Summer 2005

New Products

Southern Pine Ecosystems

1 Barnett, James P.; McGilvray, John M. 1997. Practical guidelines for producing longleaf pine seedlings in containers. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-14. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 28 p.

Longleaf pine, although widely distributed in the presettlement forests of the southern Coastal Plain, now occupies less than 10 percent of its original range. It is a highly desirable species because it resists fire, insects, and disease and produces excellent quality solid-wood products. Regeneration of the species either by natural methods or by planting of bare-root nursery stock has been difficult, and renewed interest in it has resulted in evaluation of new approaches to seedling establishment. Using container stock has greatly improved the success of longleaf pine establishment. Practical guidelines are presented that will help nursery personnel consistently produce good container stock that will survive well and initiate early height growth.

2 Barnett, James P.; McGilvray, John M. 2002. Guidelines for producing quality longleaf pine seeds. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-52. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 21 p.

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) seeds are sensitive to damage during collection, processing, treatment, and storage. Highquality seeds are essential for successfully producing nursery crops that meet management goals and perform well in the fi eld. Uniformity in the production of pine seedlings primarily depends on prompt and uniform seed germination, early seedling establishment, and a variety of cultural practices that are applied as the seedlings develop. The best collecting, handling, and processing methods maximize performance attributes and reduce the need for extensive nursery cultural practices to compensate for poor seed quality. Guidelines are presented that will help seed dealers, orchard managers, and nursery personnel produce high-quality longleaf pine seeds and improve the effi ciency of nursery production.

3 Brockway, Dale G.; Outcalt, Kenneth W.; Guldin, James M. [and others]. 2005. Uneven-aged management of longleaf pine forests: a scientist and manager dialogue. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-78. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 38 p.

Although longleaf pine can be managed using even-aged techniques, interest in uneven-aged methods has grown significantly as a result of concern for sustaining the wide range of ecological values associated with maintaining continuous crown cover in these ecosystems. Scientists from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station and faculty members from the School of Forest Resources and Conservation at the University of Florida engaged in a dialogue focused on: (1) methods for converting even-aged to uneven-aged stands; (2) growth and yield; (3) selection harvest techniques; (4) optimum logging practices; (5) effects on red-cockaded woodpeckers; (6) prescribed burning approaches; (7) regeneration; (8) optimum stand structure; (9) competition tolerance and release of various seedling age classes; and (10) viability of interplanting and underplanting.

4 Brockway, Dale G.; Outcalt, Kenneth W.; Tomczak, Donald J.; Johnson, Everett E. 2005. Restoration of longleaf pine ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS- 83. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 34 p.

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystems once occupied 38 million ha in the Southeastern United States, occurring as forests, woodlands, and savannas on a variety of sites ranging from wet flatwoods to xeric sandhills and rocky mountainous ridges. Timber harvest, land conversion to agricultural and other nonforest uses, and alteration of fire regimes greatly reduced longleaf pine ecosystems, until only 1.2 million ha remained in 1995. Restoration efforts now underway use physical, chemical, and pyric methods to reestablish natural structure and function in these ecosystems. Benefits of restoration include expanding and improving habitat available to aid in the recovery and sustainability of numerous species; producing greater amounts of highquality longleaf pine timber products; increasing the production of pine straw; providing new recreational opportunities; preserving natural and cultural legacies; and creating a broader range of management options for future generations.

5 Grell, Adrian G.; Shelton, Michael G.; Heitzman, Eric. 2005. Changes in plant species composition along an elevation gradient in an old-growth bottomland-Pinus taeda forest in southern Arkansas. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 132(1): 72-89.

Old-growth bottomland hardwood-Pinus taeda forests are rare in Arkansas, and the complex relationships between plant communities and environmental conditions have not been well described. To investigate these relationships, a digital elevation model was developed for a 16.2 ha old-growth bottomland hardwood-Pinus taeda forest in southern Arkansas. Overstory trees, saplings, seedlings, and herbaceous plants were analyzed in three 0.5 m elevation classes and by using indirect gradient analysis. Information was also collected on site factors, soil physical factors, soil moisture, and soil chemical factors. Results from this study suggest that differences in vegetation were primarily the result of subtle elevation variations. Restoration or management of these forests should carefully consider microtopographical influences.

6 Hofstetter, R.W.; Mahfouz, Jolie B.; Klepzig, Kier D.; Ayres, M.P. 2005. Effects of tree phytochemistry on the interactions among endophloedic fungi associated with the southern pine beetle. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 31(3): 539-560.

We examined the interaction between host trees and fungi associated with southern pine beetle. We evaluated the response of four pine species to fungal invasion and effects of plant secondary metabolites on primary growth of and secondary colonization of three fungi. Size of lesions formed and quantity of secondary metabolites produced in response to fungal inoculations varied significantly. Growth rates of mycangial fungi increased in the presence of several secondary metabolite volatiles. Phloem phytochemistry altered relative fungal growth and competitiveness. Host-mediated interactions among these fungi have important consequences for population dynamics of southern pine beetle.

7 Johnsen, K.; Maier, C.; Kress, L. 2005. Quantifying root lateral distribution and turnover using pine trees with a distinct stable carbon isotope signature. Functional Ecology. 19: 81- 87.

To help assess spatial competition for below-ground resources, we quantified the effects of fertilization on root biomass quantity and lateral root distribution of mid-rotation Pinus taeda trees. Using open-top chambers, individual trees were provided CO₂ depleted in ¹³C relative to the atmosphere. The ¹³C:¹²C label allowed us to partition root biomass from soil cores into a fraction derived from individual chamber trees and that derived from non-chamber trees within the stand. Using a mixing model, we calculated that 0-2 mm roots had a mean residence time of 41⁄2 years, indicating relatively slow fine-root turnover, a result that has major implications in modeling C cycling.

8 Klepzig, Kier D.; Robison, Daniel J.; Fowler, Glenn. [and others]. 2005. Effects of mass inoculation on induced oleoresin response in intensively managed loblolly pine. Tree Physiology. 25: 681-688.

Oleoresin flow is an important factor in the resistance of pines to attack by southern pine beetle and its associated fungus Ophiostoma minus. Abiotic factors, such as nutrient supply and water relations, have the potential to modify this plant--insect--fungus interaction; however, little is known of the effects of inoculation with this bluestain fungus on oleoresin flow. Mass inoculation with O. minus resulted in a significant, long-lived, induced resin response in loblolly pine. Despite mass inoculations, however, O. minus did not kill the host trees, suggesting that this fungus is not a virulent plant pathogen.

9 Kopper, Brian J.; Illman, Barbara L.; Kersten, Philip J. [and others]. 2005. Effects of diterpene acids on components of a conifer bark beetlefungal interaction: tolerance by Ips pini and sensitivity by its associate Ophiostoma ips. Environmental Entomology. 34(2): 486-493. [Editor's note: Southern Station scientist Kier Klepzig co-authored this publication.]

Conifer resin and phloem tissue contain monoterpenes, diterpene acids, and stilbene phenolics. We tested three red pine diterpene acids on the bark beetle Ips pini, and its fungus Ophiostoma ips. No diterpene acid affected the hostacceptance behavior or larval survival of Ips pini. Abietic acid and isopimaric acid strongly inhibited spore germination of O. ips, and abietic acid strongly inhibited mycelial growth. Conifer defenses against bark beetle fungal complexes are multifaceted, with all three phytochemical groups being important to red pine, but each with varying relative activity against the beetles and fungi that attack it.

10 Kubisiak, Thomas L.; Amerson, Henry V.; Nelson, C. Dana. 2005. Genetic interaction of the fusiform rust fungus with resistance gene Fr1 in loblolly pine. Phytopathology. 95: 376-380.

We propose a method for defining DNA markers linked to Cronartium quercuum f. sp. fusiforme avirulence genes. Results of this study suggest that multiple infections within a single gall are common using the concentrated basidiospore system. Roughly 57 percent of the drops harvested were found to consist of more than one haploid genotype, most likely due to the physical mixing of spores from genetically different pycnia. Most importantly, although multiple infections do occur in the formation of a single gall, no evidence suggests that the genetics of the proposed gene-for-gene interaction are compromised.

11 Outcalt, Ken. 2000. The longleaf pine ecosystem of the South. Native Plants Journal. 1(1): 42-44, 47-53.

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris [Pinaceae]) was the most prevalent pine type in the Southern United States. Stands of longleaf were also habitat for a vast array of plant species. Decades of timber harvest, followed by conversion to agriculture, urban development, or to other pine species, have reduced longleafdominated areas to less than 5 percent of its original range. This paper discusses the habitat and history of this once vast resource, outlining its key role as an integral part of native plant communities. I also focus on the more recent recognition of the ecological importance of longleaf pine ecosystems.

12 South, David B.; Harris, Sandy W.; Barnett, James P. [and others]. 2005. Effect of container type and seedling size on survival and early height growth of Pinus palustris seedlings in Alabama, U.S.A. Forest Ecology and Management. 204(2) 385-398

Three hard-wall container types, one styroblock® container type, and two mesh-covered plugs were used to grow longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) seedlings at a nursery in Louisiana. In 2001, these container types, along with bare-root seedlings (from a different seed source), were outplanted on two old-field sites and two cutover sites. There were significant site-by-treatment interactions. A root bound index (RBI) was developed and was calculated for each container seedling by dividing root-collar diameter by the diameter of the container cell. Survival was low when RBI was greater than 27 percent. Although large-diameter bare-root stock can be advantageous as far as survival and growth are concerned, the same may not be true for containers. Some 7-month old container seedlings might become too large for some container types.

13 Ulyshen, Michael D.; Hanula, James L.; Horn, Scott. 2005. Using Malaise traps to sample ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae). Canadian Entomologist. 137: 251-256.

Pitfall traps provide an easy and inexpensive way to sample grounddwelling arthropods and have been used exclusively in many studies of the abundance and diversity of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae). However, pitfall traps often fail to collect both small and "trap-shy" species, eventually deplete the local carabid population, require a species to be ground-dwelling to be captured, and produce different results depending on trap diameter and material, type of preservative used, and trap placement. Further complications arise from seasonal patterns of movement among beetles, numerous climatic factors, differences in plant cover, and variable surface conditions. We demonstrate the effectiveness of Malaise traps for sampling ground beetles in a bottomland hardwood forest.

Wetlands, Bottomlands, and Streams

14 Richter, Stephen C.; Young, Jeanne E.; Siegel, Richard A.; Johnson, Glen N. 2001. Postbreeding movements of the dark gopher frog, Rana sevosa Goin and Netting: implications for conservation and management. Journal of Herpetology. 35(2): 316-321.

Conservation plans for amphibians often focus on activities at the breeding site, but for species that use terrestrial habitats for much of the year, an understanding of nonbreeding habitat use is also essential. We used radio telemetry to study the postbreeding movements of individuals of the only known population of dark gopher frogs, Rana sevosa, during two breeding seasons. Movements away from the pond were relatively short and usually occurred within a two-day period after frogs initially exited the breeding pond. Dispersal distances for some individuals may have been constrained by a recent clearcut on adjacent private property. When implementing a conservation plan for Rana sevosa and other amphibians with similar habitat utilization patterns, we recommend that a terrestrial buffer zone of protection include the aquatic breeding site and adjacent nonbreeding season habitat.

15 Strayer, David L.; Downing, John A.; Haag, Wendell R. [and others]. 2004. Changing perspectives on pearly mussels, North America's most imperiled animals. Bioscience. 54(5): 429-439.

Pearly mussels (Unionacea) are widespread, abundant, and important in freshwater ecosystems around the world. Catastrophic declines in populations have led to research on mussel biology, ecology, and conservation. Research has begun to benefit from and contribute to ideas about suspension feeding, life history theory, metapopulations, flow refuges, spatial patterning and its effects, and management of endangered species. Significant gaps in understanding and apparent paradoxes in pearly mussel ecology have been exposed. To conserve remaining mussel populations, scientists and managers must simultaneously and aggressively pursue both rigorous research and conservation actions.

Mountain and Highland Ecosystems

16 Bragg, Don C. 2004. Historical reflections on the Arkansas Cross Timbers. Journal of Arkansas Academy of Science. 58: 32-36.

Küchler's original map of potential natural vegetation suggested that the eastern-most extension of the "Cross Timbers" oak-dominated woodland reached into extreme western Arkansas. Recent investigations have found possible old-growth Cross Timber communities in narrow strips along steep, rocky sandstone and shale ridges near Fort Chaffee and Hackett. General Land Office surveyors before 1850 reported many ridges and slopes dominated by grassy, stunted oak woodlands, with extensive prairies and richer bottomland terraces. Historical accounts help show that, though far more restricted in this extent than comparable stands in Oklahoma or Texas, Cross Timber communities are possible in Arkansas.

17 Phillips, Jonathan D.; Luckow, Ken; Marion, Daniel A.; Adams, Kristin R. 2005. Rock fragment distributions and regolith evolution in the Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas, U.S.A. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 30. 429-442.

Rock fragment distribution in the regolith (soil + underlying weathered material) reflects the combined influences of geologic controls, erosion, deposition, bioturbation, and weathering. In Ouachita Mountains regoliths, the rock fragment lithology (shale or sandstone) is not solely determined by underlying bedrock. Fragments move downslope from outcrops, downward by animals, and by gravity into pits associated with rotting tree stumps. Upward movement by treethrow is common. The highest fragment concentrations are in the lower regolith, indicating active production at the weathering front. The action of trees in redistributing rock fragments suggests that Ouachita regoliths have likely been extensively mixed within the last 10,000 years.

18 Phillips, Jonathan D.; Marion, Daniel A.; Luckow, Kenneth; Adams, Kristin R. 2005. Nonequilibrium regolith thickness in the Ouachita Mountains. Journal of Geology. 113: 325-340.

Interpretations of regolith (soil + underlying weathered material) thickness in the context of landscape evolution typically assume that thickness is controlled by the interaction of weathering rates and erosion, and tuned to topography. However, in the Quachita Mountains, local topography does not explain the high degree of local spatial variability observed. This indicates nonequilibrium--a lack of balance between weathering and removal rates. We apply Johnson's thickness model to interpret local variations in regolith thickness. Results suggest that equilibrium thickness is most likely in uniform lithology with a high degree of lithologic purity, less likely in interbedded sedimentary rocks, and more unlikely still if the latter are tilted and fractured.

Inventory and Monitoring

19 Bechtold, William A.; Patterson, Paul L., eds. 2005. The enhanced Forest Inventory and Analysis Program--national sampling design and estimation procedures. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-80. Asheville, NC: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 85 p.

The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service is in the process of moving from a system of quasi-independent, regional, periodic inventories to an enhanced program featuring greater national consistency, annual measurement of a proportion of plots in each State, new reporting requirements, and integration with the ground sampling component of the Forest Health Monitoring Program. This documentation presents an overview of the conceptual changes, explains the three phases of FIA's sampling design, describes the sampling frame and plot configuration, presents the estimators that form the basis of FIA's National Information Management System (NIMS), and shows how annual data are combined for analysis. It also references a number of Web-based supplementary documents that provide greater detail about some of the more obscure aspects of the sampling and estimation system, as well as examples of calculations for most of the common estimators produced by FIA.

20 Bentley, James W.; Howell, Michael; Johnson, Tony G. 2005. Louisiana's timber industry--an assessment of timber production, output, and use, 2002. Res. Bull. SRS- 103. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 44 p.

In 2002, industrial roundwood output from Louisiana's forests totaled 720 million cubic feet, 10 percent less than in 1999. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers decreased 4 percent to 275 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 273 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 266 million cubic feet; veneer logs were third at 137 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants increased from 57 in 1999 to 60 in 2002. Total receipts decreased 11 percent to 793 million cubic feet.

21 Howell, Michael; Johnson, Tony G.; Bentley, James W. 2005. Mississippi's timber industry--an assessment of timber production, output, and use, 2002. Res. Bull. SRS- 102. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 45 p.

In 2002, industrial roundwood output from Mississippi's forests totaled 927 million cubic feet, 7 percent less than in 1999. Mill byproducts generated from primary manufacturers increased 9 percent to 391 million cubic feet. Almost all plant residues were used primarily for fuel and fiber products. Saw logs were the leading roundwood product at 526 million cubic feet; pulpwood ranked second at 287 million cubic feet; and veneer logs were third at 78 million cubic feet. The number of primary processing plants increased to 116 in 2002. Total receipts increased 4 percent to 888 million cubic feet.

22 Johnson, T.G.; Steppleton, C.D. 2005. Southern pulpwood production, 2003. Resour. Bull. SRS- 101. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 38 p.

The South's production of pulpwood declined from 63.8 million cords in 2002 to 61.3 million cords in 2003. Roundwood production increased 5 percent to 44.3 million cords and accounted for 72 percent of the total pulpwood production. The use of wood residue dropped 22 percent to 17.0 million cords. Georgia led the South in total production at 9.7 million cords. In 2003, 91 mills were operating and drawing wood from the 13 Southern States. Southern mills' pulping capacity increased from 127,110 tons per day in 2002 to 127,390 tons per day, and still accounts for more than 70 percent of the Nation's pulping capacity.

23 Smith, William D.; Conkling, Barbara L. 2004. Analyzing forest health data. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS- 77. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 33 p.

This report focuses on the Forest Health Monitoring Program's development and use of analytical procedures for monitoring changes in forest health and for expressing corresponding statistical confidences. The program's assessments of long-term status, changes, and trends in forest ecosystem health use the Santiago Declaration: "Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Forest Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests" (Montreal Process) as a reporting framework. Procedures used in five aspects of data analysis are presented. The analytical procedures used are based on mixed estimation procedures.

Large-Scale Assessment and Modeling

24 Achtemeier, Gary L. 2005. Planned Burn-Piedmont: a local operational numerical meteorological model for tracking smoke on the ground at night: model development and sensitivity tests. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 14: 85-98.

Smoke from both prescribed fires and wildfires can, under certain meteorological conditions, become entrapped within shallow layers of air near the ground at night and get carried to unexpected destinations as a combination of weather systems push air through interlocking ridge-valley terrain typical of the Piedmont of the Southern United States. With or without fog, smoke transported across roadways can create visibility hazards. Planned Burn (PB)-Piedmont is a fine-scale, time-dependent, smoke-tracking model designed to run on a PC computer as an easy-to-use aid for land managers. PBPiedmont gives high-resolution in space and time predictions of smoke movement within shallow layers at the ground over terrain typical of that of the Piedmont. PB-Piedmont applies only for weather conditions when smoke entrapment is most likely to occur--at night during clear skies and light winds.

25 Riitters, Kurt H.; Coulston, John W. 2005. Environmental assessment: hot spots of perforated forest in the Eastern United States. Environmental Management. 35(4): 483-492.

We identify geographic concentrations (hot spots) of forest located near holes in otherwise intact forest canopies (perforated forest) in the Eastern United States. We describe proximate causes in terms of nonforest land-cover types contained in those hot spots. Hot spots were widely distributed and covered 20.4 percent of the total area of the 10 ecological provinces examined, but 50.1 percent of total hot-spot area was concentrated in only two provinces. In the central part of the study area, more than 90 percent of the forest edge in hot spots was attributed to anthropogenic land-cover types.

26 Sun, G.; McNulty, S.G.; Lu, J. [and others]. 2005. Regional annual water yield from forest lands and its response to potential deforestation across the Southeastern United States. Journal of Hydrology. 308: 258- 268.

Because of the hot climate and high evapotranspiration in the Southeastern United States, less than half of the annual precipitation that falls on forest lands is available for stream flow in this waterrich region. Water resource management for both floods and droughts demands an accurate estimation of water yield from forests. Projected climate and land use changes further increase the variability of water yield in the region. The objectives of this study were to (1) develop a simple annual water yield modeling procedure, and (2) apply the model to estimate regional forest water yield and predict potential water yield response to forest removal.

Wildland-Urban Interface and Urban Forestry

27 Prestemon, Jeffrey P.; Butry, David T. 2005. Time to burn: modeling wildland arson as an autoregressive crime function. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 87(3): 756-770.

Six Poisson autoregressive models of order p [PAR(p)] of daily wildland arson ignition counts are estimated for five locations in Florida (1994-2001). In addition, a fixed effects time-series Poisson model of annual arson counts is estimated for all Florida counties (1995-2001). [PAR(p)] model estimates reveal highly significant arson ignition autocorrelation, lasting up to 11 days, in addition to seasonality and links to law enforcement, wildland management, historical fire, and weather. The annual fixed effects model replicates many findings of the daily models, but also detects the influence of wages and poverty on arson, in ways expected from theory. All findings support an economic model of crime.

Foundation Programs

28 Clarke, John W.; White, Marshall S.; Araman, Philip A. 2005. Effect of stringer repair methods and repair frequency on performance. Pallet Enterprise. 25(2): 68-73.

Over 135 million wooden pallets were repaired for reuse in 1995. Notched stringers are one of the most commonly damaged components. Metal plates, half companion stringers, and full companion stringers are repair methods described in the United States industry standard published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. This study evaluated the effect of these three stringer repair methods on the bending strength and stiffness of 48x40 GMAstyle pallets spanning the pallet stringers. Results indicate that all three repair practices (metal plates, half-companions, and full companions), when properly applied, will restore pallet strength when used to repair one notch on one or two stringers of a 48x40 partial 4-way, three stringer pallet.

29 Gan, Jianbang; Onianwa, Okwudili O.; Schelhas, John. [and others]. 2005. Does race matter in landowners' participation in conservation incentive programs? Society and Natural Resources. 18:431-445.

This study investigated and compared the participation behavior of white and minority small landowners in Alabama in eight conservation incentive programs. Using nonparametric tests and logit modeling, we found both similarities and differences in participation behavior between these two landowner groups. Both white and minority landowners tended not to participate in conservation incentive programs, and were equally likely to participate in the overall programs--Conservation Reserve Program, Stewardship Incentives Program, and Forestry Incentives Program. The determinants for program participation vary with program and racial/ethnic background. We suggest new approaches to encourage program participation by small landowners in general and by minority landowners in particular.

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