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CONTENTS Preface xiii 1 Research in the Behavioral Sciences 1 The Beginnings of Behavioral Research 2 Goals of Behavioral Research 4 Describing Behavior 5 Predicting Behavior 5 Explaining Behavior 6 Behavioral Science and Common Sense 6 The Value of Research to the Student 7 The Scientific Approach 9 Systematic Empiricism 9 Public Verification 9 Solvable Problems 10 The Scientist?s Two Jobs: Detecting and Explaining Phenomena 12 Research Hypotheses 14 Conceptual and Operational Definitions 17 Proof, Disproof, and Scientific Progress 19 The Logical Impossibility of Proof 19 The Practical Impossibility of Disproof 20 If Not Proof or Disproof, Then What? 21 The Scientific Filter 21 Strategies of Behavioral Research 24 Descriptive Research 24 Correlational Research 25 Experimental Research 26 Quasi-Experimental Research 26 Domains of Behavioral Science 27 A Preview 28 Summary 29 2 Behavioral Variability and Research 34 Variability and the Research Process 35 Variance: An Index of Variability 38 A Conceptual Explanation of Variance 39 A Statistical Explanation of Variance 40 Systematic and Error Variance 43 Systematic Variance 43 Error Variance 44 Distinguishing Systematic from Error Variance 46 Assessing the Strength of Relationships 47 Meta-Analysis: Systematic Variance Across Studies 49 The Quest for Systematic Variance 52 Summary 52 3 The Measurement of Behavior 55 Types of Measures 56 Scales of Measurement 58 Estimating the Reliability of a Measure 59 Measurement Error 60 Reliability as Systematic Variance 62 Assessing Reliability 63 Increasing the Reliability of Measures 68 Estimating the Validity of a Measure 69 Assessing Validity 69 Fairness and Bias in Measurement 75 Summary 77 4 Approaches to Psychological Measurement 82 Observational Methods 83 Naturalistic Versus Contrived Settings 84 Disguised Versus Nondisguised Observation 86 Behavioral Recording 88 Increasing the Reliability of Observational Methods 90 Physiological Measures 91 Self-Report: Questionnaires and Interviews 92 Writing Questions 93 Questionnaires 97 Interviews 99 Advantages of Questionnaires Versus Interviews 100 Biases in Self-Report Measurement 101 Archival Data 102 Content Analysis 105 Summary 107 5 Descriptive Research 111 Types of Descriptive Research 112 Surveys 112 Demographic Research 116 Epidemiological Research 116 Summary 117 Sampling 117 Probability Samples 118 Nonprobability Samples 126 Describing and Presenting Data 130 Criteria of a Good Description 130 Frequency Distributions 130 Measures of Central Tendency 136 Measures of Variability 137 Standard Deviation and the Normal Curve 138 The z-Score 141 Summary 142 6 Correlational Research 147 The Correlation Coefficient 149 A Graphic Representation of Correlations 150 The Coefficient of Determination 153 Statistical Significance of r 157 Factors That Distort Correlation Coefficients 159 Restricted Range 159 Outliers 161 Reliability of Measures 163 Correlation and Causality 163 Partial Correlation 166 Other Indices of Correlation 167 Summary 169 7 Advanced Correlational Strategies 174 Predicting Behavior: Regression Strategies 174 Linear Regression 175 Types of Multiple Regression 177 Multiple Correlation 182 Assessing Directionality: Cross-Lagged and Structural Equations Analysis 183 Cross-Lagged Panel Design 183 Structural Equations Modeling 184 Uncovering Underlying Dimensions: Factor Analysis 187 An Intuitive Approach 188 Basics of Factor Analysis 188 Uses of Factor Analysis 190 Summary 192 8 Basic Issues in Experimental Research 196 Manipulating the Independent Variable 198 Independent Variables 198 Dependent Variables 202 Assignment of Participants to Conditions 203 Simple Random Assignment 203 Matched Random Assignment 204 Repeated Measures Designs 204 Experimental Control 208 Systematic Variance 209 Error Variance 210 An Analogy 211 Eliminating Confounds 212 Internal Validity 212 Threats to Internal Validity 213 Experimenter Expectancies, Demand Characteristics, and Placebo Effects 217 Error Variance 220 Sources of Error Variance 221 Experimental Control and Generalizability: The Experimenter?s Dilemma 223 Summary 225 9 Experimental Design 230 One-Way Designs 231 Assigning Participants to Conditions 232 Posttest and Pretest?Posttest Designs 233 Factorial Designs 236 Factorial Nomenclature 237 Assigning Participants to Conditions 239 Main Effects and Interactions 241 Main Effects 242 Interactions 242 Higher-Order Designs 245 Combining Independent and Subject Variables 246 Summary 250 10 Analyzing Experimental Data 254 An Intuitive Approach to Analysis 255 The Problem: Error Variance Can Cause Mean Differences 255 The Solution: Inferential Statistics 256 Hypothesis Testing 257 The Null Hypothesis 257 Type I and Type II Errors 258 Effect Size 261 Summary 261 Analysis of Two-Group Experiments: The t-Test 261 Conducting a t-Test 262 Back to the Droodles Experiment 266 Analyses of Matched-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 267 Computer Analyses 268 Summary 270 11 Analyzing Complex Designs 274 The Problem: Multiple Tests Inflate Type I Error 275 The Rationale Behind ANOVA 276 How ANOVA Works 277 Total Sum of Squares 277 Sum of Squares Within-Groups 278 Sum of Squares Between-Groups 279 The F-Test 280 Extension of ANOVA to Factorial Designs 280 Follow-Up Tests 283 Main Effects 284 Interactions 284 Putting It All Together: Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions 285 Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects ANOVAs 288 Multivariate Analysis of Variance 289 Conceptually Related Dependent Variables 289 Inflation of Type I Error 290 How MANOVA Works 290 Experimental and Nonexperimental Uses of Inferential Statistics 292 Summary 293 12 Quasi-Experimental Designs 296 Pretest?Posttest Designs 298 How NOT to Do a Study: The One-Group Pretest?Posttest Design 299 Nonequivalent Control Group Design 300 Time Series Designs 305 Simple Interrupted Time Series Design 305 Interrupted Time Series with a Reversal 307 Control Group Interrupted Time Series Design 309 Longitudinal Designs 309 Program Evaluation 312 Evaluating Quasi-Experimental Designs 314 Threats to Internal Validity 314 Increasing Confidence in Quasi-Experimental Results 315 Summary 317 13 Single-Case Research 320 Single-Case Experimental Designs 322 Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses 323 Basic Single-Case Experimental Designs 326 Data from Single-Participant Designs 329 Uses of Single-Case Experimental Designs 332 Critique of Single-Participant Designs 334 Case Study Research 335 Uses of the Case Study Method 335 Limitations of the Case Study Approach 337 Summary 339 14 Ethical Issues in Behavioral Research 343 Approaches to Ethical Decisions 344 Basic Ethical Guidelines 346 Potential Benefits 347 Potential Costs 348 Balancing Benefits and Costs 348 The Institutional Review Board 348 The Principle of Informed Consent 349 Obtaining Informed Consent 349 Problems with Obtaining Informed Consent 350 Invasion of Privacy 352 Coercion to Participate 353 Physical and Mental Stress 353 Deception in Research 354 Objections to Deception 354 Debriefing 355 Confidentiality in Research 356 Common Courtesy 359 Ethical Principles in Research with Animals 360 Scientific Misconduct 362 A Final Note 366 Summary 367 15 Scientific Writing 370 How Scientific Findings Are Disseminated 370 Journal Publication 371 Presentations at Professional Meetings 372 Personal Contact 373 Elements of Good Scientific Writing 374 Organization 374 Clarity 375 Conciseness 377 Proofreading and Rewriting 378 Avoiding Biased Language 379 Gender-Neutral Language 379 Other Language Pitfalls 381 Parts of a Manuscript 382 Title Page 382 Abstract 383 Introduction 384 Method 385 Results 386 Discussion 387 Citing and Referencing Previous Research 387 Citations in the Text 387 The Reference List 388 Other Aspects of APA Style 392 Optional Sections 392 Headings, Spacing, Pagination, and Numbers 393 Writing a Research Proposal 395 Sample Manuscript 396 Glossary 419 Appendix A Statistical Tables 431 Appendix B Computational Formulas for ANOVA 438 Appendix C Choosing the Proper Statistical Analysis 447 References 449 Index 457
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Psychology -- Research -- Methodology.