of administration for pyrazinamide (PZA) in elephants. Twenty-three African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants infected with or in contact with others culture positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis were dosed under treatment conditions. PZA was dosed daily at 20-30 mg/kg via oral (fasting or nonfasting state) or rectal (enema or suppository) administration. Blood samples were collected 0-24 h postdose. Population PK was estimated using nonlinear mixed effect modeling. Drug absorption was rapid with T(max) at or before 2 h regardless of the method of drug administration. C(max) at a mean dose of 25.6 (+/-4.6) mg/kg was 19.6 (+/-9.5 microg/mL) for PZA given orally under fasting conditions. Under nonfasting conditions at a mean dose of 26.1 +/- 4.2 mg/kg, C(max) was 25% (4.87 +/- 4.89 microg/mL) and area under concentration curve (AUC) was 30% of the values observed under fasting conditions. Mean rectal dose of 32.6 +/- 15.2 mg/kg yielded C(max) of 12.3 +/- 6.3 microg/mL, but comparable AUC to PZA administered orally while fasting. Both oral and rectal administration of PZA appeared to be acceptable and oral dosing is preferred because of the higher C(max) and lower inter-subject variability. A starting dose of 30 mg/kg is recommended with drug monitoring between 1 and 2 h postdose. Higher doses may be required if the achieved C(max) values are below the recommended 20-50 microg/mL range.
Descriptors: antitubercular agents pharmacokinetics, metabolism, pyrazinamide pharmacokinetics, pulmonary tuberculosis, oral administration, rectal administration, antitubercular agents administration and dosage, antitubercular agents therapeutic use, area under curve, Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenicity, pyrazinamide administration and dosage, pyrazinamide therapeutic use, tuberculosis, pulmonary blood, pulmonary drug therapy.

Zuba, J.R., M.D. Stetter, S.R. Dover, and M. Briggs. (2003). Development of rigid laparoscopy techniques in elephants and rhinoceros. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Conference, Minneapolis, Minnesota, American Association of Zoo Veterinarians: p. 223-227. 333 p.
NAL Call Number: SH171.I22
Descriptors: Rhinocerotidae, Loxodonta africana, Elephas maximus, literature review, diagnostic techniques, rigid laparoscopy techniques, development, applications, review.