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Contents Preface Chapter 1 Reading and Its Assessment 1 Framing The Issues 2 Reading Assessment 8 Different Assessments for Different Phases of Instruction 10 Approaches to Assessment 11 The Process of Learning to Read at Different Levels 15 Emergent Literacy 16 Beginning Reading 17 Building Fluency 18 Reading to learn and for Pleasure 18 Mature Reading 20 Assessing Readers at Different Stages 22 What Do We Need to Know from Assessing Emergent Readers? 22 What Do We Need to Know about Beginning Readers and Beyond? 24 Differentiated Instruction 27 Summary References 29 Chapter 2 Informal, Periodic Assessments 31 Levels of Reading Activity 32 The Independent Level 33 The Instructional Level 33 The Frustration Level 34 The Listening Level 34 The Usefulness of Reading Levels 35 Informal Reading Inventories 36 Selecting a Commercial Informal Reading Inventory 41 Administering an Informal Reading Inventory 43 Where to Start 43 Where to Stop 45 Step-by-Step Administration 46 Reinspection and Comprehension 46 Retelling and Comprehension 47 Marking Oral Reading Miscues 50 Assessing Reading Comprehension 50 Assessing Recognition of Words in Isolation 51 Scoring an Informal Reading Inventory 54 Oral Reading Accuracy 55 Reading and Listening Comprehension 57 Scoring the Word Recognition Inventory 57 Keeping Track of Scores 59 Interpreting an Informal Reading Inventory 59 Establishing Reading and Listening Levels 59 Qualitative Analysis of Oral Reading Miscues 61 Analyzing Reading Comprehension 65 Comprehension Skill Patterns 65 Patterns in Listening Comprehension 67 Analyzing Word Recognition in Isolation 68 Supplementing Informal Assessments 69 Helping Students Become Strategic Readers 69 Word Recognition and Phonics Tests 71 Summary 75 References 75 Chapter 3 Ongoing Assessments 77 Running Records 80 Running Records to Document Progress 80 Running Records and Text Difficulty 82 Observations of Reading Behaviors and Strategies 83 Observing Readers 83 Recording Observations 84 Monitoring Types and Difficulty of Texts Read 88 Guided Reading Levels 89 Readability Estimates 90 Lexiles 92 Cloze Procedures 95 Student Portfolios 97 Showcasing Achievement 97 Documenting Progress 97 Demonstrating Effort 98 Fostering Self-Evaluation and Reflection 98 Kinds of Portfolios 98 What Goes into a Portfolio? 99 Organizing a Portfolio Program 101 Primary Grades 106 Middle and Upper Grades 106 Evaluating Portfolios 107 Teaching Self-Evaluation 107 Teaching Goal-Setting 108 Teacher Evaluations 110 Parent Evaluations 112 Portfolio Conferences 113 Teacher-Student Conferences 113 Peer Conferences 116 Parent Conferences 117 Summary 120 References 122 Chapter 4 Assessing Spelling and Writing 123 Monitoring Spelling Progress and Problems 124 Developmental Spelling Stages 126 Documenting Spelling Progress 133 The Monster Test 133 The Gentry Spelling Grade-Level Test 134 Developmental Spelling 134 Monitoring Writing Progress 138 Writing Samples 138 Writing Checklists 139 Six Traits Writing Evaluation 139 Summary 143 References 144 Chapter 5 Assessment for External Audiences: Formal Measures 145 Understanding Formal Measures 146 Characteristics of Tests 148 Reliability 148 Validity 150 Interpreting Test Results 151 Distributions of Test Scores 152 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Media, and Mode 153 Measures of Dispersion: Range and Standard Deviation 154 Forms of Test Scores 155 Norm-Referenced Tests 156 Achievement Tests 156 Diagnostic Tests 158 Criterion-Referenced Tests 161 Goals and Objectives 161 Benchmarks and Rubrics 163 State Standards and Assessment 165 Summary 166 References 167 Chapter 6 Emergent and Beginning Literacy 169 Emergent Literacy and Beginning Reading 170 Understanding and Assessing Emergent and Beginning Literacy 170 Print Orientation Concepts 171 Alphabet Knowledge 173 The Concept of Word 174 Phonological Awareness 174 Phoneme-to-Grapheme Correspondences (Phonics) 181 Sight-Word Recognition 182 Teaching for Emergent and Beginning Literacy 184 Reading Storybooks 185 Little Books 187 Teaching Print Orientation Concepts 188 Teaching the Alphabet 188 Alphabet Books 189 Letter-Matching Games 189 Sounds and Letters 189 Teaching the Concept of Word 190 The Voice-Pointing Procedure 191 Cut-Apart Words 191 Directed Experience Accounts 191 Morning Message 191 Exercises to Develop Phonological Awareness 193 Invented Spelling 193 Exercises to Teach Phonics and Word Recognition 194 Kinds of Phonics Instruction 194 Tying Phonics Instruction to Children's Developing Word Knowledge 195 Word Sorts 195 Making and Breaking Words 200 Connecting Children's Literature with Phonics Instruction 201 Enhanced Writing 201 Early Writing Workshops 202 Shared Reading 204 Guided Reading 208 Early Intervention Programs 209 Reading Recovery 210 Questions about Early Intervention Programs 211 Early Intervention Programs Using Tutors 212 Summary 213 References 214 Chapter 7 Teaching Developing Readers 217 Phonics and Word Knowledge for Developing Readers 219 Word Knowledge at Different Levels 220 Teaching the "P" Word: Phonics 222 Word Study at More Advanced Levels 224 Guiding Word Study 226 Teaching Words with Shared Phonogram Patterns 226 Teaching Words with Grammatical Affixes and Derivational Affixes 227 Teaching Homophones and Homographs 228 Developing Sight Vocabulary 229 Dictated Stories and Language Experience 229 Support Reading: Echo Reading and Choral Reading 229 Developing Word Analysis Strategies 232 Using Context 232 Approaching Word Attack Strategically 234 Assessing Reading Fluency 234 Developing Reading Fluency 238 Modeling Fluent Oral Reading 238 Providing Oral Support for Reading 239 Providing Practice in Oral Reading 240 Repeated Reading for Fluency 240 Predictable Books, "Easy Readers," and Other Easy Reading Fare 242 Developing Readers' Vocabulary 245 Levels of Vocabulary Knowledge 246 Dissecting Children's Vocabulary 246 Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary 247 Exercises for Second Grade and Up 248 Teaching the Use of Context Clues to Vocabulary 250 Developing Reading Comprehension 251 For the Phase of Anticipation 252 For the Phase of Building Knowledge 256 For the Phase of Consolidation 264 Developing Listening Comprehension 270 Time Spent Reading 273 Summary 274 References 275 Chapter 8 Assessing and Teaching Older Readers 279 The Reading Issues of Older Students 280 Why Should We Be Concerned about Older Students' Reading Ability? 282 Responding to the Needs of Readers Beyond the Primary Grades 282 A Range of Responses to Older Students' Reading Needs 284 Reading Strategies for Use across the Curriculum 284 Anticipation 284 Building Knowledge 285 Consolidation 285 Strategies for the Anticipation Phase 285 Advance Organizers 286 The Anticipation Guide 286 Group Brainstorming 286 Paired Brainstorming 287 Terms in Advance 287 Think/Pair/Share 288 Free Writing 288 Semantic Map 288 Know/Want to Know/Learn 289 Strategies for the Consolidation Phase 289 The I.N.S.E.R.T. Model 289 Text Coding 290 Study Guides 290 Dual-Entry Diaries 291 Cooperative Learning: Jigsaw II 292 Strategies for the Consolidation Phase 294 The Discussion Web 294 Academic Controversy 294 Helping Older Students Write 296 Ten-Minute Essays and Other Free Writes 296 The Five-Minute Essay 297 Three-Part Diaries 297 The I-Search Paper 298 Providing Close Support for Students' Reading Development 300 Organizing Focused Strategic and Intensive Instruction 300 Assessing Readers for Focused Instruction 300 Planning Lessons for Disabled Readers 301 Teaching Strategies to Build Reading Competence 303 Thinking Aloud 303 ReQuest Procedure 303 Visuallizing 304 Reading and Questioning 305 Audio Books 305 Introducing and Focusing Attention on New Vocabulary 306 Word Conversations 306 The Frayer Model 307 Motivational and Emotional Issues of Adolescent Students with Reading Problems 307 Guiding Principles and Theories 308 Establishing Trust 308 Providing Literate Role Models 309 Reducing the Feeling of Learned Helplessness of Passive Failure 309 Legitimizing Personal Knowledge and Experiences 310 Developing a Learning Environment 311 Summary 312 References 313 Chapter 9 Strategies for Teaching Reading and Writing to English Language Learner 315 The Context of Teaching English Language Learners to Read and Write 317 English Language Learners: Who Are They? 317 What Do We Know about the Context of Learning and of Learning in a Second Language? 318 The Legal Status of Programs to Serve English Language Learners 320 Bilingual Education: One Solution 321 Language Policy Decisions about the Language of Instruction: The Transition Process 322 Second Language Acquisition 323 Underlying Principles of Communicative-Based Approaches 324 Basic Instructional Strategies for Second Language Acquisition 326 Assessing English Language Proficiency 330 Teaching English Language Learners to Read and Write in English 330 Early Literacy Experiences 331 Adapting the Language Experience Approach for English Language Learners 332 Text-Based Strategies 334 Vocabulary Development 335 Adapting Phonics and Decoding Strategies for English Language Learners 336 Writing and Spelling 337 Scaffolding Strategies for Improving Reading Comprehension 338 Prereading Strategies 339 Guided Reading Strategies 343 Postreading Strategies 345 Some Issues in Assessing the Reading and Writing of English Language Learners 346 Instruments and Procedures 346 Grouping for Instruction 346 Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) 347 Selection of Literature and Other Instructional Materials 348 Older Preliterate Children 348 Summary 349 References 350 Chapter 10 Factors Related to Reading Problems 355 Philosophical and Legal Issues Related to Special-Needs Students 356 Past Legislation Affecting Special-Needs Students 356 IDEA 2004 and NCLB 358 Student Participation in General Education 359 Identifying Special-Needs Students 360 Assessment of Special Educational Needs 361 Intellectual Factors 362 Tests of Intelligence and Learning Aptitude 363 The Role of Experience 365 Physical Factors 368 Vision and Visual Problems 368 Hearing and Auditory Problems 368 Language Factors 370 Language Acquisition and Difficulties in Infancy and Early Childhood 370 Language Development and Difficulties in Preschool and Primary Grades 371 Language Development and Difficulties in Later Childhood 373 Special Learning Problems 374 Learning Disabilities 374 Dyslexia 375 Designing Individualized Interventions 379 Interventions for Phonological Awareness 380 Interventions for Improving Fluency 382 Interventions for Improving Comprehension 382 Summary 384 References 385 Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Reading -- Ability testing.
Reading -- Remedial teaching.