^1.  This chapter does not cover child labor labeling programs or codes of conduct. Such efforts were described in detail in The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the International Child Labor Problem? (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1996) and By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume IV): Consumer Labels and Child Labor (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, 1997).

^2.  Prevenção do Trabalho Infantil: Experiência do Sindicato dos Trabalhodores Rurais de Retirolândia (Retirolândia/Bahia: Sindicato dos Trabalhodores Rurais de Retirolândia, 1996) 7. As of 1997, about 200 children in 50 families had been assisted by the goat program. "Infância Roubada," Special Edition on Child Labor (São Paulo: Folha de São Paulo, May 1, 1997) 5. This program is currently being implemented in conjuction with the Ministry of Welfare and Social Assistance's Program on the Eradication of Child Labor (described below) to provide important income generating opportunities through the sale of goat cheese, milk, and meat.

^3.  Statement of R.J. Taylor, President of Taylor and Fulton, Inc. on behalf of Florida Farmers and Suppliers Coalition, Inc. before the Subcommittee on International Operations & Human Rights and Subcommittee on Economic Policy & Trade, Committee on International Relations, U.S. House of Representatives (October 22, 1997). See also S. L. Bachman, "Young Workers in Mexico's Economy," U.S. News and World Report (September 1, 1997) 40.

^4.  CAADES estimates that 14,000 of the 120,000 agricultural workers who migrate to Sinaloa each year are children ages six to 14. La horticultura de Sinaloa y el trabajo infantil (Culiacán: Comité de Planeación para el Desarrollo del Estado de Sinaloa, July 1998) 2 [hereinafter La horticultura de Sinaloa]. Others estimate that the number of children working may be closer to 30,000. Interview with María Teresa Guerra Ochoa, Universidad Autonoma de Sinaloa, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 23, 1998).

^5.  Interview with Mario H. Robles, CAADES, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 22, 1998).

^6.  La horticultura de Sinaloa at 9-10.

^7.  Interview with Mario Robles, CAADES, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 23, 1998).

^8.  La horticultura de Sinaloa at 8.

^9.  The program did not exclude children over 10 in its first year, although the target group was 10 and under.

^10.  Interview with Clarissa Habermann, DIF Sinaloa, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 22, 1998).

^11.  La horticultura de Sinaloa at 8.

^12.  IPEC Action in Tanzania (Geneva: ILO/IPEC, 1996) 10.

^13.  Ibid. at 11.

^14.  Ibid. at 7-8.

^15.  Interview with Krishna Upadhyaya, Director of Programs, Informal Sector Service Center, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 21, 1998).

^16.  IPEC Summary of Individual Country Programmes - Nepal (Geneva: ILO/IPEC, 1998) 6 [hereinafter IPEC Summary - Nepal].

^17.  Child Labor in Rural Turkey: The Example of Duragan (Ankara: ILO/IPEC-DFT, undated) [information sheet on file].

^18.  Interview with Sule Caglar, Director, ILO/IPEC Ankara, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 23, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Sule Caglar]. Interview with Ahmet Saltik, Coordinator for Rural Development, and Nilufer Dersan, Economist, Development Foundation of Turkey, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 30, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with DFT officials]. See also Vocational Training for Rural Child Labour: Final Output Report (Ankara: Development Foundation of Turkey, 1996) 2.

^19.  Electronic correspondence from Sule Caglar, Director, ILO/IPEC Ankara, to U.S. Department of Labor official (September 3, 1998).

^20.  Memorandum of Understanding between BGMEA, UNICEF, and ILO Bangladesh, July 4, 1995, Paragraphs 3 and 4.

^21.  BGMEA, ILO, UNICEF Child Labour Project Bangladesh: Case Study or "Midterm Review" (Dhaka: ILO-IPEC, July 1997) 9 [hereinafter MOU Midterm Review].

^22.  MOU Midterm Review at 11. See also A Breakthrough in Bangladesh: Supplementary Funding Proposal (Dhaka: UNICEF, undated) 4 [document on file].

^23.  MOU Midterm Review at 11.

^24.  Update Factory Monitoring per 01/05/98, ILO/IPEC, Memorandum to Members of the Informal Steering Committee, Dhaka, May 13, 1998, 2 [document on file].

^25.  Ibid. at 4.

^26.  U.S. Embassy-Dhaka unclassified telegram no. 03322, November 11, 1998. This lower number may have been due to severe flooding and subsequent closure of several garment factories. See also Update Factory Monitoring per 09/24/98, ILO/IPEC, Memorandum to Members of the Informal Steering Committee, Dhaka, September 29, 1998, 2 [document on file].

^27.  MOU Update, A Breakthrough in Bangladesh: Creating Learning Opportunities for Working Children. UNICEF, April 30, 1998 [information sheet on file] [hereinafter MOU Update].

^28.  MOU Midterm Review at 7.

^29.  MOU Update.

^30.  Ibid.

^31.  MOU Midterm Review at 12-15.

^32.  The project is implemented by the ILO, UNICEF, the Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Save the Children - UK, Pakistan Bait-ul-Mal (government welfare fund department), and Bunyad Literacy Community Council (an NGO). See "Briefing Note: Project to Eliminate Child Labour in Soccer Ball Industry, Sialkot, Pakistan" Update of ILO-IPEC Monitoring and Social Protection Components (Geneva: ILO/IPEC, June 1998) [on file] [hereinafter "Briefing Note"].

^33.  "ILO Unites with Industry Groups To Combat Child Labour," ILO press release (Geneva/Washington: February 14, 1997) [hereinafter ILO press release]. See also "Briefing Note" at 1.

^34.  The independent monitoring body writes periodic reports for the World Federation of Sporting Goods Industry. These reports are then disseminated worldwide. See ILO press release and "Briefing Note" at 2.

^35.  Partners' Operational Framework (Draft), Project to Eliminate Child Labour in Soccer Ball Industry, Sialkot, Pakistan (1 June 1997 - 31 January 1999) [hereinafter Partners' Operational Framework]. See also Partners' Agreement to Eliminate Child Labour in the Soccer Ball Industry in Pakistan, February 14, 1998, 3.

^36.  Partners' Operational Framework.

^37.  "Briefing Note" at 3. The project became operational in fall/winter 1997.

^38.  "Report on Progress of the Monitoring Component, September 11 - October 15, 1998" (Sialkot: ILO-IPEC Soccer Ball Project, October 19, 1998) [on file].

^39.  Operation Education: A Commitment to Rehabilitate Children under 14 Involved in Stitching Footballs (Jalandhar: The Sportsgoods Manufacturers and Exporters Association, 1998) 2-3 [document on file].

^40.  A permanent forum consisting of NGO, industry, and labor representatives as well as regional Ministry of Labor officials is responsible for the coordination and monitoring of this project.

^41.  "Brazil: Phasing out Child Labor in the Leather and Shoe Industry" (Brasília: ILO/IPEC, January 1997) [informational sheet on file].

^42.  Electronic correspondence from Maria Beatriz Cunha, IPEC Coordinator, Brazil, to U.S. Department of Labor official (July 15, 1998).

^43.  The project is being carried out in 13 communities in three municipalities of Retalhuleu. See Interview with Carmen Moreno, IPEC Project Coordinator for Central America and the Caribbean, ILO/IPEC, by U.S. Department of Labor official (October 9, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Carmen Moreno].

^44.  Combating Child Labor in Stone Quarries of Guatemala, Sub-programme 3 (Guatemala City: ILO/IPEC, 1998) [hereinafter Combating Child Labor in Stone Quarries of Guatemala].

^45.  Interview with Carmen Moreno.

^46.  Combating Child Labor in Stone Quarries of Guatemala.

^47.  Interview with Carmen Moreno.

^48.  IPEC Summary - Nepal at 9-10. See also National Society for Protection of Environment and Children (NASPEC) (Kathmandu: NASPEC, 1998) [informational pamphlet on file].

^49.  Interview with Biaml Nepal, General Secretary, Nimash Kumar Sharma, Program Director, and Rajendra Threstha, Communication, Leadership Training and Development Management Specialist, NASPEC, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 25, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with officials of NASPEC].

^50.  Ibid. See also IPEC Summary - Nepal at 9.

^51.  Interview with officials of NASPEC.

^52.  IPEC Summary - Nepal at 10.

^53.  The NGOs include Adevi, Fe y Alegria, and Cesip. See Programa de Erradicación Progresiva del Trabajo Infantil en las Ladrilleras de Huachipa, Summary Outline para Acción del Programa IPEC (Lima: ILO/IPEC, January 30, 1997).

^54.  Interview with Roger Adrianzén Siancas and Alberto Cabello, Street Educators, INABIF, and Juliana Camacho, ADEVI, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 14, 1998).

^55.  Interview with Isaac Ruiz Sanchez, Centro de Estudio Sociales y Publicaciones (CESIP), by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 8, 1998).

^56.  "Proyecto alternativo al trabajo infantil de niños y niñas picapedreros" (Lima: ILO/IPEC, August 13, 1997). See also Resumen de actividades y proyectos IPEC Peru (Lima: ILO/IPEC, April 20, 1998).

^57.  In the traditional religion of Bahia, Candomblé, axé is a term that refers to the power, energy, or force that allows everything in the world to come into being. Projeto AXÉ: The Bahian Axé (Salvador: Projeto Axé, 1998) [information sheet on file].

^58.  "Entidades Civis Criam Projectos para Tirar os Meninos das Ruas," LIDA (Brasília: Ministério do Trabalho, no. 4, September/October 1997) 18-19 [hereinafter "Entidades Civis"]. See also Interview with Marli Macedo, Projeto Axé, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 21, 1998).

^59.  Encarando a Exploração (Recife: Partners of the Americas/POMMAR, April 1996) 57 [hereinafter Encarando a exploração].

^60.  The State of the World's Children 1997 (New York: UNICEF, 1996) 57.

^61.  Interview with Ana Vasconcelos, Coordinator of Casa de Passagem, Recife, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 15, 1998).

^62.  Encarando a exploração at 46-47. See also "O Dereito a uma vida Melhor para os Pequenos Brasileiros," CIDADANIA (Brasília: Secretaria de Assistência Social, no. 1, January-March 1998) 18.

^63.  Benson Oyuga, Collette Suda, and Afia Mugambi, A Study of Action Against Child Labour in Kenya: Towards a Best Practice Guide on Sustainable Action against Child Labor for Policy Makers (Nairobi: ILO/IPEC, 1997) 65 and 119-122 [hereinafter Action against Child Labour in Kenya].

^64.  Ibid. at 65 and 119-122. See generally SINAGA (Nairobi: The Sinaga Center, January-February 1997) [newsletter on file].

^65.  Action Against Child Labour in Kenya at 65 and 119-122.

^66.  Setting national strategies for the elimination of girls' trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation of children in Nepal (Geneva: ILO/IPEC, 1997) 1, 6-7 [document on file].

^67.  Thirty-five of the girls staying in the center are returnees from brothels in India, all but two of whom have been infected with HIV/AIDS.

^68.  "Maiti Nepal: A Profile" (Kathmandu: Maiti Nepal, undated) [document on file] [hereinafter "Maiti Nepal"]. Maiti Nepal now also works with boys, ages three to 10, who have been sent to Bombay and turned into eunuchs. Interview with Sabin Gurung, Maiti Nepal, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 27, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Sabin Gurung].

^69.  "Maiti Nepal" at 1.

^70.  Ibid. at 2.

^71.  Ibid.

^72.  Ibid.

^73.  Interview with Sabin Gurung.

^74.  The program is being implemented in five districts of Managua with the collaboration of many parties: the Ministry of Social Action, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Sports, the Ministry of Health, employers, the World Food Program, Centro para la Promocian del Desarrollo Local (CEPRODEL), Programa de Apoyo para la Salud Materno Infantil (PAMI), and Instituto de Proteción Humanos (INPRHU). The project duration is from April 1998 to April 1999. Proyectos: Alternativas a la familia (Managua: Fondo Nicaraguense de la Niñez y la Familia, March 1998) 1, 3, 7-8, 11-12 [hereinafter Proyectos].

^75.  Ibid. at 9-11.

^76.  Ibid. at 11.

^77.  For example, as a result of the Street Educators' efforts, mothers of children working at the San Juan de Miraflores fish market in the outskirts of Lima received loans from CARE Peru to set up micro-enterprises. In return, the mothers agreed to keep their children from working. See Interview with Street Educators, San Juan de Miraflores fish market, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 8, 1998).

^78.  Resumen del Programa Educadores de Calle (Lima: INABIF, 1998).

^79.  Interview with Carlos Ghersi, INABIF, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 8, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Carlos Ghersi].

^80.  Interview with Carlos Ghersi.

^81.  "Acta de Intenciones entre el Programa de Educadores de Calle del Instituto Nacional de Bienestar Familiar (INABIF) y el Programa Internacional de Erradicación del Trabajo Infantil (IPEC) de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT)" (Lima: ILO/IPEC, 1997) 2.

^82.  "Convenio de Cooperación entre la Dirección de Educación de Lima y el Instituto Nacional de Bienestar Familiar," Convenio No. 11-97/INABIF-D.E.L., September 1997, 1-4.

^83.  Interview with Dolora Cardeño, Program Manager, ERDA, Manila, by U.S. Department of Labor official (April 29, 1998). See also Feny de los Angeles-Bautista and Joanna C. Arriola, To Learn and to Earn: Education and Child Labor in the Philippines, Working Paper Series on Child Labor (Manila: ILO/IPEC, 1995) 52-54.

^84.  US-DOL Funding: Status Report on IPEC Thailand (Geneva: ILO, July 1998) 3-4 [hereinafter US-DOL Funding].

^85.  Ibid. at 7-8.

^86.  Interview with Sule Caglar.

^87.  Ibid. See also Interview with DFT officials.

^88.  Child Labor in Brazil (Brasília: Presidência da República, Câmara de Política Social, 1997) 53 [hereinafter Child Labor in Brazil]. The ECL program is part of a larger Brazilian government program, called the Brazil Citizen Child (Brasil Criança Cidadã), aimed at the comprehensive protection of children and adolescents (ages seven to 14) in vulnerable situations, including exploitation, poverty, and social exclusion.

^89.  Prior to the implementation of the program, special surveys are conducted to identify child workers and those at risk of working in hazardous occupations. A Secretariat of Social Assistance (SAS) representative estimates that 400,000 children are working under "exploitative" conditions. Many others work within a family context where education is valued. Interview with Elizeu Calsing, SAS/MPAS, Brasília, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 13, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Elizeu Calsing].

^90.  Child Labor in Brazil at 55.

^91.  Dried maté leaves are used to prepare a beverage that is popular in South America.

^92.  The priority areas/sectors were chosen on the basis of a study carried out by the National Forum for the Prevention and Eradication of Child Labor. Ibid. at 54.

^93.  So far, SAS has provided 10.7 million reais (US$ 9.6 million) for complementary activities programs in the six states participating in the ECL program; each state receives 25 reais (US$ 22) monthly for each child participating in the complementary activities program. Interview with Elizeau Calsing.

^94.  Since children attend school for only four hours per day, the jonarda ampliada was designed to keep children in an educational setting and prevent them from engaging in hazardous work during the rest of the day.

^95.  The ECL program is also financing complementary activities programs, without providing stipends to families, in 66 municipalities in the states of Amazonas, Alogoas, Goiás, and Pernambuco. Approximately 24,000 children are benefiting from these programs at a cost of 1.6 million reais (US$ 1.4 million). Assistência Social - Gestão 1997 (Brasília: SAS/MPAS, 1998) 36 [hereinafter Assistência Social].

^96.  Ibid. at 30. See also Interview with Elizeau Calsing.

^97.  However, according to a local union representative in Mato Grosso do Sul, a 1997 Permanent Commission on Enforcement investigation of 40 charcoal production sites found 23 children and adolescents working. Interview with Ana Bisneto de Moura, Federation of Agricultural Workers, Mato Grosso do Sul, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 12, 1998).

^98.  Assistência Social at 32.

^99.  Ibid. at 33.

^100.  Interview with Lilia Maria Dobbin and Mauro Magalhaes Vieira Filho, Pernambuco Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 15, 1998).

^101.  The ECL program, however, is expected to cover an additional 86,000 children by the end of 1998. Program for the Eradication of Child Labor-Progress Chart (Brasilia: SAS/MPAS, 1998).

^102.  Interview with Marcello Paixão, Federação de Orgãos para Assistência Social e Educacional (FASE) and member of the Rio de Janeiro State Commission on the Prevention and Eradication of Child Labor, Rio de Janeiro, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 4, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Marcello Paixão]. See also "Ato Público Reúne em Brasília Jovens que São Trabalhadores Rurais," LIDA (Brasília: Ministério do Trabalho, no. 4, September/October 1997) 27. In Mato Grosso do Sul, SAS is implementing a pilot urban project for 315 children who collect and sell garbage in Campo Grande. The project started in February 1998 and it has the same eligibility requirements as the rural program for charcoal. See Interview with Mary Batista de Souza, Mayor's Office Representative, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 12, 1998).

^103.  In Rio de Janeiro, the ECL program may result in movement of child laborers from sugar cane harvesting to other industries, such as fishing and pineapple production. Interview with Jorge Barros, Director, Childhope Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 4, 1998). Because the region surrounding Campos--where most sugar cane production takes place--is fairly diversified, children may move from one industry to another as the seasons change, so that the prevention of child labor would be more effective if it were targeted at all working children in the area. Interview with Marcello Paixão.

^104.  Interview with Marta Silva Campos and Carola Carbajal, Instituto de Estudos Especiais da PUC/SP, São Paulo, by U.S. Department of Labor officials (May 8, 1998). For a preliminary evaluation of the ECL program see Programa de Erradicação do Trabalho Infantil: Relatório de Avaliação, 1996-1997 (São Paulo: Instituto de Estudos Especiais/Pontifíca Universidade Católica de São Paulo, July 1998).

^105.  Vocational Training for Children in NCLP Schools, Report of a Workshop on Vocational Training for Children in NCLP schools (Noida: National Resource Center on Child Labor, V.V. Giri National Labor Institute, 1998) 61 [hereinafter Vocational Training in NCLP Schools].

^106.  Ibid. at 27 and 62.

^107.  Ibid. at 27. See also Annual Report 1996-1997 (New Delhi: Ministry of Labor, Government of India, 1997) 101 [hereinafter Annual Report].

^108.  Public Hearings on International Child Labor (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, 1998) (Submission by the Embassy of India) 7-10 [hereinafter Submission of Embassy of India].

^109.  Submission of Embassy of India at 9-10. See also Annual Report at 103.

^110.  Vocational Training in NCLP Schools at 31.

^111.  Interview with Dr. B.N. Juyal by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 8, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with B.N. Juyal].

^112.  Interview with Mrs. Sunanda Prasad, former Uttar Pradesh Commissioner, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 8, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Sunanda Prasad]. See also Interview with V. Venkatachalam, Uttar Pradesh Labor Secretary, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 8, 1998).

^113.  Interview with B.N. Juyal.

^114.  U.S. Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 07257, September 4, 1998.

^115.  Annual Report 1997-98 (Hyderabad: M Venkatarangaiya Foundation, April 1998) Annex V [hereinafter MV Foundation Annual Report]. See also Reaching the Unreached (Secunderabad: M. Venkatarangaiya Foundation, undated) [informational booklet on file] [hereinafter Reaching the Unreached].

^116.  To further support its activities, the MV Foundation has created a parent-teacher association (PTA), composed mainly of prominent businessmen and community leaders who work with the foundation to lobby for education. Interview with Shanta Sinha, Executive Director, and MV Teachers, MV Foundation, Mokhila Boys Camp, by U.S. Department of Labor official (May 14, 1998) [hereinafter Interview with Shanta Sinha and MV teachers]. See also MV Foundation Annual Report at 10-11.

^117.  Interview with Shanta Sinha and MV teachers.

^118.  Ibid. As soon as children can write, they are encouraged to write cards to their parents. Because very few parents can read, the cards are read to them by the village postman. Invariably, the first card they receive from the school is the first piece of mail they have received in their life.

^119.  Ibid.

^120.  M.P. Joseph, Education Initiatives Under IPEC (New Delhi: ILO/IPEC, undated) 3 [document on file].

^121.  Interview with Shanta Sinha and MV teachers.

^122.  Reaching the Unreached.

^123.  Between March 1997 and April 1998, 30,000 children were enrolled. To cope with the large increase in enrollment, the MV Foundation mobilized and trained 1,640 education activists to assist the existing 1,470 government school teachers. MV Foundation Annual Report at 2.

^124.  Kamalayan is a Filipino term for awareness or consciousness. See "KDF: A Non-Governmental Organization of the Filipino Workers," Batang Hurnal (September 1997-February 1998) 1 [hereinafter Batang Hurnal]. Details of KDF's raids and other efforts to uncover bonded and other forms of exploitative child labor are well documented in two books by KDF's director. See Alejandro W. Apit, A Beginning in Child Labor: A Worst Form of Child Labor Discovered and Rescue (Quezon City: Kamalayan Development Foundation, 1996) and Alejandro W. Apit, Child Recruitment and Some Most Hazardous Forms of Child Labor in the Philippines: A KDF's Experience (Quezon City: Kamalayan Development Foundation, 1998).

^125.  Batang Hurnal at 5.

^126.  Ibid. at 4 and 7. Over the years, KDF has received support from UNICEF, ILO/IPEC, Anti-Slavery International, Terre Des Hommes-Netherlands, and the Children and Youth Foundation of the Philippines.

Conclusion

Child labor is a complex problem that requires comprehensive, multi-faceted solutions. This report has described some of the major strategies that are now being undertaken by governments and nongovernmental actors to eliminate child labor. Chapter II described the nature and extent of child labor in the 16 countries studied in this report: Bangladesh, Brazil, Egypt, Guatemala, India, Kenya, Mexico, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, and Turkey. Chapters III and IV addressed two of the most basic and traditional governmental approaches to preventing the premature entry of children into the work force: the enactment and enforcement of child labor legislation and the provision of universal, affordable primary education. Chapter V described targeted projects, implemented or advanced by governments, that focus on removing children from exploitative work and providing them with educational opportunities. These projects, often involving partnerships among governmental and nongovernmental actors, frequently complement efforts in law enforcement and education.

A.     Child Labor in the World

While poverty is the reason most often given for why children work, child labor also perpetuates poverty, since children who must begin work at an early age often compromise their future earnings potential. Today, hundreds of millions of children are working around the world, often in occupations that are clearly harmful to their health and future development. Many millions of these children work full time and in dangerous or abusive conditions, deprived of opportunities for education and the accompanying promise of a better future.

As explained in Chapter II, child laborers are seldom found in large and medium-sized enterprises, except in commercial agriculture. Child laborers most often work in small workshops, home-based operations, informal mining and quarrying enterprises, and a myriad of service sector jobs--usually out of reach of legislation and labor inspection. Some children work in occupations that are especially hidden from the view of enforcement authorities and society, such as domestic servants and child prostitutes. These children, usually separated from their families, often suffer the worst exploitation.

The magnitude of the global child labor problem has grabbed the attention of the international community over the past few years, provoking worldwide discussion of the issue. This represents an important change from a decade ago, when few governments or organizations even acknowledged the problem. Today, numerous international organizations, governments in developing and industrialized countries, and nongovernmental actors are developing and implementing strategies and initiatives to address child labor.

B.     The Importance of Reliable Child Labor Data

Accurately identifying the extent of child labor within a country is an essential step towards the development of effective strategies for eliminating and preventing the problem. As discussed in Chapter II, there is a great need for reliable child labor data--not only to assist governments in developing solutions but also to enable them to monitor progress. Significant problems in the collection and reporting of child labor data remain, but with the assistance of the International Labor Organization (ILO), efforts are now underway to improve data quality.

Some of the efforts being undertaken by individual countries to improve the accuracy of child labor data include:

• conducting specialized national child labor surveys with the assistance of the ILO;

• using standard definitions and methodology for collecting and reporting child labor data, based on those developed by the ILO's SIMPOC program and tested in several countries; and

• institutionalizing the regular collection of child labor data by integrating a child labor component into periodic labor force surveys.

C.     Enactment and Enforcement
        of Child Labor Laws

As described in Chapter III, all 16 countries studied for this report have laws prohibiting certain forms of work by children under a specified age and regulating the conditions of work for older children. Many of these countries have also ratified a number of international instruments addressing child labor, including ILO Convention No. 138 (Minimum Age for Employment) and the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC).

Chapter III outlined the basic and hazardous minimum work ages in each of the 16 countries, while Appendix D identified relevant child labor provisions in the laws of each of these countries. The minimum age for employment in these countries varies from 12 (Bangladesh, Peru, and Tanzania) to 16 years (Kenya). In some countries, there is one basic minimum work age, while in others, there are several age standards, depending on the industry or sector. Child labor legislation often applies only to certain sectors or exempts entire industries or occupations. The sectors most frequently excluded are those where the highest numbers of working children are found, such as small-scale agriculture, domestic service, and small-scale manufacturing. For example, in Kenya, the minimum work age of 16 years applies only to certain industrial undertakings. Likewise, in India and Pakistan, the minimum work age of 14 applies only to certain specified occupations and processes. In Nepal, the minimum work age of 14 does not apply to certain enterprises, such as plantations and brick kilns. Exceptions are also made in some countries for apprenticeships or educational work. In Brazil, for example, children under 14 are prohibited from working, except as apprentices. Employers sometimes use such exceptions to exploit children as a source of cheap and compliant labor.

All 16 countries studied have a minimum age for hazardous work, varying by country from 12 to 21 years. Some countries have a single minimum age for hazardous work, while others specify several such ages, depending on the type of work.

Some countries have a multitude of laws addressing child labor, often spanning decades, that may be inconsistent with one another or confusing to implement and enforce. In addition, inadequate fines and penalties for child labor law violations often undermine their overall effectiveness.

One of the most serious issues relating to child labor laws is their inadequate enforcement by many governments. In many countries, labor inspection is not a priority. Labor inspectorates often lack the vital resources and staff needed to reach remote areas and effectively monitor the child labor situation. Inspectors often receive little training, if any, and are often poorly paid, making them an easy target for corruption. In addition, they may not be motivated to enforce child labor laws if they do not perceive the employment of children as a problem, or believe that it is a necessary ill for many indigent families. Inspectors who do attempt to enforce labor laws may be faced with public indifference and hostility from employers.

A number of countries studied (including Bangladesh, Brazil, the Philippines, South Africa, and Thailand) have recently made or are considering changes to their child labor laws, including increasing the minimum age for employment, adopting uniform child labor regulations, and expanding coverage of child labor laws to additional sectors or occupations. Some countries (such as Brazil, Kenya, Mexico, the Philippines, Tanzania, and Turkey) are focusing on strengthening enforcement by increasing the number of labor inspectors, improving training, or implementing new strategies.

The fact that large numbers of children are still working, many under exploitative or hazardous conditions, indicates that significant action in the area of law and enforcement is urgently needed. Some countries faced with considerable numbers of child laborers are now taking steps to address shortcomings in their legislation and enforcement. Possible efforts in this area include:

• consolidating child labor laws and regulations in order to eliminate inconsistencies and confusion;

• increasing the legal age of employment to conform with international standards;

• increasing civil and criminal penalties for violators of child labor laws;

• improving training of labor inspectors, providing additional resources for investigations, and creating specialized inspection units that deal with child labor issues;

• developing partnerships with industry, labor groups, and NGOs to assist in identifying and preventing the exploitation of children; and

• increasing public awareness about child labor by informing the public about applicable child labor laws and penalties.

D.     Access to Universal Primary Education

Universal primary education, as noted in Chapter IV, is widely recognized as an important means of preventing and eliminating child labor. No country can successfully end child labor without making education compulsory and accessible to all. Children who are required to attend school are less likely to be engaged in exploitative work and are more likely to be informed of their rights. Education, over time, can provide children with the skills and knowledge necessary to become productive adults and improve their employment and earnings prospects. Despite the obvious benefits of education, tens of millions of children do not attend school. Most of these children are working.

Twelve of the 16 countries studied for this report have national laws making primary education compulsory (Bangladesh, Brazil, Egypt, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, the Philippines, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, and Turkey). The number of required years of schooling varies by country, from five (Bangladesh) to 11 years (Peru). Several countries, including Egypt, South Africa, and Turkey, have also recently passed laws extending their years of compulsory education.

In several of the countries studied for this report, the age for completion of compulsory education is not consistent with the minimum age of employment. When the minimum age for work is lower than the age for completing compulsory education, children might be compelled to abandon or neglect their studies and enter the work force. In the opposite case, when the minimum work age is higher than that for completing compulsory education, children who are unable to continue their education must either remain idle or work illegally, thereby making illegal child labor more commonplace and acceptable.

In many countries, primary education is neither compulsory nor affordable. Schools are frequently not available or accessible to all children. Even when schools are available, the quality of education may be poor and the content may be perceived by many children and their families as irrelevant to their lives. For poor families who depend on their children's earnings to make ends meet, the opportunity cost of sending their children to school is often seen as too high. Parents' reluctance to send their children to school is often exacerbated by the various costs of education, including school fees, supplies, books, uniforms, meals, and transportation.

In the 16 countries studied for this report, significant numbers of children are not going to school. The most recent country data on educational attainment shows that less than 70 percent of children are enrolled in or attending primary school in five of the countries studied (Guatemala, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Tanzania). In seven of the countries, less than 70 percent of children enrolled in primary school reach the fifth grade (Bangladesh, India, Kenya, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, and South Africa).

Government spending on education varies widely among the 16 countries studied. Data on education spending by country for the most recent available year (1990 to 1997) shows that public expenditures on education as a percentage of GNP range from 1.7 percent (Guatemala) to 7.9 percent (South Africa). Education spending as a percentage of total government expenditures ranges from under 10 percent (Bangladesh and Pakistan) to over 20 percent (Mexico and South Africa), and primary school spending as a percentage of total public education expenditures ranges from 18 percent (Peru) to over 65 percent (Egypt and Nicaragua).

Access to education is often not equitable. Children in rural areas and those belonging to marginalized groups are frequently more affected by a lack of adequate educational infrastructure. Rural children are also more likely to work. Indeed, work can constitute a major impediment to children's attendance and successful completion of primary school. Working children have low enrollment and high absentee and dropout rates. These rates may be attributable to fatigue from long hours of labor, work related injuries and illnesses, and/or work schedules that are incompatible with school hours.

Some of the countries studied (Brazil, Egypt, the Philippines, and Turkey) have developed initiatives to make schools more accessible and improve the quality of primary education. Other countries (Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, and the Philippines) are implementing programs that provide alternative educational opportunities for working children or ease their transition from work to school. Finally, some countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, and South Africa) are providing incentives to encourage families to send their children to school rather than to work.

While the impact of these policies and programs can only be assessed by future increases in the number of children attending and completing school, they provide an important indication of the level of government commitment to the provision of universal primary education in the 16 countries studied for this report. Steps that countries can take to accomplish this goal include:

• passing legislation making primary education compulsory for all children;

• increasing educational expenditures at the primary level to increase school accessibility and the quality of instruction (for example, enabling construction of new schools, improving existing infrastructure, and authorizing increases in teacher salaries and training);

• alleviating the costs associated with education that can prevent poor families from sending their children to school by providing transportation, subsidizing the costs of school meals, uniforms, supplies, and books, and eliminating school fees; and

• eliminating inconsistencies between child labor and compulsory education laws.

E.     Targeted Child Labor Initiatives

As Chapter V described, numerous targeted initiatives are now being implemented or advanced by governments to remove children from exploitative work and provide them with educational opportunities. These targeted child labor projects are being implemented by a wide range of actors, including NGOs, international organizations, trade unions, employer associations, and the media. Indeed, international organizations such as the ILO and UNICEF are playing an instrumental role in combating child labor in many countries.

The targeted initiatives discussed in Chapter V facilitate and complement efforts in law and enforcement and education. While the projects described in Chapter V focus on efforts implemented or advanced by governments, it is important to note that numerous NGOs around the world are independently undertaking significant initiatives to prevent and reduce child labor. The importance and value of such efforts cannot be overstated. In some instances where governments have failed to prevent adequately the exploitation of children, nongovernmental actors are playing major roles in helping working children and their families. Ultimately, however, governments have the greatest responsibility for eliminating child labor as well as the broadest resources for addressing the problem.

Several of the targeted child labor projects described not only remove children from exploitative work situations, but also provide supportive services such as educational opportunities for the children and income generation alternatives for their families. Often such multi-faceted and comprehensive programs are the most effective in eliminating and preventing the exploitation of children. Public awareness and education campaigns can also play an essential role. Because child labor is a complex problem, requiring comprehensive solutions, the participation of all social actors--including families, public officials, labor unions, industry groups, NGOs, and the international community--is necessary.

Chapter V provided an illustration of the types of efforts now underway to remove children from exploitative work. Many of these projects focus on eliminating child labor in a particular industry or sector, while some combat child labor in many sectors and areas. These projects vary in size, scope, and emphasis. In agriculture, projects described include initiatives to remove children from work in Tanzania's tea estates and tobacco farms, Brazil's sisal plantations, and Mexico's fruit and vegetable farms, as well as programs to eliminate rural bonded child labor in Nepal and Turkey. In manufacturing, projects described include initiatives in the Bangladeshi garment industry, the soccer ball industry of Pakistan, Nepal's carpet industry, and Brazil's shoe industry. A project to reduce child labor in the brick making and stone quarrying industries in Peru is also described. Finally, several efforts targeting child domestic workers, child commercial sex workers, trafficked children, and children living and working on urban streets in Brazil, Kenya, Nepal, Nicaragua, Peru, the Philippines, Thailand, and Turkey are described.

Chapter V also described several multi-sectoral initiatives to combat child labor through the rescue, removal, and rehabilitation of children from exploitative work. These initiatives include projects in Brazil to stop children in rural areas from working and assure that they attend school on a regular basis, in India to establish nonformal schools and release thousands of children from hazardous work, and in the Philippines to rescue children from exploitative work.

Key elements of targeted child labor projects include:

• targeting child labor in sectors or occupations that are hazardous and harmful to a child's development;

• removing children from exploitative work and providing them with alternatives, such as education or vocational training;

• providing income-generating opportunities for families of former child laborers;

• establishing partnerships among governmental and nongovernmental actors and international organizations such as the ILO and UNICEF and drawing on participants' respective expertise and resources; and

• raising awareness among vulnerable groups about children's rights and the dangers of premature entry into the work force.

F.     Final Comments

This report has attempted to illustrate the extent to which the 16 countries are currently addressing their child labor situations through the enactment and enforcement of child labor laws, the provision of universal primary education, and the development of and involvement in targeted child labor initiatives. A government's participation in such efforts can provide an indication of its commitment to combating child labor. Accurately determining the extent and nature of child labor within each country is also essential in adequately addressing the child labor problem.

There has been a significant increase in international concern regarding the plight of working children around the world. Many countries with child labor problems have not only acknowledged the problem but have begun to develop and implement comprehensive strategies to combat the exploitation of children. International organizations such as the ILO and UNICEF are heavily involved in such efforts. It is important, however, to monitor and measure the effectiveness of these efforts, since successful strategies can and should be replicated elsewhere.

The information provided in this report can serve as a framework for further study and evaluation of the progress being made toward eliminating child labor in the countries studied. Ultimately, the best way to determine such progress is by documenting a reduction in the overall number of working children and an increase in the percentage of children attending school and completing at least a primary education.

This report was produced by the staff of the International Child Labor Program and is published by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs.
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