World
Nuclear Reactors
Argentina, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 8.6 percent of Argentina's
total electricity output.
“Argentina currently has two nuclear power plants in operation:
the 357-MW Atucha I and 648-MW Embalse. Nucleoelectrica Argentina
SA owns and operates both facilities. A third plant, the 745-MW Atucha
II plant, remains under construction. Work on the Atucha II facility
was halted in 1994, after the government was unsuccessful in privatizing
the two existing facilities. However, the government announced in
December 2003 that it plans to spend $300 million to complete the
project. The government hopes that construction will began in fall
2004 and be completed in 2008.”[2]
· Reactors in
Argentina: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Argentina: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Armenia, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 35.5 percent of Armenia's
electricity output.
“Domestic Energy Issues: Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant[3]
Armenia has one nuclear power plant, the controversial Metsamor Nuclear Power
Plant (NPP). The power plant, with two VVER-design reactors and a combined
capacity of 815 MW, was shut down in March 1989 by the Soviet Union because
of safety fears following the devastating earthquake that struck Armenia
in December 1988. However, faced with a deepening energy crisis due to the
country's lack of fossil fuels and the economic blockade imposed by Azerbaijan
and Turkey, on November 5, 1995, Armenia decided to resume operation at the
440-MW second unit. The plant, which was built in 1980 with a design life
of 30 years, now supplies around 30% of the country's electricity.
”Since the Metsamor NPP was inactive for six years, Armenian and Russian nuclear
officials believe that the lone reactor functioning at the plant could operate
through 2016. The European Union, however, is pressuring Armenia to shut the
plant earlier, since the EU considers Metsamor to be a safety risk due to flaws
in the plant's Soviet-designed reactors and the region's seismic activity. The
EU has suggested the plant be shut down by 2004, and has pledged financial support
to facilitate its closure.”
· Reactors in
Armenia: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Armenia: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels in Armenia and the surrounding region.
Belgium, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 55.5 percent of Belgium's
electricity output.
Belgium's nuclear industry has a long history, with the country's
first prototype reactor commissioned in 1962. Although reactors
supply more than half of Belgium's electricity output, the future
of the nuclear industry is very uncertain. In January
2003, an Act was passed barring the construction of any new nuclear
plants in Belgium and establishing a limit of 40 years for the operating
lives of Belgian reactors.[4] But the government faces a problem
already plaguing other countries intent on phasing out their nuclear
industries: most notably Germany and Sweden. If nuclear
power is curtailed, what will replace it? Choose fossil fuels
and the task of obtaining sufficient supplies and improving air quality
standards becomes more difficult. Choose renewables, and the
problems may include changes in the weather and the resources required
to build enough units.
Belgian law limits nuclear power reactor operation to 40 years. The
oldest reactors in Belgium (three units) were completed in 1975,
the newest in 1985. The law thus has no anticipated impact
for another decade, but closes all operating reactors by 2025. The
closure schedule appears impractical and expensive to achieve. Nuclear
power now provides 56% of Belgium's electricity, thus a sizable share
of capacity would need to be replaced during 2015-2025 under the
law. None of this replacement is related to the condition or
safety of the plants. The closure law was passed during Green
Party participation in a coalition that no longer exists. Other
parties in Belgium have mixed views on nuclear power with some favoring
nuclear power and none but the small Greens favoring inflexibly closing
existing units. The present government is reassessing the closure
policy and intends to soften the law. The law includes force majeure
clauses that allow operation beyond the nominal closure dates. Projections
thus accept the direction of existing nuclear power law but not the
schedule. Two reactors are allowed to operate beyond 2025. No
construction is projected.[5]
· Reactors in
Belgium: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Belgium: The Country
Energy Balance, contains statistics on all major fuel
markets in Belgium.
Brazil, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 3.6 percent of Brazil's electricity
output.
Nuclear Power
Brazil has two operational nuclear plants -- the 0.66-GW Angra-1 and the 1.35-GW
Angra-2. Angra-3 remains partly completed, with the plant foundation already
constructed and $700 million worth of parts waiting in storage. The 1.35
GW plant was originally scheduled to become operational in 1988, but a lack
of political support and funding have repeatedly postponed completion of
the project. France's Framatome, a joint venture between French nuclear energy
company Areva and German engineering group Siemens, has reportedly shown
interest in the plant, but it still remains unclear whether Angra-3 will
ever be completed. Eletronuclear, a subsidiary of Eletrobrás, operates
Brazil's two nuclear power plants.[6]
· Reactors in
Brazil: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Brazil: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
NOTE: Britain, Commercial Nuclear Industry of (see United
Kingdom)
Bulgaria, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 37.7 percent of Bulgaria's
electricity output.
“The Bulgarian (nuclear) facility--Kozloduy-- has allowed
the country to become a significant regional power exporter, supplying
the Balkans and Turkey. But authorities from the European Union have
expressed concern over Kozloduy, pressing Bulgaria to decommission
the plant's reactors No. 3 and No. 4 by 2006, about five years ahead
of schedule. Seeking a smooth entry into the European Union in 2007,
the Bulgarian government agreed in October 2002 to close Kozloduy-3
and Kozloduy-4 on the condition that the European Commission provide
monetary compensation. Later, however, the government's decision
was overruled by two Bulgarian high courts, leaving the country's
(and the region's) future fuel mix and EU ascension in question.
Bulgaria has also approved the construction of a new nuclear plant
at Belene, 25 miles west of Kozloduy. Several international firms
have shown in interesting in building the facility, but no timetable
has been set yet.”[7]
· Reactors in
Bulgaria: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Bulgaria: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the key fuels in Bulgaria and the surrounding region.
Canada, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 12.5 percent of Canada's
electricity output.
Canada's state-owned Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) aggressively
promotes reactor construction. AECL's newest design, the ACR700,
is receiving attention in the United States and Canada and sporadically
in the United Kingdom. AECL has stated that it intends to complete
an ACR700 in Canada by 2012 or 2013 though this is not backed by
specific orders. Ontario Power Generation or Bruce Power anticipate
announcing their views on a new reactor during 2004 or possibly 2005. Other
provinces that have expressed an interest in new nuclear power include
Saskatchewan and Alberta. While the chief motivation is electricity,
ACR700s have been proposed for extracting oil from Athabaskan sands. The
reference case includes four new ACR700s by 2025 though the latter
units might actually be the larger ACR1000 design now in advanced
preparation. Not all of Canada's reactors are aging well and
a number will probably retire by 2025. It is unclear that all
of the older Pickering and Bruce units will restart. The reference
projection restarts all Pickering units but not two at Bruce. The
opposite might occur with at least one more Bruce reactor restarting
but not two at Pickering. The reference case is thus “representative” for
these units.[8]
· Reactors in
Canada: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Canada: The Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
· Canadian-built
Reactors (including exported units): Atomic Energy of Canada,
Limited, is currently developing a new version of its CANDU reactor.
CANDU is a trade name for the Canadian-designed and built pressurized
heavy water reactor (PHWR) that is now in use in North and South
America and in Asia. A list of
CANDU reactors in operation or being built appears on this site.
For more information about the Canadian-built reactors,
see the comprehensive data at CANDU,
a site developed by Dr. Jeremy Whitlock.
China, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 2.2 percent of China's electricity
output.
China Feature: (UPDATED: June 4, 2004) "No
other country in Asia (or anywhere else on the planet) is expected
to grow as fast as China" according to a feature prepared by
the Energy Information Administration on the Chinese
Nuclear Industry. The feature has an interactive map, provides
an historical chronology of the development of commercial nuclear
power in China, summarizes current nuclear situation, and projects
future nuclear trends.
· Reactors in
China: This table, based mainly on data from the
International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Argentina: The Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Czech Republic, Commercial Nuclear
Industry of the
In 2003, nuclear power supplied 31.1 percent of the Czech
Republic's electricity output.
“Czech Republic
Both electricity generation and consumption have been rising in the Czech Republic
in recent years. Between 1993 and 2002, electricity production in the country
rose 29%, to 71.8 Bkwh from 55.6 Bkwh, while electricity consumption increased
10.3%, to 55.33 Bkwh from 49.61 Bkwh. In 2002, the country's net power exports
were an estimated 16.42 Bkwh, primarily to Germany, Austria and Slovakia.
Electricity exports are becoming increasingly important for the Czech Republic,
particularly with the commissioning of the Temelín nuclear power plant
in 2001. The Czech government also aims to increase the contribution of renewable
sources to the total consumption of primary energy sources to about 3%-6%
as of the year 2010 and about 4%-8% as of the year 2020.
“State majority-owned Ceské energetické závody
(ČEZ) is the dominant power company in the Czech Republic, supplying
74% of the country's power in 2003. The company operates the country's
two nuclear power plants ( Dukovany and Temelín), along with
10 coal-fired plants, 11 hydropower plants, two wind plants and a
solar plant. ČEZ also holds majority stakes 5 of country's 8
regional electricity distributors. Germany's E.ON owns and operates
two regional distributors – JME and JČE. In May 2004, in accordance
with country's anti-monopoly regulations, ČEZ announced a tender
for the company's 34% stake in Pražská energetika (PR)
(regional distributor for Prague), with a buyer expected to be selected
in November 2004. Other stakeholders in PR include a 50.8% stake
owned jointly by Energie-Baden Württemberg (EnBW) and RWE and
minority stake by the city of Prague. The anti-monopoly authorities
also require ČEZ to dispose of its majority stake (97.72%) in
Středočeská energetická (STE) and 34% minority
stake in ČEPS, the country's transmission grid operator. In
June 2003, the government's attempt to tender its 67% stake in ČEZ
was temporarily suspended, mainly to liabilities surrounding the
Temelín plant (more detail below). A new effort to privatize
the company is not expected until 2005. Other major power producers
in the Czech Republic include U.S.-based Appian Energy, ECK Generating
and Elektrárny Opatovice (International Power)****
“Nuclear
The Czech Republic has two nuclear power plants, Dukovany and Temelín.
After years of delay, on October 9, 2000, the Czech Nuclear Safety Authority
cleared Temelín nuclear for operation, located only 37 miles from the
Austrian border. The first reactor was connected to the national grid in December
2000. The second reactor of the Temelín nuclear power plant was put
into trial operation on April 18, 2003, with both reactors beginning full operational
in May 2003. In 2003, the two nuclear plants comprised 30% of ČEZ's installed
generation capacity and generated 42% of the company's power.
“Temelín has been controversial since construction first
began in 1986. Opponents have argued that the plant is unnecessary,
noting that the Czech Republic already produces more electricity
than it consumes, and that additional electricity can be generated
by improving the existing distribution network rather than installing
new generating capacity. Although Temelín meets and even exceeds
EU safety standards for nuclear power plants, Czech and Austrian
environmentalists claim that it is not safe because it combines Soviet
design and western fuel and safety technology. In June 2004, Temelín
experienced one minor incident when radioactive water leaked out
the plant's second reactor. The Czech State Authority for Nuclear
Safety concluded that the incident was insignificant.”
· Reactors in
the Czech Republic: This table, based mainly on
data from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria,
provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in the Czech Republic and elsewhere in North Central
Europe: The Country
Analysis Brief, provides a general summary of the energy
trends, markets, and policies.
Finland, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 27.3 percent of Finland's
electricity output.
Finland approves nuclear reactor
May 24, 2002 Posted: 7:34 AM EDT (1134 GMT)
HELSINKI, Finland -- Finland has voted to defy
environmentalists and build the first new nuclear reactor in
Western Europe in more than 10 years.
Parliament voted by 107 votes to 92 for the coalition government's
controversial proposal to construct a fifth atomic reactor to guarantee
long-term energy supplies, cut its dependence on Russia and meet
greenhouse gas targets. It will be the first such plant since
1991, when France decided to build a new reactor, and could encourage
similar decisions elsewhere in Europe.[9]
· Reactors in
Finland: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· VVER
Reactors: Finland currently has two Russian-built
VVER reactors and has contracted to build one more, the first
new reactor to begin construction in Europe in more than a
decade. A table listing all existing VVER units (the
Russian equivalent of the light water reactor) is available
on this website.
· Country
Energy Balance, statistics on all energy industries
in Finland.
France, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 77.7 percent of France's
electricity output.
France is advancing the building of a domestic EPR “prototype” reactor
even though the design will be completed earlier in Finland. The
project is proceeding with the most influential debate being whether
it would not be wiser to await new designs. Some favor developing
in North America (AP1000, ESBWR, or ACR700) and others favor the
international Gen IV program which will have greater French input. Opposition
to nuclear power in France is strong enough to encourage formal public
discussions, but has not seriously delayed any project. France
now generates 78% of its electricity using nuclear power but operates
its units well below potential operating capacities. Some nuclear
electricity is exported thus actual French nuclear dependence less
than it appears. If a new reactor is built during the coming
decade, some existing reactors might need to be closed. Because
French units are relatively new this implies unnecessary expenses
and power exports would be a preferred approach. A less expensive
means to expand French nuclear power generation might also be to
either upgrade existing units or to increase their utilization rates
as demand grows. Projections do not include any retirements
even though this is under discussion. (This does not apply
to the Phenix prototype which will retire.) Beyond the initial EPR
only two additional reactors are projected in the reference case,
all during the last decade of the projection period.[10]
· Reactors in
France: This table, based
mainly on data from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna,
Austria, provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Unique
Reactors In the 21st century,
France brought on line the two largest reactors ever built. The
super giants are discussed in the unique reactors feature under “Largest
Reactors (World).”
Country
Analysis Brief, overview of all energy industries
in France.
Germany, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 28.1 percent of Germany's
electricity output.
“Nuclear Power
Currently, Germany ranks fourth worldwide in installed nuclear capacity, behind
the United States, France, and Japan. Germany's 19 nuclear plants comprise
about 20% of Germany's electric generation capacity, and about 30% of actual
generation. E. On, RWE, HEW, and EnBW own nuclear generation capacity, with
E. On holding stakes in 11 of Germany's 19 nuclear power plants.
“Nuclear Power Phase Out
Nuclear power has become controversial since the September 1998 elections.
The Greens, the environmental party that is part of the ruling alliance,
are staunchly opposed to the continued use of nuclear power. Chancellor Schröder
had decided to close all 19 nuclear reactors in 2005, but he has since amended
his position. The government formally signed an agreement with utility companies
in June 2001 to gradually phase out nuclear power, and in April 2002, the
German Parliament amended the country's atomic energy legislation to reflect
this amendment. Each nuclear plant isallowed to produce a finite amount of
electricity. Power plants will have a life span of about 32 years. The deal
could see the total elimination of nuclear power by 2021, as the newest nuclear
plant opened in 1989. Generation volumes are transferable; if an older plant
closes before reaching its production ceiling, its remaining allowable production
can be transferred to a new plant.
“Some observers suggest that there are few economically viable alternatives
to replace quickly such a significant portion of the fuel mix, especially
in the wake of power-sector liberalization. As European markets become
more liberalized and more price-sensitive, replacing the mostly amortized
plants will prove difficult. Over the longer term, however, high
costs (high fixed costs, long depreciation periods and long annual
operating times) associated with nuclear generation could work to
decrease nuclear generation's role in Germany's power sector. Nuclear
installations currently are initiating programs to reduce production
costs and waste disposal costs in order to become more price-competitive.
Some executives in Germany's nuclear industry have claimed that the
June 2001 agreement is not irreversible, and that an electricity
shortage and a change in the political climate might lead to a renewal
of nuclear energy.”[11]
· Reactors in
Germany: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Germany: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes
the key trends for all of the major fuels.
NOTE: Great Britain, Commercial Nuclear Industry of (see United
Kingdom)
Hungary, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 32.7 percent of Hungary's
electricity output.
Hungary
In 2002, Hungary generated approximately 34.1 Bkwh while consuming 36.0 Bkwh
of electricity, making the country a net importer of power. The Paks nuclear
power plant is the largest single power producer in Hungary, generating nearly
40% of the country's power in 2002. The Paks and the Vértesi coal-fired
power plant are operated by state-owned MVM, which also operates Hungary's
national high voltage grid. Besides Paks, the other significant power producers
in Hungary are the 836-MW coal-fired Matra power plant (RWE 50.96%, MVM 25.5%,
and EnBW 21.6%); the 2,000-MW oil/natural gas-fired Dunamenti plant, operated
by Belgium-based Tractabel; and the 860-MW oil/natural gas fired Tiszall
II power plant, operated by U.S.-based AES. E.ON also operates Hungary's
first wind power plant, the 600-kilowatt Emszet. Hungary's power generation
capacity could be further diversified after Mol received a grant from U.S.
Trade and Development Agency to conduct a feasibility study to determine
the best location for the country's first geothermal power plant. If sufficient
geothermal sources are found, Mol plans to construct a 5-MW geothermal plant.
There are 6 regional distribution companies in Hungary: Dedasz; Demasz; Elmu;
Edasz; Emasz; and Titasz. The majority are held completely or partly by foreign
companies, mainly E.on and RWE.
Nuclear
The Paks nuclear power plant in Hungary consists of four Soviet-design,
second generation VVER-440/213 reactor units. There are plans not
only to expand generation capacity of the reactors by 8% but also
to extend the life-cycle of the reactor units by 20 years. The normal
life span of the four units ends between 2012 and 2017. In order
to ensure continuous operation of the plant, the necessary modernization
improvements would have to begin in 2007.
· Reactors in
Hungary: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Hungary: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes
the key trends for all of the major fuels in Hungary and the surrounding
region.
India, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 3.3 percent of India's electricity
output.
”India is trying to expand electric power generation capacity, as
current generation is seriously below peak demand. Although about
80% of the population has access to electricity, power outages are
common, and the unreliability of electricity supplies is severe enough
to constitute a constraint on the country's overall economic development.
The government had targeted capacity increases of 100,000 megawatts
(MW) over the next ten years. As of January 2002, total installed
Indian power generating capacity was 120,000 MW.
“The drive to increase the country's generating capacity, along
with the general trend toward economic liberalization in India in
the 1990s, led to much interest among foreign investors in setting
up Independent Power Producers (IPPs) in India. While dozens
of projects were approved, most of the largest projects were stalled
by delays in regulatory approvals and in some cases failure to secure
adequate financing. India's state electricity boards (SEB's),
which run the power distribution infrastructure and own most current
generating capacity, are in very poor financial shape, with many
of them technically insolvent. One reason is the sale of power at
subsidized rates, which does not cover costs (particularly in the
agricultural sector). Other problems include the high level of transmission
and distribution losses and widespread power theft. Since the
SEBs would be the main purchasers of power from IPP projects, resolving
their financial problems is critical to attracting the capital necessary
to ensure the country an adequate supply of electric power.
“In July 1998, the Indian government announced an easing of rules
related to foreign investment in the power sector. Proposals for
investments up to 15 billion rupees (about $350 million) involving
up to 100% foreign equity now will be approved automatically. Such
approval will be given for investments in generation or distribution
from hydroelectric, coal, lignite, oil, or gas power plants, but
not for nuclear plants and associated distribution networks. The
earlier policy had allowed for only up to 74% foreign equity. Still,
the financial problems of the SEBs have prevented substantial foreign
investment from flowing into India's electric power sector.”
[12]
· Reactors in
India: This table, based mainly on data from the
International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in India: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
· CANDU technology
in India: Canada discontinued its reactor projects in
India when concerns were raised about nuclear proliferation. India,
however, completed work on the Canadian reactors and adopted the
technology to build more. This table shows
all the CANDU and CANDU-based reactors in India, existing or under
construction.
Iran, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of As of September 1, 2004, there are no commercial nuclear power plants
operating in Iran. Two reactors are scheduled to come on line
and there have been discussions on building more.
“Currently, Iran has several small nuclear research reactors, in
addition to a large-scale nuclear power plant under construction
at the southern town of Bushehr. Iran claims that its nuclear power
is for peaceful purposes and that it will help free up oil and natural
gas resources for export, thus generating additional hard-currency
revenues. The country has stated its aim of having 7,000 MW of nuclear
power online by 2020, accounting for 10% of the country's power generation
capacity at that point.
“In September 2003, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
gave Iran until October 31 to provide guarantees that its nuclear
program was for peaceful purposes and to open the country to snap
inspections by the IAEA. On October 6, 2003, Iran's envoy to the
IAEA, Ali Akbar Salehi, said that Iran would withdraw from the Nuclear
NonProliferation Treaty (NNPT) if Western pressure continued. On
October 30, IAEA head Mohammed el-Baradei declared that Iran's report
on its nuclear activities appeared to be "comprehensive," but
that he would still have a lot of questions. On November 14, Iran's
Foreign Minister, Kamal Kharazzi, said that his country was committed
to "complete transparency," and added that the IAEA report
made clear that Iran's nuclear program was for peaceful purposes.
On December 18, Iran signed a protocol to the NNPT that will allow
the IAEA to have more comprehensive access to sites in the country.
It is not known when Iran will officially ratify the protocol. In
mid-March 2004, Iran announced that it was barring nuclear inspectors
from entering the country for an indefinite period of time after
the IAEA passed a resolution rebuking Iran for failure to fully disclose
the details of its past nuclear activity. However, Iran shortly reversed
course and allowed IAEA inspectors to continue their work.
“In December 2002, Iran and Russia signed a protocol for peaceful
cooperation in nuclear power. Russia has been assisting Iran on the
Bushehr nuclear power facility, work on which first began in 1974
by West Germany, but was halted (80% complete) following the 1978/1979
revolution. Significant amounts of money, possibly billions of dollars,
had been spent on Bushehr to that point. Following the Iran-Iraq
War (1980-1988), during which time Bushehr was bombed six times and
seriously damaged, progress on the plant resumed when Russia signed
an $800 million contract in 1995. The contract with Russia called
for completion of a 1,000-MW, pressurized-light-water reactor, as
well as the possible supply of two modern VVER-440 units. Since
then, work has proceeded slowly, although reports in early March
2003 indicated that Bushehr was 70% complete, and was expected to
come online as early as March 2004. Subsequently, the completion
date for Bushehr-1 was pushed off by a year -- supposedly due to
technical difficulties -- and is now scheduled to come online in
2005. In early September 2003, a Russian Atomic Energy Ministry spokesman
said that it would cost "$1.2-$1.3 billion to complete the construction" of
Bushehr's first unit. In November 2003, Russia proposed that it build
a "totally new" second nuclear unit at Bushehr, instead
of completing the one started in the late 1970s.
“Although Iran is a signatory to the NNPT and insists that its nuclear
program is for peaceful purposes (i.e., power generation), the United
States strongly opposes the Bushehr project and has in the past provided
Russia with information pointing to the existence of an Iranian nuclear
weapons program. In May 2002, U.S. Energy Secretary Spencer Abraham
met with Alexander Rumyantsev, head of Russia's nuclear agency,
and discussed this issue, with Rumyantsev stating the Russian position
that Bushehr "is not a source of proliferation of nuclear material." In
late March 2003, U.S. Undersecretary of State for Arms Control, John Bolton,
said, "In the aftermath of Iraq, dealing with the Iranian nuclear
weapons program will be of equal importance as dealing with the North
Korean nuclear weapons program." In April 2003, Russia and Iran
reached a deal on returning spent nuclear fuel rods from Bushehr
back to Russia for reprocessing. Russia hopes to earn as much as
$40 million per year supplying Iran with nuclear fuel and with shipping
out spent fuel. The two countries also have discussed construction
of additional nuclear power plants in Iran.
“In February 2003, Iran announced that it had begun mining uranium
deposits at Saghand near the central Iranian city of Yazd, and was
constructing a uranium enrichment facility at Natanz, located 200
miles southeast of Tehran. In March 2003, International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) inspectors examined Natanz and described it as "impressive." Other
news reports indicated that Natanz was "extremely advanced" and
involved "hundreds" of gas centrifuges for producing enriched
uranium. Some analysts believe that Yazd and Natanz are part of an
Iranian effort to attain self-sufficiency in the entire nuclear fuel
cycle. Besides Natanz, the IAEA also has expressed interest in inspecting
a heavy-water plant at Arak.”
· Reactors in
Iran: This table, based mainly on data from the
International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Iran: In addition to the information excerpted
in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes
the key trends for all of the major fuels.
Italy, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of Italy's four nuclear reactors were shut down in 1997 and none have
re-started, nor have any new Italian reactors come on line. The
shut down resulted when Italian citizens voted in favor of a moratorium
on nuclear power following the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Station in the Ukraine.
Japan, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 25 percent of Japan's electricity
output.
By raising its reliance on nuclear-generated electricity, Japan
is hoping to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions. Japan's current
10-year energy plan, approved in March 2002, calls for the expansion
of nuclear generation by about 30% by 2011. This is expected
to entail the construction by between 9 and 12 new nuclear power
plants, with 17.5 GW in new nuclear generating capacity. The
Japanese government also plans to offer subsidies for nuclear power
plant construction, to offset expected cost-cutting pressures on
utilities due to deregulation which might lead to increased reliance
on fossil fuels for electricity generation. Currently Japan
ranks third worldwide in installed nuclear capacity, behind the United
States and France. Japan currently has 51 reactors with an installed
capacity of 45 GW. Japan's government has indicated that it is still
committed to increasing nuclear power's share of generating capacity
in the future, but many independent analysts think that the target
of a 41% nuclear share of electric power generation by 2011 is unlikely
to be achieved. Public opposition to Japan's nuclear power program
has increased in reaction to a series of accidents at Japanese nuclear
plants, especially the accident at the Tokaimura uranium processing
plant in September 1999, the 2002 TEPCO reactor shutdowns, and an
August 2004 steam pipe burst at the Mihama nuclear power plant which
killed four workers.
In August 1998, the Atomic Energy Commission approved the construction
of a new light-water reactor, which will be built in Higashidori
in Aomori prefecture in northern Japan. Also, in March 1999, the
Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission approved plans for Hokuriku Electric
Power Company to build a new nuclear power plant in the central town
of Shika, which will be operational by 2006.
To enhance its energy security, Japan's government advocates uranium
and plutonium recovery through reprocessing of spent fuel. The Power
Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) operates a
reprocessing plant with an annual capacity of 90 tons, but a larger
reprocessing plant, Rokkasho-Mura, with a capacity of 800 tons per
year, planned for completion in July 2005, is under construction.
Reprocessing is expensive and costs can quickly rise with new safety
requirements and the development of new technologies. Estimated in
1993 to cost about $8 billion, more recent estimates put the cost
of the facility much higher. In the meantime, Japan is negotiating
with the French firm COGEMA for the reprocessing of spent nuclear
fuel in France. COGEMA may continue to reprocess some spent
fuel even after the Rokkasho plant is completed. Japan also
is interested in recycling recovered plutonium. In 1999, Japan began
-- in two prefectures -- a controversial mixed-oxide utilization
plan, which involves burning a highly
· Reactors in
Japan: This table, based mainly on data from the
International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Japan: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Lithuania, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 79.9 percent of Argentina's
electricity output. This is the largest market share for nuclear
power in any country.
Electricity: Market Dynamics
Estonia and Lithuania are net electricity exporters, sending their surplus
to neighboring Latvia and parts of northwest Russia. In 2001, Estonia generated
7.9 billion kilowatts (bkwh) of electricity, the preponderance of which came
from the country's Narva oil shale-fired power plants. Lithuania generated
14.6 bkwh in 2001, of which 11.4 bkwh came from the country's Soviet-era
Ignalina nuclear power plant which is to be closed in two stages beginning
in 2005 and ending in 2009. While Lithuania has agreed to the shutdown of
its nuclear facilities under strong safety concerns from the EU, the country
has indicated its interest in developing a new nuclear facility. The proposal
has received support from Estonia, which will see its environmentally hazardous
oil shale-fired electricity generation decline over time under EU environmental
policies. Importation of nuclear electricity from Lithuania would then serve
as an alternative to imports of natural gas from Russia.[13]
· Reactors in
Lithuania: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Lithuania: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels in Lithuania and the surrounding region.
Mexico, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 5.2 percent of Mexico's electricity
output.
In 2002, Mexico's installed electric power generating capacity was 42.3 gigawatts.
In the same year, the country generated an estimated 198.6 billion kilowatthours
(Bkwh) of electricity, of which thermal (oil, natural gas, and coal) electricity
generation account for 81%. Oil-fired power plants accounted for the largest
share of Mexico's thermal electricity generation, but many of these plants
are being converted to natural gas. According to Sener, fuel oil accounted
for 49.4% of thermal feedstock in 2002. By 2012, natural gas is forecast
to account for 63%of Mexico's power output while fuel oil's share is expected
to drop to 24.2%. In 2002, hydropower accounted for 12% of Mexico's total
electricity generation, followed by nuclear with 4.5% and geothermal with
2.5%. Mexico also has one wind-power installation in Oaxaca, which generated
0.005% of the country's total electricity generation. There are plans to
increase Mexico's wind capacity.
Demand for electricity in Mexico has increased steadily over the
last decade. Sener has forecast demand to grow at a rate of 5.6%
between 2003 and 2012. The regions that are expected to see the largest
increase are the Northeast, the Baja California and the Yucatan peninsula,
mainly due to industrial and tourism development. According to government
estimates, the country will need $50 billion in investment over the
next decade to meet the country's growing electricity demand.
[14]
· Reactors in
Mexico: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Mexico: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Netherlands, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 4.5 percent of the Netherlands'
electricity output.
Netherlands nuclear power industry consists of one old and small
reactor. The reactor is insignificant to the Netherlands' overall
electricity balance and future. Attempts to force the reactor
to close early have been abandoned but the reactor is still anticipated
to close at the end of its licensed period. There has been
recent talk of a new reactor but no new Dutch reactor is projected
(by the Energy Information Administration).[15]
· Reactor in
Netherlands: This table, based mainly on data
from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria,
provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Netherlands: The Country
Energy Balance contains statistics on all major fuels.
North Korea (Peoples Republic of Korea), Commercial Nuclear
Industry
ofPrior to 1994, North Korea's nuclear program had been a major concern
for regional security, since its graphite reactor technology produced
fissionable plutonium which can be used in nuclear weapons. North
Korea precipitated a crisis in March 1993 when it announced it would
withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1993. In June
1993, North
Korea agreed to "suspend" its withdrawal after
talks with the United States.
Under the Agreed Framework negotiated with the United States in
October 1994, North Korea had agreed to freeze its nuclear program
in exchange for two new pressurized light-water reactors (which are
considered less capable of producing weapons-grade plutonium) and
500,000 metric tons per year (about 3.3 million barrels) of heavy
fuel oil to meet its energy needs until the first new reactor becomes
operational. KEDO, an international consortium led by the U.S. government
(with South Korea, Japan, the European Union, and others), was established
to implement the agreement. The European Union joined KEDO in September
1997.
Japan signed a contract in May 1999 committing to provide its $1
billion contribution to KEDO to fund the new light-water reactors,
an action which had been delayed by North Korea's missile test in
August 1998. The project was expected to cost a total of $4.6 billion,
with South Korea providing the greatest share of funding at $3.2
billion. The United States and the European Union also had pledged
to contribute funds.
Construction of the light water reactors was to be performed under
a turnkey contract with KEPCO, which was awarded in December 1999.
Initial site preparation work had begun, and the concrete foundation
at the site was laid in August 2002. Training of North Korean technicians
who were to operate the reactors had begun in June 2002. The project
had faced many delays, and the completion date for the first reactor
has been pushed back to at least 2008, from an original completion
date of 2003. One hurdle the project had faced was the issue of indemnity
for potential liabilities created by the plant. General Electric
had originally been chosen to supply the generators, but pulled out
of the project when the issue was not resolved to its satisfaction. In
January 2001, it was announced that a consortium of Japanese firms,
led by Hitachi and Toshiba, would supply the generators.
The disclosure by North Korea in October 2002 that it had a clandestine
nuclear weapons program called into question the basis under the
Agreed Framework for continuing construction of the reactors. On
November 21, 2003, the Executive Board of KEDO, comprised of the
United States, Japan, South Korea, and the European Union, made a
formal determination that North Korea had not met the conditions
necessary for the continuation of the light water reactor project.
The project was suspended for a period of one year, beginning December
1, 2003. The future of the project is to be decided by the Executive
Board before the end of the suspension period.[16]
Pakistan, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 2.4 percent of Pakistan's
electricity output.
”Pakistan has 18 gigawatts (GW) of electric generating capacity.
Thermal plants using oil, natural gas, and coal account for about
70% of this capacity, with hydroelectricity (hydro) making up 28%
and nuclear plants 2.5%. Pakistan's total power generating capacity
has increased rapidly in recent years, due largely to foreign investment,
leading to a partial alleviation of the power shortages Pakistan
often faces in peak seasons. Rotating blackouts ("load shedding")
are, however, still necessary in some areas. Transmission losses
are about 30%, due to poor quality infrastructure and a significant
amount of power theft. Periodic droughts affect the availability
of hydropower. With much of the Pakistan's rural areas yet to receive
electric power, and less than half of the population connected to
the national grid, significant power demand growth is expected in
the long term, though in the short term, Pakistan has some excess
generation capacity.
“The electric power sector in Pakistan is still primarily state-owned,
but a privatization program is reportedly underway. The main state-owned
utilities are the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA),
and the Karachi Electricity Supply Corporation (KESC), which serves
only Karachi and surrounding areas. Together, WAPDA and KESC transmit
and distribute all power in Pakistan -- over half to household consumers,
about one third to industrial consumers and the rest to commercial
and government consumers. Rates are determined by the National Electric
Power Regulatory Authority (Nepra) and disputes over adjustments
to rates are common within the industry.”[17]
· Reactors in
Pakistan: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Pakistan: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Romania, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 9.3 percent of Romania's
electricity output.
“Romania's one-reactor nuclear plant, Cernavoda, accounted for about
10% of electricity generation in 2001. Romania is working to develop
a second reactor at the facility, and hopes to commission the new
reactor by 2006. In October 2003, the Romanian government announced
plans to overhaul the country's electricity sector following a series
of blackouts in 2002. The government's plan aims to spend $10.4 billion
on developing new nuclear and hydroelectric generating facilities,
as well as upgrading the country's transmission infrastructure. Hydroelectric
power also plays a significant role in Romania, accounting for almost
30% of generation in 2001.”[18]
· Reactors in
Romania: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Romania: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels in Romania and surrounding region.
Russia, Commercial Nuclear Industry
of
In 2003, nuclear power supplied 16.5 percent of Russia's
electricity output.
Russia's power sector includes over 440 thermal and hydropower plants
(approximately 77 of which are coal-fired) plus 30 nuclear reactors.
The system has a total electric generation capacity of 205.6 million
kilowatts, and in 2002 generated approximately 850.6 billion kilowatt
hours (bkwh) of electric power (see graph). Since the collapse of
the Soviet Union, electricity generation has shown both a dramatic
decline, (down 18% between 1992 and 1999), and a gradual recovery
(up 8% between 1999 and 2002)--see graph. As with similar patterns
in oil, natural gas and coal, electricity generation was stunted
by the economic slowdown which followed the collapse of the Soviet
Union. Economic recovery has resulted in an increase in total electricity
consumption from 715 Bkwh in 1998, to roughly 780 Bkwh in 2002, resulting
in corresponding increases in electric generation (see graph).
Thermal power (oil, gas, coal) accounts for roughly 63% of Russia's
electricity generation, followed by hydropower (21%) and nuclear
(16%)--see graph. The Russian government has stated that it intends
to expand the role of nuclear and hydropower in the future in order
to allow for greater export of fossil fuels. Russia has an installed
nuclear capacity of 21.2 million kilowatts, distributed across 30
operational nuclear reactors at 10 locations, all west of the Ural
Mountains. However, Russia's nuclear power facilities are aging,
and the nuclear power industry has been hard hit by Russia's transition
to a market economy. Russia already has shut down several reactors
that were over 30 years old, and many more are over 20 years old.
By 2010, Russia plans to construct five new units at existing facilities
throughout the country. By 2020, the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy
predicts that nuclear generation could reach 300 bkwh per year, more
than double the 2002 level.
· Russian-built
Reactors: The former Soviet Union and the modern Russian Federation
built a variety of reactor models. A table focusing on Russian
pressurized light water reactors (VVER is
the Russian designation, PWR is used in the West) is available
on this web site. The VVER reactors are the only type being built
by the Russian Federation, but two other Soviet designs are still
in use: the BN600 fast breeder reactor (FBR) and the light-water
cooled, graphite-moderated (LGR) reactor, popularly called the "Chernobyl
reactor." Although all LGRs currently in use have received
some safety modifications, international concerns about safety
remain and they are gradually being phased out.
· Reactors in
Russia: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Russia: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes
the key trends for all of the major fuels.
The Slovak Republic, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 57.4 percent of the Slovak
Republic's electricity output.
Nuclear
Slovakia has two nuclear power plants, which generated an estimated
54% of Slovakia's electricity in 2001. The Jaslovske Bohunice plant
at Trnava has four, 408-MW reactors that are functioning, and one
decommissioned reactor. The plant's two older reactors are due to
be decommissioned in 2006 and 2008 as part of the energy chapter
of Slovakia's accession agreement with the EU. The Mochovce plant
has two 412-MW reactors in operation and two uncompleted reactors.
Construction of these reactors has been halted, as government financial
support for them has ended.[19]
· Reactors in
the Slovak Republic: This table, based mainly
on data from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna,
Austria, provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in the Slovak Republic: In addition to the
information excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels in the Slovak Republic and the surrounding region.
South Africa, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 6 percent of the South Africa's
electricity output.
ELECTRICITY
Parastatal company Eskom, one of the largest utilities in the world, generates
nearly all (approximately 95%) of South Africa's electricity. Eskom's generating
capacity of 38,211 megawatts (MW), which is primarily coal-fired (33,878
MW), also includes one nuclear power station
at Koeberg (1,930 MW), two gas turbine facilities (342 MW), six conventional
hydroelectric plants (661 MW), and two hydroelectric pumped-storage stations
(1,400 MW). Eskom also has four mothballed coal-fired facilities that have
a capacity of 3,800 MW. South African municipalities own and operate 2,436
MW of generating capacity, of which the majority (1,932 MW) is coal-fired.
An additional 836 MW of generating capacity is privately held.[20]
· Reactors in
South Africa: This table, based mainly on data
from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria,
provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in South Africa: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes
the key trends for all of the major fuels.
South Korea (Republic of Korea), Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 40 percent of the South Korea's
electricity output.
South Korea uses a combination of thermal (oil, gas, and coal),
nuclear, and hydroelectric capacity to meet its demand for electric
power. Total power generation capacity was 52 gigawatts (GW) as of
the beginning of 2001. The South Korean government estimates that
its electricity demand will rise at an average annual rate of around
4% per year through 2015.
In September 1998, KEPCO officially dedicated its Ulchin Number
3 nuclear reactor and launched the construction of Ulchin Nuclear
Power Plants Numbers 5 and 6. Ulchin Number 3 has a generating capacity
of 1 GW and is the first nuclear power plant built completely with
South Korean technology from design to construction. The Number 4
Ulchin nuclear plant was completed in late 1999, and Numbers 5 and
6 are targeted to be completed in 2004 and 2005.
The South Korean government is moving ahead with plans to break
up and privatize most of the assets of KEPCO, albeit at a much slower
pace than originally planned. The South Korean government plans to
split KEPCO into separate generation, transmission, and distribution
units. In early 2001, KEPCO split its power generation holdings into
six separate subsidiaries, in a preliminary move to facilitate a
split into competing companies. Five of the six operate thermal and
hydroelectric facilities and are of roughly equal size in terms of
installed generating capacity - between 7 and 8 GW. The sixth is
comprised of all of KEPCO's nuclear plants, which will be kept together
in one corporation under government ownership. The privatization
plan has been controversial, with unions fearing layoffs by new management
and some politicians opposing foreign ownership. Current plans
call for the first initial public offerings (IPO) for Korea Southeast
Power, to take place in June 2004. The others would follow in 2005.
While most of South Korea's generating capacity is still controlled
by KEPCO, a few independent power producers (IPPs) exist. LG
Power, owned by the LG Group conglomerate, operates a 540-megawatt
(MW) independent power plant at Bugok near Asan Bay. The facility
began operation in April 2001. LG Power purchased the existing
Anyang and Puchon plants in June 2000, with a combined capacity of
950 MW, from KEPCO after a competitive tender. Tractebel is
also investing in a new 519-MW IPP plant in Yulchon in partnership
with Hyundai. In another significant development, South Korea's original
IPP, Hanwha Energy was spun off from its chaebol parent company in
June 2000, in a deal in which El Paso Energy acquired a 50% stake.
Hanwha Energy operates a 1,800-MW plant at Inchon. In general, IPP
project activity has been slowed down by the uncertainty over the
timetable for the privatization of KEPCO's generation assets.
South Korea has ratified the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions,
and while its status as a "non-Annex I state" means it
has not undertaken to meet specific targets, its future plans emphasize
the development of more nuclear power plants to reduce growth in
carbon emissions. A dozen additional nuclear plants are planned before
2015.[21]
· Reactors in
South Korea: This table, based mainly on data
from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria,
provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in South Korea: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Spain, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 23.6 percent of the Spain's
electricity output.
In 2002, Spain had the fifth largest electricity market in the EU
(behind Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy). For the
year, Spain consumed 218 billion kilowatthours (Bkwh), an increase
of 3.3% year-on-year. From 1998 to 2002, Spain's electricity consumption
increased annually on average 6%. In 2002, Spain's generation mix
comprised the following: thermal (oil, natural gas and coal) accounting
for 52.3%; hydro 25.2%; nuclear 14.9% and other renewables (mainly
wind), 7.6%. Spain has nine nuclear reactors in operation with one,
Vandellós I, having been decommissioned in July 1990. Union
Fenosa reportedly plans to close its nuclear power plant, Zorita
(José Cabrera), on April 26, 2006. In 2002, Spain's nuclear
reactors produced 59.9 Bkwh, a 1% year-on-year decrease.
According to Spain's current 10-year energy plan, natural gas and
renewables are projected to increase their share of electric generation
considerably, providing 33.1% and 28.4%, respectively, of total electric
generation by 2011, while nuclear, coal and oil are expected to account
for smaller percentages of total generation.[22]
· Reactors in
Spain: This table, based mainly on data from the
International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Spain: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
Sweden, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 49.6 percent of the Sweden's
electricity output.
· Reactors in
Sweden: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Sweden: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Energy Balance, contains statistics for all major fuels
in Sweden.
Switzerland, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 39.7 percent of the Switzerland's
electricity output.
· Reactors in
Switzerland: This table, based mainly on data
from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria,
provides the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Switzerland: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Energy Balance, contains statistics on all of the major
fuels in Switzerland.
Ukraine, Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of In 2003, nuclear power supplied 45.9 percent of the Ukraine's
electricity output.
ELECTRICITY
Ukraine's power sector is the twelfth largest in the world in terms of installed
capacity, with 54 gigawatts (GW), slightly more than South Korea (52 GW).
However, generation and consumption have fallen sharply since independence
(see graph), and in 2001 the country generated 165 billion kilowatt hours
(bkwh) of electricty--representing only 60% of South Korea's generation.
The country is currently in the process of revamping its electricity sector,
by privatization, increased utilization at existing facilities, and the completion
of two new nuclear plants (see below).
In Ukraine, thermal power plants (oil, natural gas, coal) account
for nearly 50% of generation, with nuclear power generating another
40%, and hydroelectric accounting for approximately 10% (see graph).
Ukraine has more than enough generating capacity to produce twice
its electricity needs. However, the country's distribution system
is in need of investment and maintenance as significant quantities
of generation are wasted via line losses and several of the country's
nuclear facilities are often intermittently shut down throughout
the year owing to technical problems. In April 2003, President Kuchma
announced that all of Ukraine's 27 regional electricity distribution
companies should be privatized in 2003-2004 in an effort to encourage
investment. Currently, only six Ukrainian distribution companies
have been fully privatized.
Nuclear
Ukraine currently has four operating nuclear power plants. These power
plants have a combined capacity of 12.8 gigawatts, which accounts for approximately
24% of the country's total power-generating capacity. Ukraine's nuclear power
plants produce 40% of the country's power, despite frequent malfunctions and
lengthy repairs and maintenance.
On December 15, 2000, Ukraine permanently shut down the 925-MW,
Unit 3 at the Chornobyl power plant, disabling the last remaining
working reactor at the ill-fated power plant. To replace the power
generated by Chornobyl, which Ukrainian officials say produced approximately
5% of the country's total, Ukraine has resumed construction of two
1-GW reactors at the Khmelnitsky and Rivne power plants.
Construction of Khmelnitsky-2 and Rivne-4 was begun under the Soviet
Union, and both were more than 80% finished when Ukraine received
its independence and ran out of money to complete them. Ukraine had
been hoping to finish construction of both reactors with the help
of financing from the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(EBRD), but an EBRD loan for the project was put on hold in December
2001. In September 2003, after lengthy deliberations, the Ukrainian
government announced its intentions to compete the reactors on its
own, without the involvement of the EBRD. However, in late September
2003, talks between the two sides resumed. The plan has been criticized
by environmentalists and others as unnecessary given Ukraine's existing
overcapacity.[23]
· Reactors in
Ukraine: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names,
types, net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection,
date that commercial operation began, and the operating utility,
agency, or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in Ukraine: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of
the major fuels.
United Kingdom, Commercial Nuclear Industry
of
In 2003, nuclear power supplied 23.7 percent of the United Kingdom's
electricity output.
Nuclear
In 1995, the government announced that it would privatize its more modern nuclear
stations while retaining ownership of older stations. In 1996, the more modern
stations were privatized and British Energy became the holding company of
Nuclear Electric and Scottish Nuclear, which merged in 1998 to form British
Energy Generation, the nation's largest private nuclear generator and the
world's first wholly privatized nuclear utility. British Energy operates
eight nuclear power stations in the UK. Each station consists of two advanced
gas-cooled reactors, except Sizewell B, which is a modern pressurized-water
reactor. Nuclear power stations were not privatized simultaneously with non-nuclear
stations.
Of the UK's 33 reactors, 26 are of the old Magnox design. Six of the
Magnox reactors are being decommissioned, as is the Dounreay prototype
fast reactor. The remaining Magnox plants are run by the state-owned
British Nuclear Fuels. British Nuclear Fuels operates the Sellafield
reprocessing plant, and is one of only two companies in the world that
provides reprocessing and recycling technologies. The British nuclear
industry is regulated by the Department of Trade and Industry's Nuclear
Directorate.[24]
· Reactors in the
United Kingdom: This table, based mainly on data from
the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria, provides
the following information on the country's reactors: names, types,
net capacity, date construction began, date of grid connection, date
that commercial operation began, and the operating utility, agency,
or company.
· Energy industries
and markets in the United Kingdom: In addition to the information
excerpted in the summary, the Country
Analysis Brief, summarizes the key trends for all of the
major fuels.
Vietnam,
Commercial Nuclear
Industry
of
The state power company, Electricity of Vietnam (EVN), is working on
a plan to develop a national electricity grid by 2020, patching together
several regional grids. By 2005, EVN aims to build hydropower plants
in the central and central highland regions. Three hydroelectric dams,
with capacities of between 285 MW and 370 MW, are planned, and construction
of the first at Dai Ninh began in 2001. EVN also plans to increase Vietnam's
natural gas consumption, using gas from offshore fields to fuel new power
plants. Two small gas-fired plants are currently in operation. Construction
of Vietnam's first nuclear power plant is included in the plan, to be
completed by 2020.
In March 2004, EVN announced plans to spend $1.3 billion building and
refurbishing power plants in 2004 with a combined capacity of 1,510 MW.
The projects include, the add-on combined cycle power plant Phu My 2.1,
the hydro electricity station Can Don, the thermo Phu My 3 and Phu My
4 plants and Na Duong. Additional projects include the Song Ba Ha, Bac
Binh, Se San 4, Dong Nai 3 and Dong Nai 4 hydro-stations and the Quang
Ninh, Ninh Binh extension and the O Mon 600 MW thermal plant. In addition
to power plants, the Tan Dinh 500kV power station will be built and the
Cai Lay-O Mon section of the Nha Be-O Mon 500kV power transmission line
will be erected in 2004.[25].
Projected World Nuclear Capacity: Forecasted nuclear capacity
up to 2020, by country, appears in a table developed
by the Energy Information Administration.
Russian-built Reactors: The former Soviet Union and the modern
Russian Federation built a variety of reactor models. A table focusing
on Russian pressurized light water reactors (VVER is
the Russian designation, PWR is used in the West) is available on this
web site. The VVER reactors are the only type being built by the Russian
Federation, but two other Soviet designs are still in use: the BN600
fast breeder reactor (FBR) and the light-water cooled, graphite-moderated
(LGR) reactor, popularly called the "Chernobyl reactor." Although
all LGRs currently in use have received some safety modifications, international
concerns about safety remain and they are gradually being phased out.
The Following Information Available on Other Websites:
All the World's Reactors: This web page makes
extensive use of data gathered and reported by the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria. The Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) produced
and maintained by the IAEA was the primary source used for the Reactors (Existing
and Under Construction) Table. In addition to the information reproduced
here, the PRIS file includes gross capacity, reactor manufacturer, and other
data.
Diagrams of Unusual Reactors: The Berkeley web site
contains diagrams and photos of various reactors, including the following:
Advanced
Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR)
Advanced
Liquid Metal Reactor: (ALMR)
Integral
Fast Reactor (IFR)
Modular
High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (MHTGR)
The International
Atomic Energy Agency site, in addition to maintaining the PRIS file,
(see All the World's reactors, this section) provides information on virtually
every aspect of nuclear power throughout the world: nuclear weapons
and surveillance, nuclear-related electricity generation, nuclear waste,
government policy, and much more.
The International
Nuclear Safety Center (INSC) website was developed by the Argonne National
Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy. The INSC web site has interactive
maps, data on plant ownership, reactor suppliers, and various articles.
Technical Notes and Sources:
[1]Commercial Generating
Units: The adjective “commercial” is used to distinguish
from military or research reactors. Historically, some military and research
reactors have supplied a limited amount of electricity on the open market,
but they are not designed specifically for that role. The term “generating
unit” is used for clarification. A reactor does not produce the electricity,
but provides the power to operate the generator that provides the electricity.
Therefore, the term “reactors” wherever it appears in this section (unless
otherwise indicated) is synonymous with commercial nuclear generating
units.
[2] Energy Information Administration,
Country Analysis Brief: Argentina, January 2004.
[3] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Caucasus, October
2003.
[4] World Nuclear Association, “Nuclear Power in Belgium,” August
2004.
[5] Energy Information Administration, “Belgium,” by
Ron Hagen, September 2004.
[6] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Brazil, August
2004.
[7] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Southeastern Europe,
March 2004.
[8] Energy Information Administration, “Canada,” by
Ron Hagen, September 2004.
[9] CNN, Finland Approves Reactor,
formerly on-line: http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/05/24/finland.reactor/, May
24, 2002.
[10] Energy Information Administration, France summary, by Ron Hagen, September
16, 2004.
[11] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Germany, September
2003.
[12] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: India, June 2004.
[13] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Baltic Sea Region,
January 2004.
[14] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Mexico, March
2004.
[15] Energy Information Administration, Netherlands, by Ron Hagen, September 2004.
[16] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: North Korea, January
2004.
[17] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Pakistan, July
2004.
[18] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Southeastern Europe,
March 2004.
[19] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: North Central
Europe, June 2004.
[20] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: South Africa,
December 2003.
[21] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: South Korea, December
2003.
[22] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Spain, April 2004.
[23] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Ukraine, September
2003.
[24] Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: United Kingdom,
April 2004.
[25] Energy Information Administration,
Country Analysis Brief: Vietnam, June 2004.
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