A RURAL STUDIES BIBLIOGRAPHY

Second Edition

Compiled by Scott J.McKearney
Rural Information Center
National Agricultural Library

United States Department of Agriculture

National Agricultural Library

National Rural Studies Committee

Bibliographies and Literature of Agriculture, No. 127

National Agricultural Library
Beltsville, Maryland 20705

August 1994

USDA does not necessarily endorce information in the cited publication. Publications are listed for information purposes only.

FOREWORD

*A Rural Studies Bibliography* has resulted from collaborative efforts of the Rural Studies Committee and the Rural Information Center at the National Agricultural Library. The selection of citations was based on suggestions and recommendations of rural studies professionals and scholars throughout the United States and the National Rural Studies Committee members.

This bibliography will serve as a beginning point for graduate students and professionals interested in pursuing topics in rural studies. It is meant to guide interested individuals to important literature undertaken in a range of disciplines that encompass rural studies topics. As might be expected, the selection of items from the unedited list of over 500 publications was a difficult and sometimes arbitrary process.

The compilation of citations was originally overseen by Carol S. Hatch, a doctoral student at Oregon State University and research associate to the National Rural Studies Committee. The further compilation of citations and arduous annotation process was carried out by Scott McKearney, a doctoral student at the University of Maryland and a staff member of the Rural Information Center.

Emery N. Castle, Chair
National Rural Studies Committee

PREFACE

More than two years have passed since the first edition of the bibliography was published in the late summer of 1991. I am pleased that the National Rural Studies Committee asked me to update and prepare a second edition. This version of *A Rural Studies Bibliography* contains forty-six new citations. I have made every effort to include the best new material. The selections made were largely from the social science literature. Items are included in this bibliography that are frequently cited by scholars in the field. I added others because, while yet quite recent, they address important and emerging issues. Once again, I must emphasize that this bibliography is more representative of the literature than it is exhaustive. This second edition is another step forward in bringing together the rich and diverse literature of an expanding intellectual landscape.

INTRODUCTION

The study of rural life in the United States does not originate from a single scholarly discipline, and the literature does not fit neatly within a cohesive theoretical orientation. As a subfield of sociology, rural sociology comes closest to providing a home base for rural research. The disciplines of political science, economics, agriculture, anthropology, women's studies, education, geography, and even engineering have made substantive contributions to a body of knowledge which we can refer to as rural studies. While it is not unique for contributions to a body of knowledge to come from several disciplines, the diversity of contributors to rural scholarship is clearly evident. This annotated bibliography illustrates a variation in background and perspective yet it also attempts to build upon similarities and differences among the authors, hoping to bind this knowledge together as a distinctive rural studies community.

As one proceeds to review the literature that is annotated here, it becomes increasingly apparent that the comparative approach prevails. For example, rural is defined in comparison to urban and economic analyses examine regional variation. While much of the material represented in this bibliography maintains a comparative orientation, the meaning of the term "rurality" gains an increasingly clear image with each of the cross-disciplinary perspectives. From agriculture to psychology, anthropology to economics, demography to single community case studies, and from history to policy analysis, there is a cumulative effect.

This bibliography is intended to give a selective view of the public scholarship on rural life in the United States. While much has been written on the topic from varied schools of thought, we have sought to select materials reflecting a representative image of the subject matter. Authors and scholars from across the Nation were asked to suggest what they considered to be the most important and very best literature on rural studies. These annotated items represent their consensus. While hundreds of titles were suggested and could have easily qualified for entry into this bibliography, the selected citations were among the most frequently mentioned and most broadly approved.

A typical annotation entered here is a little longer than most of this type. But because this bibliography hopes to represent the best of the rural studies literature and since its objective is to bind the field together as a cohesive academic discipline, more details about the items has been incorporated. The task of writing a few sentences about the hundreds of pages that many of the items contain was not a simple one. The principle used to prepare each annotation was to point directly at the substantive heart of the material and then to indicate how each author delivers the argument. If the item possessed any particularly powerful characteristics or special attributes, they were included also.

This bibliography is intended to be a research tool. The items are presented alphabetically by author, and the index is organized as a cross-reference tool. While many indexes are extremely detailed and catalog almost everything, this index is far more parsimonious and thereby productive and user-friendly. Since the items are intended to represent the best of the field, each can serve as a point of entry for more detailed scholarship in the topical area it represents. Each entry has been indexed with a principal keyword, and more specific keywords are indexed when the annotated item has something of substance to contribute to related areas.

1
Albrecht, Don E. and Steve H. Murdock. *The Sociology of U.S. Agriculture: An Ecological Perspective.* Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1990. 249 p. Examines the transformation in U.S. agriculture that has been underway since the 1930's. Suggests that change in agriculture has affected both the farmer and the society as a whole. Examines the long term patterns of change. Uses these patterns to predict the future course of transition in agricultural production and society. Provides a theoretically informed human ecology perspective to examine the structure of agriculture. Major dimensions of observation are historical, environmental, technological, economic markets, population, and community. Concludes with a discussion of the future of agribusiness.

2
Bachrach, Peter and Morton Baratz. *Power and Poverty: Theory and Practice.* NY: Oxford University Press, 1970. 220 p. A theoretical analysis of local political power structure employing a case study approach to focus on political power and decision making in Baltimore, Maryland during the middle and late 1960's. This research project was commissioned in the wake of racial tensions which had culminated in rioting and protest activity centered on racial and ethnic tensions, housing policy, political representation and struggle for control of government programs. Approaches the concept of power structure by presenting two dominant paradigms in the research field: the elite and the pluralist models. Illustrates the struggle between status quo and specific interest groups and explores their interaction through the various means of political practice and tactics. Offers an analysis of decision making which views non-decisions as a form of political action and contends that the non-decision can be an effective strategy for maintaining and supporting status quo equilibrium.

3
Baldassare, Mark. Suburban Communities. *Annual Review of Sociology* 18 (1992): 475-494. Begins by pointing out that suburbs have been the fastest growing residential sector of the population in the United States and that they are the residential location of the majority of Americans. Relates the history of the suburb and focuses on its form and social structure. Examines how the suburb relates to changes in urban and rural environments and how it links these. Points out that there are distinctive social problems associated with suburban life, especially in the aftermath of a decade of rapid growth and industrialization. Now there is a sense of political fragmentation, declining quality of life, and an affordable housing shortage.

4
Beaulieu, Lionel J., ed. *The Rural South in Crisis: Challenges for the Future.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988. 384 p. This is an overview of the current state of affairs in the rural south, with a principal focus on agricultural and socio-economic conditions. Suggests agricultural and rural development policy options for the present and future. The crisis of community is exemplified by the slow down in sunbelt migration on the part of high growth industry. Banks and other capital sources have reached their limit in terms of farmer debt ratios. Per capita and median family incomes are lower in the rural south than anywhere else in the nation and it is burdened with relatively higher rates of unemployment, functional illiteracy, small farm failures and dependence on sunset industries within the non-durable goods sector. Reviews the dimensions of the crisis including: historical patterns, poorly coordinated and integrated industrial policy and offers possible economic strategies for development in the areas of education, entrepreneurship, industrial policy and coordinated development strategy.

5
Beaulieu, Lionel J. and David Mulkey, eds. *Investing in People.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992. 300 p. Suggests that the economic hardships that rural America endured during the se was principally caused by the decline of traditional goods-producing industries. Extends this analysis into the 1990's, by pointing out that rural America will face difficulties in attracting and retaining the new growth industries. Specific chapters focus on: structural forces, human capital, and strategies for creating and sustaining the human resources of rural America. Central theme focuses on the strategy of generating human capacities rather than upon attempting to attract and retain new industry through perks and financial breaks.

6
Bell, Michael M. "The fruit of difference: the rural-urban continuum as a system of identity." *Rural Sociology* 57, no. 1 (1992): 65-82. Contemporary rural sociologists have increasingly come to doubt the idea of a rural-urban continuum. Community is viewed as a characteristic of rural rather than urban places. This author suggests that rural community is rooted in the identity of country people, but that the same linkage to environment is not widely shared among urban dwellers. While the rural-urban continuum may be questionable in political, economic, and other dimensions, distinction is still clear in the sense of social identification with place.

7
Bennett, John W. *Northern Plainsmen: Adaptive Strategy and Agrarian Life.* Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing, 1969. 352 p. An Anthropological view of regional culture which is strong in its analysis of economic, ecological, and structural-functional interrelationships within a northern plains community of western Canada. Jasper is the fictitious name for a community in Saskatchewan, Canada selected for its typicality of communities in the region. Takes the work of Walter Webb (The Great Plains) as its starting point and is motivated by an interest in testing some of its major conclusions. While Anthropology traditionally studies a local setting as a unique object to be examined in its own right, the author treats Jasper as an exemplar of the socio-economic geography of western North America. It is contended that agrarian communities of this region display a tendency toward structural-functional homogeneity and therefore comparative research should be useful for generalization. Collects and presents four types of data: documentary and statistical, interviews and questionnaires, participation and observation. Examines four sub-groups in the community: Indians, whose existence is marginal subsistence; ranchers, who dominate the local political economy; farmers, whose cash cropping efforts are moderately successful; and the Hutterites, a religious group of recent in-migrants (dating from 1951) whose agricultural and manufacturing processes are diverse but unified by their ascetic orientation.

8
Berry, Wendell. *The Unsettling of America: Culture and Agriculture.* San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books, 1977. 228 p. Criticizes modern agriculture, especially the instrumentally rational, profit directed, and efficiency oriented mind set which is typical of large scale farming. Attempts to equate the orientation of corporate agribusiness to a mentality of exploitation and then contrasts this to the nurturing and harmonious relation between the small independent farmer and the land. Aims the brunt of its criticism at the displacement of the small family farm by corporate agriculture. Parallels the erosion and exhaustion of the soil which results from mechanized agriculture to the concomitant rise in social disfunction and suggests that the agricultural crisis is ultimately a cultural one. Opposes the coalition of corporate, academic, research, and financial resources behind the agri-business mode of production and calls for a return of the small, independent farm as a more culturally, socially and ecologically sound relation to the land.

9
Berry, Brian. *Geography of Market Centers and Retail Distribution.* Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967. 146 p. Part of a series on Foundations of Economic Geography, which compartmentalizes the general domain of geography into specialized sub-fields. This contribution specifically focuses on Economic Geography. It presents the principles of spatial distribution and the organization patterns of markets in advanced and developing economies. Proposes theoretical linkages between the modes of production, patterns of consumption, and the relations to metropolitan settings. The principal thesis is that the geography of retail and service sectors displays characteristic regularities and an inherent rationality which can be observed and measured through temporal and spatial dimensions. Studies central place and market origin conceptualizations in a cross cultural perspective and under alternative value systems. Outlines predictive procedures for applied marketing geography especially as it might be utilized by the regional planner.

10
Berry, Brian, John B. Parr, Bart J. Epstein, Avjit Ghosh and Robert H.T. Smith. *Market Centers and Retail Location: Theory and Applications.* Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1988. 230 p. The central thesis is that the geography of retail and service business displays a patterned regularity over space, time, and in its logic of development. Posits a central-place theory to provide a framework for the analysis of development, suggesting that empirical regularities occur in marketing geography and regional planning. Outlines a central-place hierarchy which accounts for rural, urban, and a rural-urban convergence. Examines periodic marketing systems including their spatial orientation, periodicity, and spatio-temporal synchronization. Presents a theory on the selection of retail locations and its link to marketing geography. The theory includes store-choice models, store location research, and location-allocation models. Applies this body of knowledge to regional and national planning-both its conceptualization and its implementation.

11
Bidwell, Percy W. and John I. Falconer. *History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620-1860.* NY: Peter Smith, 1941. 512 p. Attempts to trace the processes and development of agriculture in the United States from the colonial period to the years immediately preceding the Civil War. Begins with the early colonization of New England and then characterizes four progressive stages of agricultural development. The first period of study examines agricultural practices in the early settlements including field husbandry, livestock, trade practices in subsistence agriculture, and the changing patterns of land tenure. The second period emphasizes the emergence of a rural economic infrastructure during the eighteenth century and gives detailed attention to the maturation of subsistence farming in the established settlement, farm management, household economics, and the advancing developments of agricultural trade. The third section analyzes the period from 1800 to 1840, primarily emphasizing the opening up of the frontier, the rise of inter-regional trade, and the rapid advances in mechanization, specialization and the commoditization of agricultural products. The final section describes the period from 1840 to 1860 as one of transformation from a primary subsistence economy to the rise of agricultural markets. Particular attention is given to the rise of national markets due to advances in mechanization, transportation, livestock, cash crops and the trend toward regional specialization.

12
Bishop, Charles E. "The Urbanization of Rural America: Implications for Agricultural Economics." *Journal of Farm Economics* 49, no. 5 (December 1967): 999-1008. Attempts to demonstrate that those involved in Agricultural Economics have missed the significance of changes brought about by urbanization in American society and how it has impinged upon rural life in the social, political, economic, and personal dimensions. Asserts that while the contributions of agricultural economics have exponentially increased the productivity and technical infrastructure of the farm plant, it has missed the impact of modernity on rural community. Asserts that the discipline must take on the new and additional responsibility of structural and policy analysis. Points to the demise of the physiocratic approach and indicates that the farm-city dichotomy is no longer useful and only blurs the emergent reality of global factors and modernity in rural social life. Calls for the agricultural economic community to link more securely with main-stream macro-economics and to build viable bridges which will invite the knowledge base of the other social sciences into the rural setting.

13
Bloomquist, Leonard E. and Gene F. Summers. "Production and Community Income." *American Sociological Review* 47, no. 3 (June 1982): 325-338. Proposes a model to account for employment changes in the major industrial sectors of rural society. Specifically examines the distribution of family income in non-metropolitan communities. Reports that variation in the mode of production leads to changes in the occupational composition of the industrial sector which produces shifts in the distribution of income. Analyzes the idea that changes occurring in the concentrated sector of the industrial infrastructure has the greatest equalizing effect on the proportion of families at the lower end of the distribution. Reports that changes in the state sector have more of an effect on the proportion at the upper end of the income distribution. Concludes that expansion in the concentrated sector of the industrial infrastructure produces the greatest positive outcome for the skilled working class and leads to a rise in their position in the distribution of income. States that this research does not adequately measure the benefits to the lowest end of the income distribution and that further analysis might focus on the impact on the poor families in a given society.

14
Bogue, Allan G. *From Prairie to Cornbelt: Farming the Illinois and Iowa Prairie in the Nineteenth Century.* Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1963. 309 p. A history of the development of agriculture and midwestern rural life in Illinois and Iowa beginning with the mass in-migration to the prairie lands which was evident by the 1820's. The perspective of this work is organized around the life experience of the individual farmer yet deals with population trends and generalizations. Traces the early history of settlement from subsistence to the rapid emergence of commercial cash crop and livestock markets. Detailed coverage of demographic developments, land tenure and policy, ownership and tenancy, and wage labor patterns. Characterizes the historical context of the changes in crop and livestock production as well as architecture, technology,transportation and market participation patterns. Offers analysis of the stages of capital accumulation, the financial system and early history of an economy on its way to mass market production. Includes charts, maps, graphs, statistics and historical bibliography.

15
Borchert, John R. *America's Northern Heartland.* Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1987. 250 p. A geographer's view of the history and growth of the region extending from Lake Superior, westward across the plains, the prairie and up to the Rocky Mountains. The history begins a little more than a century ago with the first wave of pioneer settlers to converge upon the northwestern Great Lakes and the Upper Mississippi Valley around 1870. Traces two fundamental stages in the development of the region: 1. the half century leading up to 1920, which was characterized by population boom, the establishing of settlement patterns, and the emergence of the Twin Cities as the region's nucleus; 2. the second half century since 1920, which has witnessed a slowing of the rate of population growth but a state of rapid economic development, differentiation and linkage into national and international markets. Draws on the power of maps and charts to emphasize the formation of a regional culture which is typified by an unusual combination of rugged individualism and closely bound community.

16
Bowler, Ian R., Christopher R. Bryant, and M. Duane Nellis, eds. *Contemporary Rural Systems in Transition: Agriculture and Environment.* Vol. 2. Wallingford, England: CAB International, 1992. 314 p. The second of a two volume set focusing on the broad economic and social structures of agricultural and general rural areas. Discussion takes both a national and a global image of the subject. Emphasizes the emergence of new socioeconomic issues, changes in social structure, quality of life, employment patterns and labor markets, as well as assessing economic development strategies and scenarios.

17
Bressler, Raymond G. Jr. and Richard A. King. *Markets, Prices and Interregional Trade.* NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1970. 426 p. Focuses on marketing and pricing dynamics as key components of the economy. Asserts that production of services such as transportation, storage and communication is an important mechanism of market integration. Illustrates market and price dynamics for agricultural commodities and employs milk marketing as an exemplar. Begins with a historical development of the growth of commodity markets from subsistence agriculture to the emergence of the commodity in the industrial exchange complex. Departs from uni-dimensional description by creating a three dimensional market model which includes a spatial, form and time matrices of price and market theory. Discusses regional specialization and trade patterns as well as movement of resources in the free market system.

18
Brown, David L. and John M. Wardwell, eds. *New Directions in Urban-Rural Migration.* NY: Academic Press, 1980. 412 p. Focusing on migration and the flow/counter-flow of people, this volume explores the population turn-around in rural areas of the United States beginning with the 1960's. Illustrates demographic changes including fertility, mortality, settlement patterns, and presents regional and national comparisons. Analyzes the consequence of population growth, making inquiries about the motivational and attitudinal factors which influence migration decisions. Specific analyses include: employment, industrial dispersion, rural/urban convergence, regional and national market ties, consequences of growth, effects on community structure, migrant-native interpersonal relations and policy implications.

19
Brueggemann, Walter. *The Land: Place as Gift, Promise and Challenge in Biblical Faith.* Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1977. 203 p. The intent here is to speak both to secular and religious audiences about biblical reference to man and his relation to the land. Utilizes the conditions of being landed and of being landless as tools and presents a motif of land as home and traces this through the Old and New Testaments. Presents a history of the Israelites from the perspective of their relation to the land and offers an overture of biblical theology. Seeks out ways in which the biblical heritage may address contemporary culture. Links the metaphor of land as home to the contemporary sense of being lost, displaced or homeless whether in the material, intellectual or spiritual senses.

20
Bryan, Frank M. *Politics in the Rural States: People, Parties and Processes.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981. 307 p. Starts by suggesting that there is a paucity of extant research on rural political structures and processes and that there is a need for descriptive and analytical work. Contends that as states gain prominence in the political arena and as rural areas increase in the magnitude of population there arises a new importance for understanding rural politics and its legislative dynamics. Employs a comparative method for the examination of rural and urban life which is described in terms of core and periphery. Takes three case studies for comparison: Mississippi, Montana, and Vermont comparing them on the basis of political processes. Part one of the book is an overview of the nation as a totality and develops a broad based socio-economic image of rural populations in a national context. Subsequent focus is directed at outlining characteristic regularities of rural views and ideas which are compared to the national ethos in order to highlight variation across the three cases. The key structures and functions which are examined include: political participation, political parties, elections, elites, Legislative bodies and patterns of policy formation.

21
Bryant, Keith W., D.L. Bawden and W.E. Saupe. "The Economics of Rural Poverty-A Review of the Post-World War II United States and Canadian Literature." In *Survey of Agricultural Economics Literature*, Vol. 3. Edited by Lee R. Martin, 3-150. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1981. Presents an overview and integration of the diverse literature on rural poverty which was published between the 1940's and the 1970's. The scope of the literature is intentionally limited to the economic disciplines and makes no attempt to include sociology, social psychology or political science. Points out that there was no single theoretical foundation upon which the review could be constructed and that the result is a cluster of hypotheses which are differentiated by either macro or micro levels of analysis. Conceptualizes poverty as a condition of individuals more than a description of the income distribution for a geographic or economic region. Deals with the discrepancy between the macro and the micro by suggesting a model which recognizes macro, national and market forces in interaction with micro forces and processes. Begins with the literature on the distribution of income, then proceeds to the implications of national, regional and area growth for its affect on rural poverty. Concludes with a discussion of what this attempt at an integration of the literature can offer for the direction of future research.

22
Busch, Lawrence, William B. Lacy, Jeffrey Burkhardt, and Laura R. Lacy. *Plants, Power, and Profit: Social, Economic, and Ethical Consequences of the New Biotechnologies.* Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1991. 275 p. Presents the evolution and the language of plant biotechnology. Then discusses the potential and actual impact that this developing science may have for society. Calls for social scientists to become involved in the basic and developing processes of biotechnology and genetic engineering. Demonstrates that what occurs in the laboratory has implications for society employing a metaphor of political biology. Offers a comprehensive analysis of the important relationship which must be forged between political, economic, and public policy agendas. The book suggests that the policy agenda must include attention to macroeconomic, farm commodity, technology diffusion, and research issues.

23
Buttel, Frederick H. "Environmentalization: Origins, Processes, and Implications for Rural Social Change." *Rural Sociology* 57, no. 1 (1992): 1-27. Seeks to go beyond the generalizations about the environmental and the Green movements. Suggests that there has been little sociological analysis of environmental movements as anything other than exogenous forces or factors. States that the notions of greening and environmentalization are not synonymous. Here, greening refers to processes by which environmental concerns are constructed within social groups. While environmentalization is more exogenous. Argues that both notions are to be located in a transition from social-democratic to neo-conservative politics. Suggests that this transition and its reflection in greening and environmentalization have mixed implications for rural society. Examines the political, social, and economic context for sustainable development and environmental preservation.

24
Buttel, Frederick H. and Howard Newby, eds. *The Rural Sociology of the Advanced Societies: Critical Perspectives.* Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980. 529 p. Makes two key assessments about the field of rural sociology. First, it rejects the tacit assumption that rural sociology is a sub-discipline of the general field. Suggests that such an assumption leads to a view of rural sociology as either an applied instance of general sociology or a parochial sub-specialty. Second, it criticizes the prevailing theoretical paradigms and methodologies of rural sociology in North America and Western Europe for its conceptual image of the structural changes in their respective societies and seeks to offer alternative theoretical insight into how rural problems might be approached and resolved. The book maintains a cross-cultural perspective and is comparative in its method. It is divided into three major sections, with articles from specialists in various rural orientations. Each of the theoretical perspectives are summarized, followed by a suggested critical theory of sociology and then proceeds to a political economy of class structure. Offers an analysis of capitalist accumulation patterns within agriculture including the transformation of the agricultural infrastructure and the social differentiation of labor.

25
Buttel, Frederick H., Olaf F. Larson, and Gilbert W. Gillespie, Jr. *The Sociology of Agriculture.* Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990. 263 p. Points out that the sociology of agriculture is, one of the oldest specialty areas on rural sociology. Illustrates the links between the rural sociology of the early twentieth century and the present sociology of agriculture. Illustrates the changes and differences that have occurred through time. The book is organized around three major eras of rural sociological scholarship about agriculture. The authors address a first era, the formative years, which cover the first half of the twentieth century. Second, they refer to an era of social psychological-behaviorist approaches and a focus on the processes of technological development, diffusion and adaptation. Finally, the introduce a current conceptual era that they refer to as the new sociology of agriculture. This emphasizes the changes in agriculture and its social formations which have occurred since the mid-1970's. The authors stress a structure of agriculture model. Finally, the authors identify what they consider to be the challenges of the immediate future for the discipline: both the integrative and the fractionalizing potential of a hyper-pluralism in rural sociology.

26
Callicott, J. Baird. *In Defense of the Land Ethic: Essays in Environmental Policy*. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989. 325 p. Opens with an overview of environmental philosophy and the influence that its considerations and concerns have had on traditional moral philosophy. Claims that traditional moral philosophy has been entirely anthropomorphic-positioning man at the center of both the intellectual and physical universe. Describes how environmental thinking has acted to extend this anthropomorphism to take account of non-human beings. Suggests that even this stops short of the environment and the eco-system. Demonstrates the possibility of further extension through a critique of the moral posture of the animal rights and animal welfare constituency. Suggests another contingent of environmental philosophy which is typified by those referred to as eco-centrists and he counts himself among them. Contends that their orientation is a sweeping overhaul of the basic philosophic and cognitive foundation of western thinkers. The goal of eco-centrism is to build a new ethical and metaphysical base line.

27
Canovan, Margaret. *Populism*. NY: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1981. 351 p. Defines Populism and how it has be used to describe various political orientations in various social settings. Suggests that Populism has been used to describe a bewildering variety of social movements. It has been employed to describe forms of direct democracy, like the referendum and the popular initiative, agrarian radicalism, popular agrarian dictatorship, peasant movements, politician based coalitions and diverse political action groups. Addresses the question of just what does and does not constitute the basics of a populist movement. Examines U.S. populism, Russian varieties, agrarian, dictatorial, democratic, reactionary and interest group forms. Fundamentally defines an agrarian populism which is typified by a kind of rural radicalism and posits the existence of a broad family of populisms which are not necessarily rural. This broad family of direct democracy, mass parties and man in the streets type imagery is suggested to be social alignment against the interest of traditional elites and their domination of political life.

28
Castle, Emery. "Rural Diversity: An American Asset." *ANNALS, AAPSS* 529 (September 1993): 12-21. Focuses on the fact that rural American is very diverse. Describes this diversity by looking at educational attainment, per capita income, occupation, and ethnicity. Suggests that the diversity shapes public policy. Contends that highly centralized public programs and policies that treat rural America as constant and invariant are unlikely to succeed. Points out that many federal programs have made this mistake and have now outlived their usefulness. States that federal entitlement programs are very important for rural areas but need to be sensitized to regional variation. Points out that not all rural areas will flourish in the future, but that those that do will be the ones capable of responding to the global market and interconnecting with urban society's needs.

29
Caudill, Harry M. *Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area.* Boston, MA: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1962. 394 p. Three hundred miles west of the nation's capital is the Cumberland Plateau of the Appalachians. This is the heart of the Kentucky coal mining region and host site of some of the most severe poverty and labor exploitation in the rural United States. Caudill, a former Kentucky legislator whose ancestry has populated the region for generations, relates the story of the back-country people, the abuse and the mis-use of resources, the social heritage, and the story of the rape of nature and of the human erosion that resulted from the relations of production in the coal mining operations of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Tells the story of coal country-its corporate ownership, labor abuse, unionization and strikes, ecological rape, and the residual travesty left behind after the depletion of mines in some areas and the coming of the age of automation.

30
Chibnik, Michael, ed. *Farm Work and Field Work: American Agriculture in Anthropological Perspective.* Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987. 293 p. Produced as an outcome of the 1982 meetings of the American Anthropological Association, this is an insightful collection of papers written by cultural anthropologists which focus on American Agriculture and contemporary farm communities. Examines economic strategies, the sexual division of labor, racial and ethnic differences and policy issues. Begins with a background assessment of the credit, capital, market, ecological, technological, and policy issues which structure agricultural production. Presents the alternatives and insights which anthropology can offer to the mainstream rural sociological paradigm. Examines causes and consequences of changing rural conditions in agricultural technology, economic relations and government programs.

31
Childs, Alan W. and Gary B. Melton, eds. *Rural Psychology.* NY: Plenum Press, 1983. 442 p. An anthology of psychological perspectives addressing the question of rural-urban differences in the field. Notes that sociology has a substantial sub-field in rural studies and debates the possibility that Psychology might need a similar sub-category. Discusses rurality as a psychological environment, the demographic and institutional characteristics of rural areas, family dynamics, linguistics, gerontology, social psychology, quality of life and clinical factors for program design and service delivery. Stresses the general lack of attention that Psychology has given to rurality. Suggests comparative and cross-regional studies to describe the rural dependent variable and to determine how environment acts on cognitive and social development.

32
Clawson, Marion. *Suburban Land Conversion in the United States: An Economic and Governmental Process.* Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1971. 406 p. An early 1970's assessment of land use, the urban to rural continuum and the processes, characteristics and dynamics of suburban development. Differentiates the 19th century east to west migration from the twentieth century massive redistribution which brought simultaneous urban concentration and rising suburban populations. Indicates that the current redistribution is highly differentiated by race, income, age and other demographic factors. Places emphasis on the issue of land use land transfers, conversion of land from one use to another and the marked changes in the pricing of land. Suggests that the process of land development in suburban areas is poorly and imperfectly coordinated, having no general principles operating consistently across towns or regions.

33
Cochrane, Willard W. *The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Perspective.* Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1979. 464 p. A chronological history of the development of American agriculture from 1607 to the present. The order proceeds from the colonial period,to settlement of the mid-west, west coast and the south west, the end of the frontier, the Depression era, the technological revolution and finally-world integration. Articulates the significance of major forces at work in historical development mechanization, development of an infrastructure, mass transportation, mass markets and the social dimension of education, research and the role of the government. The stated purpose of the work is to describe the development of American agriculture and the forces which were set to work upon it with a particular emphasis on covering the period from 1950 through 1977.

34
Cochrane, Willard W. and Mary E. Ryan. *American Farm Policy, 1948-1973.* Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1976. 431 p. A historical document prepared with assistance from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station which includes extensive data collected from the United States Department of Agriculture. It is a reference book on farm policy, historical records, program analysis and legislative action. Part one describes the evolution of policy and programs; outlines policy formulation dynamics. Part two writes the historical record of what was done from 1948 through 1973, with an emphasis on when, how, and why it was done. The historical analysis focuses on mechanisms, costs, program interrelationships and technological developments. Includes extensive historically organized statistics and other data on commodities, acreage, exports, food programs and policy appraisal.

35
Cocklin, Chris, Barry Smith, and Tom Johnston, eds. *Demands on Rural Lands: Planning for Resource Use.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987. 336 p. Points out that rural areas in the industrialized world are rapidly diminishing as various interests make claims to the land. Discusses the role of market forces, political and public actions play in allocating this resource environment. Suggests that mis-use and market dysfunctions have increased the need for land-use policy and planning. Divided into four parts: 1) an introduction to the issues, 2) a summary and characterization of the problems, 3) recent developments in resource information management for planning purposes, and 4) a collection of essays focused on intervention techniques and strategies. Provides a good introduction to land-use issues for rural studies scholars and to development practitioners.

36
Conzen, Kathleen Heils. "Historical Approaches to the Study of Rural Ethnic Communities." In *Ethnicity on the Great Plains*, edited by Frederick C. Luebke. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Volume was originally prepared for presentation to the Second Annual Symposium sponsored by the Center for Great Plains Studies. The contributors range from anthropologists, folklorists, geographers, historians, linguists, and sociologists to students of literature and architecture. Conzen, a historian, presents a comparative study of immigrant groups based on family and community history. Conzen suggests that the rural environment provides a setting which is more favorable to the maintenance of cultural identity than does a metropolitan area. The successful maintenance of ethnic identity within a rural setting is correlated to high levels of cultural density in the given locale. The author also stresses the importance of inter-generational continuity as it is supported by the availability of non-agricultural employment, the affordability of land and other means of assimilating younger generations into the social formation.

37
Cooper, James Fenimore. *The Pioneers.* NY: Mead, 1958. 477 p. The first of Cooper's Leatherstocking tales, this is a novel of life in upstate New York during the decade after the Revolutionary War. It is historically significant as one of the first romantic stories in American literature of life in the yet to be settled parts of the North American continent. The tale is filled with the scenes of nature-the hunting, trapping and guidesman existence of the frontiersman. Cooper is telling the story of the life and place in the world of both the white frontiersman and the tragic fate of the native Indian. The irony of his tale is the pattern of development which followed the frontiersman into the wilderness. As the land became known, so it became tamed and developed. The agrarian lifestyle pushes all of the wilderness aside in its pattern of development and destroys both the life of the Indian and that of the frontiersman who has unwittingly initiated the process.

38
Coward, Raymond T, ed. *The Journal of Rural Health* 1, no. 2 (July 1985). The journal is directed to an audience of health care providers from a wide range of service perspectives who focus on the needs of rural areas. The goal of the journal is to advance practice, research, theory and policy development. While the journal does publish material which attends to rural issues on a global level, the major emphasis is on the rural environment of the United States. This issue directs its attention at policy and practice concerns, with a particular emphasis on service delivery, population characteristics, the distribution of Physicians and related health care professionals across rural areas. Describes the experience of relative deprivation of rural areas in comparison to urban and points out the needs of rural populations which are presently wanting for more adequate attention.

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Coward, Raymond T. and Gary R. Lee, eds. *The Elderly in Rural Society.* NY: Springer Publishing Co., 1985. 263 p. Collection of original manuscripts written by Sociologists active in the field of rural gerontology. Focuses on the lack of information about a segment of the population which, in 1985, had a magnitude of more than fifty nine million individuals. Asserts that the special characteristics of the rural elderly requires they be studied with sensitivity to the rural-urban difference. The book is divided into three sections. The first part presents the state of the field and its informational short-comings. Part two is attuned to physical and mental health, family relations and social networks among the elderly. Critical of the romanticized image of the old folk living in the countryside and views them as disadvantaged in comparison to their urban counterparts. Part three assesses the current state of social services and forms of societal intervention. Charges that while the rural elderly need a service delivery structure which is constructed around their needs, that what is currently offered is merely a scaled down version of the urban system.

40
Cowper, Patricia A. and John E. Kushman. "A Spatial Analysis of Primary Health Care Markets in Rural America." *American Journal of Agricultural Economics* 69, no. 3: 613-625. An exponential spatial interaction model is used to analyze primary health care delivery systems in three rural counties of northern California. The study combines macro-level observation of spatial interaction and links it with micro-level observation of consumer behavior. A spatial interaction model is used to describe the flow of goods and services in the health care market from the consumer to the primary provider and on to the specialized locations in the health care delivery system. Concludes that the model can be used to analyze primary health care delivery options and can help to ensure that decisions made by providers, policy-makers, planners and communities are effective in maintaining high quality services and in attracting new providers to locations which can be financially viable.

41
Curti, Merle E. *The Making of an American Community: A Case Study of Democracy in a Frontier County.* Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959. 483 p. The author chose to make a study of democratic political form in a frontier county and selected Trempealeau County Wisconsin as his sight of observation. The purpose was to examine the history and development of democratic political life as it could be determined from historical records of earlier times and by this process to test Turner's frontier interpretation of the development of American democracy. Turner's contention was that the frontier had been the most important influence on the development of American democracy. Employs quantitative measures by analyzing census data and by studying occupational data, political apportionment, and public records. Examines early settlement patterns, transportation, communication, social and economic relations, agricultural patterns, county government and educational systems. Contains charts, figures and extensive bibliographical notes.

42
Dalecki, Michael G. and Milton C. Coughner. "Agrarianism in American Society." *Rural Sociology* 57, no. 1 (Spring 1993): 48-64. Attempts to measure rural-urban differences in regard to basic values. A survey questionnaire was used, attempting to tap the relationship between multidimensional agrarian beliefs and underlying value factors. Results show a wide public endorsement of the agrarian creed. Beliefs are organized into four attitudinal dimensions including: family farm, agrarian fundamentalism, yeomanship, and farm life style. Suggests that these resonate favorably with a widely shared social ethic that promotes a continuity in attitudes and beliefs across the rural and urban sectors of the public.

43
Danhof, Clarence H. *Change in Agriculture: The Northern United States, 1820-1870.* Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969. 322 p. Offers an explanation for the processes and direction of agricultural development in the United States as it occurred during the middle decades of the 1800's. Specifically traces the pattern of development between the years of 1820 and 1870 and suggests that the system of production which emerged during this period had set the stage for the modern era of agricultural development. Considers the reaction of farmers in the northern United State to improved means of transportation, national markets, more productive systems of cultivation and husbandry, the technological advancements in farming implements and techniques, the availability of virgin lands for development into productive farms and the growing demand for agricultural commodities brought about by rapid growth of urban industrialized areas. This period firmly established a new and permanent agricultural economy and technology.

44
Daniel, Peter. *Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures since 1880.* Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1985. 352 p. Deals with the work cycles, and technological and social transformations in cotton, tobacco, and prairie rice cultures since the turn of the twentieth century and the rise of mechanized agricultural production in the south and the prairie mid-west. Analysis begins with the 1880's, when each of the three cultures faced distinct problems. Begins with historical overviews of each of the three cultures and then proceeds to illustrate the influence of federal agricultural policy and technological innovation. Proceeds to analyze the patterns of persistence and change in the social and economic dimensions. Concludes by addressing the triumph of capitalist agriculture and its pattern of capital and agribusiness consolidation. Contains an extensive collection of photographs and archival information.

45
Davis, Allison, Burleigh B. and Mary R. Gardner. *Deep South: A Social Anthropological Study of Caste and Class.* Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1941. 558 p. An anthropological and sociological study of a deep south county in the tenant farmer and plantation region. The method of research was participant observation and documents attempted cultural immersion of four researchers from the University of Chicago under the direction of W. Lloyd Warner. The study was conducted for a period of two years with a white couple and a black couple living as community members in the research setting, both attempting to blend into the social environment to the extent of dropping their distinction as researchers in order to enter the normal course of community life as full participants. The study is presented in the form of a parallel analysis of blacks and whites in their respective roles in the stratification system. The method of analysis is both comparative and functional in its contrast of social institutions, beliefs, and customs. Stresses the importance of understanding that there are dual systems of class and caste and that they operate in distinct ways to organize social, economic, and political life. Analyses the land tenure system and the mode of agricultural production of cotton. Describes the mode of life for black tenant farmers and the pattern of intimidation of labor on the plantation as a social setting.

46
Deaton, Brady J. and Maurice R. Landes. "Rural Industrialization and the Changing Distribution of Family Incomes." *American Journal of Agricultural Economics,* 60, no. 5 (December 1978): 950-960. Directs attention to the nature of income distribution in rural regions and conducts analysis of the impact of introducing new industry to a rural setting, measuring shifts in family income over three time periods. Attempts to understand patterns of industrialization for increasing domestic income. Industrialization was anticipated to reduce poverty status. Study conducted in rural Tennessee and utilized a voluntary questionnaire format for seven hundred respondents and also analyzed secondary data. Results indicated that industrialization had minimal impact on reducing the magnitude of the population in poverty conditions. Suggests the need for further analysis of sectoral factors and interactions at the local level to develop a deeper understanding of the conditions which maintain poverty status.

47
Deavers, Kenneth L., Robert A. Hoppe and Peggy J. Ross. "Public Policy and Rural Poverty: A View From the 1980's." *Policy Studies Journal* 15, no. 2 (December 1986): . Takes stock of the conditions and incidence of poverty in the United States since the war on poverty was begun by the Johnson administration in the mid-1960's. With hindsight provided by two subsequent decades of experience, this study seeks to assess the extent to which substantial public investment in both policies and programs has benefitted the rural poor and assesses what new directions are indicated for anti-poverty programs. Notes that poverty rates in non-metropolitan areas fell during the period 1967 to 1977, but then began a renewed and steep increase. Points out that those of poverty status in rural areas are heavily represented by the elderly, those temporarily poor and people dislocated by the farm crisis. Discusses the policy implications of rural development programs and whether they appropriately stress both income transfers and labor market strategies.

48
Deloria, Vine, Jr. and Clifford M. Lytle. *The Nations Within: The Past and Future of American Indian Sovereignty.* NY: Pantheon Books, 1984. 293 p. A work of detailed scholarship covering law, history, and political science. Written by a Native American and focusing on the development of Native American self-rule. Analyzes Native American Indian relations with the United States government from the early history of land sales, treaties, creation of the reservation system, the twentieth century emergence of new federal legislation including the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Indian Civil Rights Act, the implications of Wounded Knee and the rise of Indian Nationalism as it represents the movement for self determination. Demonstrates the complexity of relations between Indian nations and federal and state governments. Clarifies the importance of federal predominance over states in relations with Indian nations and Indians as private citizens. Unique and scholarly in its treatment of the genesis of self rule and self determination as it has structured the Native American world view.

49
Dollard, John. *Caste and Class in a Southern Town.* NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1957. 466 p. As his community study got underway it became clear to Dollard that one could not effectively study the lives of southern blacks outside of the context of the white dominated class and cultural setting. He points out that whites and the status of whiteness was and perhaps still is a primary variable in the mind and social outlook of the southern black. It was here in this southern community that Dollard discovered the blatant and the insidious implications of being from one race or the other as it ordered social reality. Broadening his research scope from the study of blacks to the study of black and white interaction in community context, Dollard came to conceptualize not only the existence of social class or the continuum of stratification but the existence of a pervasive and rigidly bound caste system. The caste system which Dollard presents is rooted not only in custom but in social habits and at the foundation of the very nature of meaning and belief systems in this rural southern community. As the nature of the caste system is identified, it becomes clear that there is not only a casted distinction between blacks and whites, but that the distinction is embedded in the stratification system which separates whites from each other. Particular attention is given to marriage patterns, sexual mores and means of status attainment as well as addressing political, economic, religious and educational characteristics.

50
Dunn, Edgar S., Jr. *The Development of the U.S. Urban System: Concepts, Structures, Regional Shifts.* Vol. I. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980. 205 p. This work makes a major contribution to recasting the dominant theories of urban development. Urban systems are viewed as highly complex networks of transactions among individuals, firms and, organizations. An emphasis of this work is the application of shift share techniques to employment data analysis by industry and region. Presents results from analysis of the decennial census files from 1940 through 1970. Major conceptual contribution includes insight into ways of looking at urban systems-their representation and description; concepts of growth and development and modeling of urban systems as activity networks.

51
Edwards, Clark. "The Political Economy of Rural Development: Theoretical Perspectives." *American Journal of Agricultural Economics* 58, no. 5 (December 1976): 914-921. Centers attention on conceptualizations and theoretical approaches to economic development and growth. Notes that the urban and rural economic sectors are strongly linked, but not in only one direction or dimension. Suggests that applied development activity has usually forged ahead into development projects with an incomplete sense of theoretical perspective and that geographic space has been overlooked in analyzing the patterns of trade. Contends that the United States is divided into approximately 500 fundamental economic areas that are relatively closed with respect to trading and community. Compares the U.S. Department of Commerce assumption that acceleration of growth in core sectors of these areas will overcome poverty conditions in the periphery, with the U.S. Department of Agriculture's mandate for industrial plant location in the rural periphery. States that our faith in the perfection of free markets may not be well founded. Indicates that the road to an equitable free market economy is often constrained by patterns of unequal distribution, monopoly power overriding competitive forces, incomplete and imperfect knowledge of regional conditions and that not all conflict is solved by the natural ebb and flow of free market commerce.

52
Erikson, Kai T. *Everything in its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood.* NY: Simon and Schuster, 1976. 284 p. This is at once a documentary, an ethnography and a sociological assessment of the psychological and social impact of a devastating tragedy on the lives of the survivors of the Buffalo Creek flood that tore through a small Appalachian community in the winter of 1972. Examines the effect of the flood on the lives of the survivors both individually and collectively, and as a traumatized community. Relies heavily on interviews and impromptu conversations with survivors which occurred in the months immediately following the event. Proceeds to focus on the ethos of the mountain people and attempts to integrate the ethnic and cultural characteristics of the appalachian people into the analysis of the disaster. Offers a brief history of the rise of the coal mining industry in the region and how it structures the social world. Heavy emphasis is placed on examining the long term emotional trauma of survivors and on illustrating the social devastation of a mountain community.

53
Faulkner, William. *The Bear/Go Down Moses.* NY: Modern Library, 1942. 383 p. The Bear is one of the seven parts of the novel Go Down Moses and it takes place in the northwestern corner of Yoknapatawpha County in the woods along the Tallahatchie river bottom, a fictional counterpart of what is believed to represent Lafayette County, Mississippi. It is a story of man in relationship to nature and an interpretation of the history of the south. The plot is developed within the setting of a former plantation which covers a hundred square miles. The land was ultimately taken over by a Major Cassius de Spain through foreclosures. During November of each year hunting parties would take place and the story develops around the existence of a bear who had been ravaging the countryside and thus became the quarry of the hunting party. The story is divided into five parts and is focused on the experiences of a boy named Isaac in his search for the bear. Faulkner utilizes the metaphor of the hunt, moving backward and forward in time to tell the tale of man and nature in the south. It is a comprehensive attempt to express the author's ideas about God, nature, man-all at once bound up in his interpretation of southern history.

54
Fear, Frank A. and Harry K. Schwarzweller, eds. *Research in Rural Sociology and Development: Focus on Community.* Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1985. 280 p. The decade of the 1980's brought a transition from predominantly agricultural to manufacturing and service employment in the rural areas of the United States. This volume contains 16 studies to provide policy makers and researchers with a duly informed sociological perspective on the new economic landscape of rural America. Provides a wide ranging overview of the scholarship on rural community development, community response to demographic and economic change, and development policy. The balance of the book focuses on particular projects that exemplify the use of specific strategies for enhancing community development.

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Ferleger, Lou, ed. *Agriculture and National Development.* Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1990. 363 p. Focuses on the transformation of American agriculture in the nineteenth century. During that period, agriculture vastly increased its productive capacity. Agriculture was both affected by and helped to shape the industrial revolution that took place in the United States during the last decades of the last century. Suggests that we do not adequately understand the processes of transformation as it took place in different regions of the country and at different rates of speed. The chapters included in this volume examine the transition from yeoman self-sufficiency to modern capitalistic and market oriented agriculture. The largest question addressed in this volume focuses on whether the average farmer was most influenced by the actions of special interests or by the impersonal forces of the marketplace.

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Fink, Deborah. *Open Country, Iowa: Rural Women, Tradition and Change.* Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1986. 275 p. Links Anthropology, History and Feminist thought as it studies the changing social patterns, roles and human relationships of rural Iowa. Utilizes ethnographic narrative, life histories and participant observation to trace the history of women in agrarian life (in Iowa) from the earliest settlements in 1830, through World War II and up to present times. Principal focus is on rural women and demonstrates how family, religion and work have changed over the years. Analyzes the material reality of women's roles in the production of the household economy and the regional marketplace. In particular, focuses on women's work (as it came to be labeled by a patriarchal society) as economically productive and integral to the material output of the community and the region. Demonstrates that work labeled as women's work is only a fragment of women's economic productivity in agrarian society.

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Fitchen, Janet M. *Endangered Spaces, Enduring Places: Change, Identity, and Survival in Rural America.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. 314 p. Starting from the farm crisis, this book focuses on community transformation in rural America. Rural communities are losing farms, farm related economic activity, industry, and their young. More and more, rural America is being annexed by the interests of the urban industrial core as it becomes the site of vacation homes, prisons, hazardous waste dumps, and as its remaining agricultural resources become concentrated into the hands of industrialized and corporatized agribusiness giants. Based on years of fieldwork, qualitative and quantitative research and hundreds of interviews, in many rural counties of upstate New York, this book chronicles the costs to and illustrates the resilience of rural communities. Concludes with suggestions for ensuring the survivability of rural communities and calls for new government action and interactions.

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Fitchen, Janet M. "Homelessness in Rural Places: Perspective from Upstate New York." *Urban Anthropology* 20, no. 2 (Summer 1991): 177-210. Presents results of field research done in upstate New York. Demonstrates that government agencies are not adequately providing social and economic services to low-income and poverty populations in rural communities. Finds that single-parent households, paucity of inexpensive housing, and joblessness are the principal factors affecting the magnitude of rural homelessness. Homeowners are generally able to survive the effects of these variables but renters are not so fortunate. Rural gentrification, the absence or shortage of publically subsidized housing or privately held rental units are squeezing out low-income renters. A consequence has been an increase in temporary homelessness. In rural areas, the homeless are more likely to be able to stay, at least temporarily, with relatives and friends. In part, this is because of a near absence of shelter options. Offers strategies for reducing and preventing homelessness. Calls for housing initiatives, emergency shelters, and the regulation of private real estate development.

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Fitchen, Janet M. *Poverty in Rural America: A Case Study.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981. 257 p. Written by an Anthropologist and from the ethnographic perspective, this is a case study of rural non-farm poverty. Begins with a narrative of everyday life experience from observations of a poor, rural family. De-mystifies the image of rural poverty with its humanistic portrayal of private life. Critiques the predominant stereotype that the condition of being impoverished is attributable to subjective short-comings. The problem of poverty is not the result of inadequacy of individuals or a product of insufficient ambition but that it is rooted in structural factors which produce it and mitigate against its transcendence. The case study is based in a northern appalachian fringe area of New York State where poverty conditions have been accentuated by the decline of agriculture and the resulting atrophy of small rural communities. This is not a community study but an observation and analysis of patterns of action and thought of a number of interacting, proximate, rural poor families viewed in the context of community. Searches for facts, recurrent patterns or themes in the field material which enable Fitchen to generalize about family and community life as it is impinged upon by the conditions and limits of poverty. Part II investigates the historical forces that brought about the poverty conditions. Part III presents description of economic patterns, marriage and the family, childhood experience, relationships within the neighborhood and the wider community. Part IV pulls together the various outcomes of the investigation and delineates the on-going conditions that perpetuate rural poverty and suggest remedies to eradicate the causes.

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Fite, Gilbert C. *American Farmers: The New Minority.* Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1981. 265 p. A short history on the rise of industrial agri-business and a documentation of the demise of the family farm. Traces the period from the turn of the century when 6.5 million family farms represented thirty percent of the nation's population to the 1980's when the number of farms had plummeted to only 3 percent of the population. As farming has become an industrialized, technical and capital intensive enterprise-entrance into and stability in farming has been limited by the cost-price squeeze, credit scarcity and the prohibitively high cost of capital for start-up. While Fite is not on the offensive against agri-business, he is sympathetic to the rural family as a declining social unit and he discusses their problems and prospects for survival in significant detail.

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Fixico, Donald L. *Termination and Relocation: Federal Indian Policy 1945-1960.* Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. 268 p. The passage of World War II brought change to American life on many levels as modernity and the integration of all citizens into a national rather than regional consciousness seemed in evidence. The American Indian, like all other social and ethnic groups in American society was affected by this change. In the years after the war, both the Indian and government bureaucrats came to favor modernization and integration of the Indian into mainstream citizen status more than had been the case at any other time. This volume documents and analyzes the process and its movement toward weakening or terminating of the government's trust relationship over Indian lands as it has been dictated by the great treaties of the past. Efforts were made to encourage Indians to leave the reservations and relocate to urban areas. Suggests that this process of integration and relocation posed threats to the integrity and viability of the treaties, which are viewed as the foundation of Indian rights in American society. The rights of the Indian were gradually eroded by this process and they slipped from the status of a sovereign people to that of ward of the federal government. The years after World War II intensified this process as a Republican dominated Congress and an assimilationist oriented Bureau of Indian Affairs favored the efforts toward mainstream participation and a departure from the days when the treaties protected their sovereign status.

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Fliegel, Frederick C. *Diffusion Research in Rural Sociology: The Record and Prospects for the Future.* Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993. 132 p. Analyzes the impact of new technologies on social life in agricultural society. Places a major emphasis on examining the structural antecedents and the consequences of diffusion and adoption. Assesses gains and losses to individuals and social groups, as well as the environmental consequences of new technologies. Develops the framework for a socio-ecological perspective in technology assessment. Suggests methods for determining benefits and costs, estimates of impacts social and ecological, and suggests extending impact analysis to include the institutional management. The book provides a review of the literature and then pioneers an emphasis on the assessing the characteristics of technology in order to plan for their introduction into a social environment.

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Flora, Cornelia Butler, Jan L. Flora, Jacqueline D. Spears, and Louis E. Swanson. *Rural Communities: Legacy and Change.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992. 334 p. Offers a new interpretation of rural development and change. Takes an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the complex interaction of social, economic, political, and cultural factors affecting change. Develops a methodology that integrates both national and international factors and influences which impact rural society. Demonstrates how outcomes are affected by the responses and actions of individual human agents and small groups in local contexts. Suggests strategies for guiding development and change in the advanced economies which are currently developing in the global market. Topical focus includes sociology, geography, planning, environmental management, agricultural economics, land-use and natural resources.

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Ford, Arthur M. *Political Economics of Rural Poverty in the South.* Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing, 1973. 101 p. Begins with the theorem that by necessity all studies of poverty are essentially studies of the nature of inequality and hence, the elimination of poverty requires the elimination of inequality. Criticizes the literature on poverty for its tendency to seek causation in the characteristics and attributes of the individual and for focusing on identification of the poor rather than seeking the structural and political-economic conditions which produce their social existence. Further criticizes the culture of poverty concept, defending the social relations of the poor as the result of adaptation to deprivation rather than the cause of poverty. Discusses the introduction of new and mechanized technologies to agricultural production in the south and its negative impact on the under class population. Demonstrates that this innovative era produced a residual class location of former agricultural workers who could not be absorbed into the non-agricultural industrial or service economies. Analyzes the differential effects of migration, both on the lives of individuals and for its affect on draining the south of human capital.

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Frey, William H. and Alden Speare, Jr. *Regional and Metropolitan Growth and Decline in the United States.* NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988. 586 p. Investigates significant social, economic, and demographic developments revealed by the decennial census. The most dramatic emergent pattern discovered was the decline of northern metropolitan areas and the rise of sunbelt cities. Also points to the revitalization of rural areas and characterizes it as a rural renaissance. Points out the return of the white middle class to the northern cities and a resurgence of black migration to the south. Indicates a significant rise in what has been referred to as a footloose population. These are individuals who are free to migrate independently of job opportunities since they are out of the labor market (retired, for example) and have tended to migrate to rural and remote locations. Indicates the entrance of the baby boom cohorts into the housing and the labor markets. Proceeds to an analysis of growth and decline patterns in the United States.

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Friedland, William H., Amy E. Barton and Robert J. Thomas. *Manufacturing Green Gold: Capital, Labor and Technology in the Lettuce Industry.* NY: Cambridge University Press, 1981. 159 p. This is an analysis of a specific case in agricultural production the iceberg lettuce industry. The stated mission is to understand the ways in which groups form, act, and interact with one another in the social relations of agricultural commodity production. Operating from a neo-Marxian orientation, the authors are concerned with material and social forces which influence the organization of industrial production. They examine the means by which production is conceptualized, formulated and how technological change transforms social relations. Argues for the development of a substantive sociology of agriculture and through comparative analysis of production systems, deals with the social consequences of change in systems of production. Appropriates Weberian typologies of economic organization and bureaucracy. Attends to the role of the state, labor markets, technology in the production process and commodity relations.

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Friedman, John and William Alonso. *Regional Policy: Readings in Theory and Application.* Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975. 808 p. An anthology of readings in the theory, practice and assessment of regional and national planning. Contributors range from Geography, Economics, Political Science, Anthropology and Architecture to Urban/Regional Planning, Demography, Government and Management Consulting. Conceptualizes a regional development science to be a synthetic composite which resulted from the merging of Economics, Geography and Public Policy. Theorizes about planning and development, viewing it more as a multi-dimensional phenomenon than has been true of prior growth models. Argues for the merging of new variables and dimensions into planning and growth, including socio-cultural, ethnic, environmental and quality of life considerations since these have been assessed to impact the outcome of development on national and on international levels. Also calls for disciplinary and cross-disciplinary mergers; mixing of the scholarly and the policy/practitioner world views and the sharing of experiences and comparison of differences among and between various disciplines and experiential groups involved in planning and development.

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Fuguitt, Glenn V., David L. Brown and Calvin L. Beale. *Rural and Small Town America.* NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1989. 471 p. Demonstrates that significant differences persist between rural and urban life. Despite the powerful influence of economic concentration and the homogenizing influence of mass media, small town America still maintains a distinctive character. The most significant outcome of their research is the evidence that size of place is a criterial factor in determining basic population patterns as well as social and economic differences. They examine growth patterns and population dispersion, age and sex composition, ethnicity and race, domestic characteristics, gender, fertility and the labor force. Economic structure is investigated with a concentration on industrial composition, the farm population, income distribution and a careful evaluation of the characteristics of rural poverty. Finally, they focus on cities, towns and regions as variable forms and conclude that much additional research is required to develop a substantive understanding of rural-urban differences.

69
Fuller, Wayne E. *The Old Country School: The Story of Rural Education in the Middle West.* Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1982. 302 p. A carefully and thoroughly researched study on the history of the one-room school house and its place in the social history of the middle west from the early 1800's to near modern times. More than seven generations of middle west farm children were educated in such school houses and the presence of this educational institution was largely responsible for eradicating illiteracy. The book questions how it was possible to educate so many children under such constraints. It investigates the type of education offered, who designed and controlled curriculum and how the school year was organized. Investigates the origin and background of the teachers and how they themselves were educated and how they lived in the local community. Utilizing historical records and the resources of historical societies in ten middle western states this study is not merely about rural education but is intended to be a social history of mid-western rural America as it can be examined through the development of one of its most vital institutions.

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Galarza, Ernesto. *Farm Workers and Agri-Business in California 1947-1960.* Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1977. 402 p. A first person history of agricultural unionization efforts as they were mobilized in opposition to the Bracero system which existed in American agriculture between the early 1950's and 1964. It describes the relations between organized farm workers and the emerging agri-business interests in California, the south and midwest. Presents a history of the National Farm Labor Union, the National Agricultural Workers Union and farm worker linkage to the internationales, particularly the AFL-CIO. Key focus on the interplay between organized labor at the regional level, agri-business interests and relations with state and federal branches of the government over the issue of the importation of Mexican citizens to replace union organized domestic labor. Traces the development of Public Law 78, which regulated this Bracero system and demonstrates the intricate connections between the government, the universities, the rural press and the diplomatic sector. Includes an exhaustive collection of reference notes which are provided for those seeking to do further research. Provides an extensive bibliography.

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Gallaher, Art, Jr. and Harland Padfield, eds. *The Dying Community.* Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1980. 305 p. Organized as a collection of contributions from area specialists focusing on the small rural community and instances of its general decline. Asserts that small community can decline and perish abruptly, as in the case of disaster or acute exhaustion of resource base (mining towns as an example) or that the dying community can be represented as small community social forms which linger for long periods and make greater or lesser efforts to sustain a habitat. Examines perspectives from the past, the natural resource base, dependency, community structures, demographic processes, ethic and social class characteristics, the elderly, and the struggle to maintain continuity of community.

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Gamson, William A. "Rancorous Conflict in Community Politics." *American Sociological Review* 31, no. 1 (February 1966): 71-80. A comparative study of nine communities which demonstrate high susceptibility to rancorous conflict with nine communities in which such episodes are rare to non-existent. The principal difference between them is the relative vitality and active developmental experience in the locales which display rancorous phenomenon and the absence of change in the alternate group. The two groups differ on the measure of shifts in political control and in regard to structural integration. They tend not to vary on participatory political structure and the presence of clearly defined solidary groups. The measures of structural integration were the most extensively analyzed and included measures of conduciveness, strain and integration. Distinguishes conventional from rancorous conflict on the basis of legitimation across the competitive boundary. In rancorous conflict, the opposition is assigned pariah status and is symbolized as representing evil forces. Rancorous conflict most often arises when the legitimated means of conflict resolution are assessed by one or both of the competing groups as arbitrary or dysfunctional in the production of fair outcomes.

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Gann, L.H. and Peter J. Duignan. *The Hispanics in the United States: A History.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986. 392 p. One of the first and more comprehensive surveys of hispanic groups in the United States. Begins with large-scale Mexican migration into the southwestern portion of the United States around the turn of the century and then traces the demographic transition through the late 1970's. Discusses the national political question about immigration and the structures and systems developed to deal with the influx of Hispanics into this country. Places great emphasis on pointing out the diversity of Hispanic groups. Presents a detailed picture of Hispanic cultures, political orientation, education, and social problems. Contains a comprehensive set of bibliographic references.

74
Garkovich, Lorraine. *Population and Community in Rural America.* Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1989. 235 p. Suggests that migration from rural communities to urban areas has accounted for a substantial proportion of the population shifts that have occurred in the history of the United States. The movement from rural to urban areas has shaped the social, political, and economic landscape of both rural and urban communities. This volume describes the theoretical and methodological issues that are critical for the study of migration. Presents a brief description of the major events that have influenced migration. Also focuses on some institutional forces that have structured the research on rural population change. Concludes with an examination of the critical issues that must be faced in future migration research.

75
Garreau, Joel. *The Nine Nations of North America.* Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1981. 427 p. This is symbolic metaphor placed in geographical perspective-a cultural rather than political mapping of the United States. Written by a desk editor from the Washington Post, the book arose from his self proclaimed penchant for questioning his field reporters about what life was like for them in various regions of North America. A language and set of heuristic metaphors emerged in the context of translating the peculiarities of the divergent regions of the country back to the home office. Instead of a topographic or political mapping of North America-there emerged such places as MexAmerica where the gumbo of Dixie gives way to the refried beans of Mexico and Ecotopia-the Pacific Northwest. Other areas include: Wood-burning New England, The Foundry, Aberrations (our large cities), Dixie, The Islands, The Empty Quarter (the Rockies and the Upper Mid-West), The Breadbasket and Quebec. Suggests that this type of contextualization of the map puts the regional worlds into more manageable perspective and helps with the grasping of imponderables like inflation, unemployment, energy and environmental policy. Sees issues as more manageable in a regional context, one which taps socio-cultural factors and its relations to the national social continuum.

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de la Garza, Rodolfo O., Louis DeSipio, F. Chris Garcia, John Garcia, and Angelo Falcon. *Latino Voices: Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban Perspectives on American Politics.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992. 232 p. Takes a national scope of hispanic public and political opinion. Especially strong in its approach to demographic and geographic diversity of Latin Americans residing in various regions of the United States. Also examines psychological, cultural, linguistic, and associational characteristics of this rapidly growing American minority population. Detailed analysis of political values, policy perspectives, electoral behavior, and ethnic attitudes. Includes a wealth of data, bibliographic references, and a survey questionnaire and an appendix devoted to survey methodology.

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Gates, Paul W. *The Illinois Central Railroad and its Colonization Work.* Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934. 374 p. This is a historical study which addresses the social, economic, and political outcomes of the development of the railroad system in Illinois. It assesses the influence that the system had on settlement patterns, town location decisions and on both agricultural and industrial development. A key focus of the study is its attention to the federal land grant system and its relationship to the development of the railroad system. Traces the financial history of constructing the rail system; examines land speculation and sales; the colonization of the prairies and the attempts to attract immigrants; and the promotion of commodity crop agriculture for mass markets in the urban centers. Discusses the rise of the Granger period and the formation of political associations. Comprehensive bibliography of original sources and both public and private documents.

78
Gates, Paul W. *The Farmer's Age: Agriculture, 1815-1860.* Vol. III: The Economic History of the United States. NY: Harper Torchbooks, 1960. 460 p. The period between the War of 1812 and the Civil War was a time when the American farmer experienced abundant prosperity and the momentum of history seemed in his favor. However, the rising tide of sectional interests and the gathering clouds of the developing Civil War brought that age to a close. The story of the rise and eventual fall of open prosperity is the focus of this volume. The principal factor in creating this age of prosperity was the availability of land in the western portion of the nation. As the movement west gathered in momentum it brought about a concomitant rise in transportation services via the railroads and a burgeoning involvement of the federal government in the development of land policy. As agricultural markets matured in the north and the south and as they met with a growing competition from the frontier, the stage was set for a battle of regional interests and politics which paralleled the regional discontinuities which culminated in Civil War. Farmers were divided against themselves and organized around their specific material interests. It was market sector against market sector, large against small, landlords vs. tenants, creditors vs. debtors and finally region against region. The author examines the developments which led to 1860 when the agricultural economy could find no single national consensus to resolve its chronic problems of cyclical instability, transportation costs and inadequate access to capital and credit.

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Geisler, Charles C. and Frank J. Popper, eds. *Land Reform, American Style.* Totowa, NJ: Rowmann and Allanheld, 1984. 353 p. The issue of land reform in the U.S. has not received much attention from either scholars or policy professionals. Until the 1980's it was an area of study effectively overlooked by the rural, urban and land use constituencies. In recent years, entities such as the United States Department of Agriculture, academic and policy professionals as well as interest groups from across the ideological spectrum have begun to consider the land reform concept more directly. Attention to the issue of land reform is most noticeable in rural areas but recently it has even emerged in the rhetoric of urban policy and planning. Issues and agenda orientation range from federal irrigation policy, corporate and absentee ownership, the Sage Brush Rebellion, preservation of prime agricultural land, minority and ethnic land claims, middle class urban in-migration and its displacement of the economically disadvantaged. This book is edited by two social scientists: a rural sociologist and a political scientist. They suggest that the dominant theme in the land reform debate centers on an economic struggle over land based power.

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Gesler, Wilbert M. and Thomas C. Ricketts, eds. *Health in Rural North America: The Geography of Health Care Services and Delivery.* New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992. 314 p. Points out that rural areas are generally treated as peripheral to urban ones on a wide variety of dimensions. Suggests that health care is not an exception to this rule of thumb. This book attempts to address rural health as a domain in and of itself, rather than as a case of spatial inequality in health care delivery. Addresses a wide spectrum of issues. Indicates that there is a significant medical professional staffing shortage in rural areas. The shortage includes many affiliated professional specialties, not only medical doctors. Discusses the logistical problems of transportation to distant facilities and inadequacies in the transportation infrastructure itself. Examines the wide spread crisis of financial viability for rural hospitals, including the factors which lead to closure. Points out that the problems in rural health care are disproportionately concentrated among minorities. Rural areas contain relatively high proportions of the poor, the elderly, blacks, and American Indians.

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Gilford, Dorothy M., Glenn L. Nelson and Linda Ingram, eds. *Rural America in Passage: Statistics For Policy.* Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1981. 592 p. Examines the definition of rural society and grounds the meaning of development in socio-economic terms. Creates a political continuum of interests from local politics to national policy. Focuses on local issues (from survey data) including demographics, health, education, welfare, economic development, environment, and energy. Discusses strategies for creating and presenting rural development information. Contains an extensive survey of rural development issues, data set descriptions, statistical techniques for future development studies and makes specific policy recommendations. Includes an extensive appendix of data analysis, charts and methodology.

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Glarza, Ernesto. *Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story.* Santa Barbara, CA: McNally and Loftin, 1964. 284 p. This is the story of Mexican agricultural workers who made the seasonal migration to work in the fields of agricultural producers in the western United States. The author focuses on the period of 1942 to 1960. The influx of Mexicans to the United States became significant during World War II when the demands of the military conflict resulted in labor shortages. The demand continued after the war due to the growth of agribusiness in American agriculture. Most of the story focuses on California. Documents the cooperation between the Mexican and United States government and the development of the Bracero program. Points out that the human experience was a dark one. Corruption and exploitation were widespread. The book is a valuable historical, political, sociological and economic work.

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Goldschmidt, Walter R. *As You Sow: Three Studies of the Social Consequences of Agribusiness.* Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osman and Co., 1978. 505 p. A social, political, economic and cultural study of three communities in California: Wasco, Arvin and Dinuba. Begins by documenting the rise of agricultural community and proceeds to analyze the impact of the corporatization of agriculture and how it affects the social, economic, political and cultural characteristics of the three communities. Wasco was the most extensive research site for Goldschmidt's participant observation. Research in Arvin and Dinuba was shorter in duration but provided comparison cases for the Wasco study. Goldschmidt suggests that with the emergence of agri-business rural community must be viewed as urbanized and that the local elites and landholders must be understood in their relations to large national centers of political and economic power. Contains careful and detailed discussion of the characteristics of industrialized agriculture, relations to the social order, land use and control, myth of the economies of scale, labor studies, impact of mechanization, analysis of the sources of corporate advantage and commentary on the social impact of farm policy.

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Goodwyn, Lawrence. *The Populist Movement: A Short History of Agrarian Revolt in America.* NY: Oxford University Press, 1978. 349 p. A historical case study of a mass political movement which sought to change the ideology and dominant constituency of American democracy as it was taking shape in the late 1800's. Placing the emergence of the Populist movement in the context of the broader political continuum, Goodwyn demonstrates how the emerging corporate constituency of capitalist institutions acted to repress and then to ultimately aggravate and radicalize the agrarian social world. Traces the emergence of Populism as a mass movement; demonstrates the extent to which it was misunderstood by urban America and documents the organizational development of Populist institutions, its pattern of recruitment and political efficacy. Constructs a broad image of Populism and suggests that the very momentum of industrialization and urbanization overwhelmed and finally led to the demise of the movement.

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Gordon, David M. *Theories of Poverty and Unemployment: Orthodox, Radical and Dual Labor Market Perspectives.* Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1972. 177 p. Examines the urban crisis and unemployment in particular. Seeks to analyze the symptoms of ghetto employment and unemployment and does so by presenting and comparing three of the dominant paradigms. By 1970, there were three distinct and discontinuous bodies of thought which offered competing explanations of ghetto poverty and unemployment: orthodox theory, dual labor market theory and radical economic ideas. Orthodox theory is typified by those oriented toward Keynesian and generally pro-capitalist theory. Those oriented toward dual labor markets hold a more ecological and structural analysis, explaining economics as an aggregate of definable and observable sub-components that we refer to as regions. Those labeled as radical, are theorists who operate from the materialist paradigm as characterized by Marxists. No attempt is made to resolve the conflict between the theories but seeks a consensual discourse through which to pursue argumentation and analysis. Concludes with a critical distinction between the stratification system and segmentation of labor markets. Points into the Materialist direction for subsequent analysis and suggests the need for identifying and dealing with society's internal contradictions if changes in the structure of the stratification system are to be possible.

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Greenhut, Melvin L. *Microeconomics and the Space Economy: The Effectiveness of an Oligopolistic Market Economy.* Chicago, IL: Scott Foresman Company, 1963. 357 p. Begins by suggesting that our economy is differentiated in terms of buyers, decentralized in relation to sellers, uneven in resource distribution and highly variegated in type and volume of production. Suggests that this reality may have an impact on traditional micro-economic theory and that this can be examined in the context of an applied economics. Seeks to apply the dimension of space to economic theory and to do so via linear programming. Follows the traditional resource allocation approach and utilizes classical cost models and tools. Evaluates fundamental theorems of pure competition and examines them in the continuum of space and time. Contends that this applied economic approach can produce theory which more closely approximates reality and discusses the methodology and the general equilibrium principles that he finds necessary for such an undertaking. Sees the market as dependent on the condition of oligopolistic structure and that such structure is a necessary systemic condition to support the proliferation and differentiation of small firms and their participation in mass markets. Closely examines the notions of maximum profit and economic man and presents a theory of demand which has the same roots as the conception of space economy.

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Hadwiger, Don F. *The Politics of Agricultural Research.* Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. 230 p. A recent history of politics and policy in agricultural research which addresses the broad questions of who makes agricultural research policy and what the dominant priorities are. Focuses on the development of the United States Department of Agriculture from the end of World War II to the present. Traces the development of the scientific advances in agriculture, how these developments have served the agribusiness community while having the residual effect of destabilizing the rural farm family, tenant farming and the agricultural labor segments of the population. Provides a detailed historical image of the interaction between political interests and Congressional forces which have shaped the agenda and the mission of agricultural policy, research and Extension. Informative discussion of the controversy within the executive and congressional branches over the appropriateness of United States Department of Agriculture involvement in social research as this debate was typified in the life and death of a USDA sub-agency: The Bureau of Agricultural Economics and its replacement with the Economic Research Service and the rise and fall of the Science and Education Administration.

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Hahn, Steven and Jonathan Prude, eds. *The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation: Essays in the Social History of Rural America.* Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1985. 355 p. Provides a new approach to the conceptualization of rural environments and their history. Begins with a short history of the study of life outside of cities. Traces the change in symbolic typification from F.J. Turner's Frontier thesis to the presently reigning paradigm of the rural-urban continuum. Collection of eleven essays ranging from the cooperative usage of mill damns in the colonial era to rural ethnic and labor patterns through the twentieth century. The study extends geographically from New England to Georgia and from Minnesota to California. Influenced by recent trends in the European orientation of social historians-the work takes a new thematic approach to rural history. Defines rurality as a way of life and discrete social milieu, possessing a unique weltanschauung of its own. Discusses material culture, social relations, ethos, life cycle, family, inheritance, popular rituals and linkages between geography and technology. Focuses on the development of commercial and industrial capitalism in the countryside-what is often referred to as the Great Transformation and the emergence from agrarian life and the entrance into urbanized industrial capitalism.

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Hamilton, David E. *From New Day to New Deal: American Farm Policy from Hoover to Roosevelt, 1928-1933.* Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. 333 p. Sheds new light on the role of Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt in shaping the consequences of and the recovery strategies from the Great Depression. While Hoover has taken a great deal of blame from the academic press, this book points out that Hoover made some significant contributions to recovery, especially in terms of agriculture and farm policy. The difference between the two Presidents generally came down to Hoover's philosophy of experimentation and non-coercion, while Roosevelt did not hesitate to use force and strong influence techniques to gain compliance to his policies. Hoover was more inclined to work through the conduit of voluntary association, Roosevelt was not.

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Haney, Wava G. and Donald R. Field, eds. *Agriculture and Natural Resources: Planning for Educational Priorities for the Twenty-first Century.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. 183 p. Starts by pointing out that agriculture and natural resource programs have entered an age of uncertainty. While it was once true that American food, fiber, and forest products once dominated the North American market, that they are now challenged by global competition. Independence and dominance have given way to a continually unfolding and interdependent global resource system. This book addresses the issues and the trends in this agricultural and natural resource market transformation. It does so with special emphasis on the impact of this transition on resource based regional economies, rural communities, and on the educational system. The specific focus of this volume is on long range vision and strategic planning, rather than stopgap and quick fix approaches.

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Haney, Wava G. and Jane B. Knowles, eds. *Women and Farming: Changing Roles, Changing Structures.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988. 390 p. Marks two decades of research on women's lives and their contribution to culture and society in rural American agriculture. A historical work which accounts for the way the family based farming system integrates the household as well as corporate units of agricultural production. This volume is a collection of essays which emerged from the Second National Conference on American Farm Women in Historical Perspective. The essays synthesize and chart new theoretical paths and illuminate fresh dimensions in the lives of farm women, both past and present. Presents the regional, racial, ethnic, religious and social class diversity of farm women in America. Documents women's contributions to agricultural, industrial and community development and how they have helped shape history. Points out the gender-based patterns that define women's options in rural community life and in agricultural modes of production.

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Hansen, Niles M. *The Future of Non-metropolitan America: Studies in the Reversal of Rural and Small Town Population Decline.* Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1973. 187 p. Attempts to assess the forces at work which determine the spatial structure and developmental evolution of demographic characteristics within the American population. Gives particular attention to the rural turnaround thesis by examining regions in national context and by comparing groups of turnaround with groups of declining regions. Addresses policy issues and states that it is written for the use of economists, geographers, planners, policy makers and development specialists. While the author sees an overall trend toward urbanization across most all industrialized societies, he alleges that some of the motivation for rural turnaround is coming from broad considerations for quality of living, suburbanization and also from the trend toward decentralized manufacturing supported by improvements in transportation, communication and automation.

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Harlan, Louis R. *Booker T. Washington.* NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. 548 p. In this two volume biography of Booker T. Washington, Harlan makes a detailed and realistic study of the man and writes an authoritative, scholarly, and complex portrayal of Washington's life. Washington emerges as an astute politician whose public disavowal of political power contrasts to his alignment with Roosevelt, his passionate reactions to those who opposed him and his savoring of his role as power broker in the black community. He is portrayed as an aggressive and emotional man whose energy and drive was responsible for pulling together the necessary resources leading to the establishment of the Tuskegee Institute and describes the years he spent there as educator, administrator and black visionary.

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Hassinger, Edward W., John S. Holik and J. Kenneth Benson. *The Rural Church: Learning From Three Decades of Change.* Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1988. 189 p. Provides a substantial amount of information about the characteristics, demographics, and institutional variation of rural churches in the United States. The information was derived from a survey of rural churches first taken in 1952, repeated in 1967 and most recently replicated in 1982. Suggests that the church has changed as the social world of rural America has evolved. The principle focus of the book is on how the church has responded to the dramatic changes in rural life following the farm crisis, out-migration and the more recent in-migration of a fundamentally different constituency than was typical twenty or more years ago. Points out that there has been a decline in congregation size and a concurrent rise in the mean age of participants. Discusses the patterns of congregation dispersion and also of consolidation. Examines the fiscal condition of the average church among the predominant protestant denominations. Also directs attention to the changes in the ministry in terms of who answers the pastoral call, how they help shape the moral posture, external community relations and programs of the church. One of the most outstanding features of the book is its detailed and extensive attention to figures and descriptive statistics.

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Hawley, Amos H. and Sara Mills Mazie, eds. *Nonmetropolitan America in Transition.* Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1981. 833 p. It had become obvious at the time of publication that the trend toward urbanization in population distribution was subsiding substantially by the end of the 1960's. In its place there had been a growing trend toward nonmetropolitan migration which was reflected in demographic data beginning with the early 1970's and continuing to the present. Hawley and Mazie focus on this large scale trend and attempt to place it in statistical, political, economic and social perspective. A major focus of the scholarly articles included here are: decentralization of population; changes in the structure of amenities; issues of growth; environmental impact and planning. Attempts to account for changes and takes a critical and skeptical view of the rural renaissance thesis. Suggests it is true that rural areas are becoming urbanized in their institutions, industrial/market composition, values and lifestyles. Indicates that growth in manufacturing is characterized by changes in industrial output. Points out a growing trend toward light industrial manufacturing and low paid/low skilled occupational categories as the typical rural industrial pattern. Documents the difficulties facing rural political formations and public services as they deal with the multi-faceted invasion of ex-urban individuals and organizations. Reports an increasing ambivalence and sense of lessened autonomy for rural inhabitants. Makes an argument that the trend is more the consequence of suburbanization, decentralization and deconcentration than it is a resurgence of rural lifestyles. Includes: Charts, Tables, Statistics, Maps.

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Hemingway, Ernest. *The Nick Adams Stories.* NY: Scribner, 1972. 268 p. Collection of short stories which were actually brought together in one volume after Hemingway's death. What binds them together as a collection or as a loosely bound novel is the character of Nick-Hemingway's only fictional hero to be developed and repeatedly utilized who was American and from the same regional and social roots as Hemingway himself. Presents tales of outdoor life in Michigan-logging, saw milling, timber, fishing and hunting, couched in the glorified yet tragic and ironic style which characterizes most all of Hemingway's work. The character of Nick is presented as living in three contemporaneous worlds, which range from life in rural Michigan to the life of a hobo in the midwest to travels and experiences in Europe. These are stories about drift through the times of life and about the crossing over from innocence to experience and from the hopeful illusions of youth to the harsh realities of manhood.

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Herbers, John. *The New Heartland: America's Flight Beyond the Suburbs and How it is Changing Our Future.* NY: Times Books, 1986. 228 p. A result of the travels, observations and reporting of a national correspondent to the New York Times who was an urban specialist and then an observer of the new suburbanization of the United States which has been in evidence since the mid 1970's. The stated purpose is a description of the economic growth that is taking place beyond the suburbs of metropolitan areas such as the new pattern of low density growth reshaping rural areas. A subsequent mission is to provide background and insight on the patterns and variations of growth in different regions of the country for those considering a geographic move. The reader is taken on a representative tour of various regions of the country including region by region coverage of the new patterns of growth for each area-its connection to the past and identity in the present. Includes an overview of the dispersion of much of the population and industrial base away from older urban centers precipitated by the destructive economic changes which have occurred in many urban environments. Analyzes the meaning of this deconcentration-the processes of extended suburbanization, the impact on remote places, the new low density growth and the new small big city which is becoming the hub of a new regional pattern of development.

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Hightower, James. *Hard Tomatoes Hard Times: The Original Hightower Report and Other Recent Reports on Problems and Prospects of American Agriculture.* Cambridge, MA.: Schenkman Publishing Company, 1978. 332 p. A collective research production of the Agribusiness Accountability Project, focusing on how the tax-paid, land grant college system has come to serve an elite of private, corporate agri-business interests in the United States. Presents and supports an argument that the revolution in agriculture has served the interests of a giant sized corporate clientele who have benefited from the mechanization, automation, and hybridization of agriculture-resulting in a concentration of both ownership and managerial control of land and agricultural production into few and powerful hands. Alleges that the process of research and development by the land grant college system has not only served the special interest of the corporate elite, but by doing so has been responsible for driving the small farmer from the land and out of rural areas. Contains case studies, hearing transcripts, charts, tables and figures.

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Hill, Carole E. *Community Health Systems in the Rural American South.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988. 230 p. The author, a medical anthropologist, discusses that gaps between policymakers and community needs and focuses on the public concern with improving access to health care for rural people. Takes a case study approach to assess the structure and culture of health care in a small rural town in the American south. Employs surveys and open-ended interviews of households to tap attitudes and behaviors of various socioeconomic groups in this small community. Finds significant variability across different ethnic, economic, racial, and religious groups. The second half of her discussion examines the same structural and cultural dimensions of the health care system and its policy makers.

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Hines, Fred K., David L. Brown and John M. Zimmer. *Social and Economic Characteristics of the Population in Metro and Nonmetro Counties, 1970.* Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1975. Agriculture Economic Report (No. 272, March 1975). 104 p. Compares the socio-economic characteristics of metropolitan and nonmetropolitan populations as of 1970, and discusses 1960-1970 trends in these characteristics. Assumes that differences occur in accordance with proximity to urban settings. Suggests that urbanization and improvement in linkages brought about through better transportation systems fosters interdependence among communities. Points out that few areas are either totally urban or completely rural and for this reason, focuses analysis on aggregate metro and nonmetro sectors. Seeks to increase the understanding of reciprocal relationships between demographic, economic and social processes contending that this will provide a firm background for policy makers in government and business.

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Hirschl, Thomas and Gene F. Summers. "Cash Transfers and the Export Base of Small Communities." *Rural Sociology* 47, no. 2 (Summer 1982): 295-316. Offers an export base model of local employment and development utilizing an export conceptualization of cash transfers to individuals. Examines the agricultural, manufacturing and government sectors. The model is tested using county data from secondary sources. Cash transfers were found to have strong positive effects on local employment growth, especially alternative forms of employment. The findings are analyzed and discussed in relation to the concept of a population turnaround in nonmetropolitan communities as persons such as retirees migrate to rural settings and live on cash transfers, bearing a non-traditional inflow of capital to the local economy. Suggests that further research should seek to clarify the nature of this linkage. Call for research on income stratification among the aged and other cash transfer programs such as food stamps and Aid to Families with Dependent Children to be studied within the bounds of this model.

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Hirschman, Albert O. *The Strategy of Economic Development.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1958. 217 p. Attempts to conceptualize the meaning of development for non-industrialized nations. Critically analyzes the traditional mode of thought which holds that pre-conditions, factors, and obstacles can be identified which predict the possibility of successful development. Outlines the history of thinking about the development of third world countries. The earliest assumption was that natural resources held the center stage in assessing the potential for development. This notion was followed by the suggestion that capital infusion was the only necessary catalyst for beginning the development process. Finally asserts that economic backwardness cannot be explained in terms of any outright absence or scarcity of any particular factor or condition. Development depends on finding optimal combinations for given resources and factors of production. Offer an analysis of structural factors and intervening conditions which impinge on development: particularly macro-economic conditions such as inflation, prices, balance of payments, debt and import/export ratios.

103
Horan, Patrick M. and Charles M. Tolbert, II. *The Organization of Work in Rural and Urban Labor Markets.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984. 176 p. Presents an analysis of the recent structural changes in the U.S. economy and criticizes the uni-dimensional national model as insufficient for either theorizing or research. Continues by criticizing the individualistic research orientations of sociology and economics and proceeds to present alternative concepts for the sectoral and local market approach to research and analysis. Uses a variety of multivariate techniques and stresses the interplay between local economic organization and the local labor market as a fresh approach. Presents a classification of local labor markets. Allocates the local market occupationally through the distribution of income. Creates a typology of labor markets and their social division of labor. Suggests new prospects for labor market research and points out its utility in multi-level analyses. Delineates compositional variables, descriptive statistics, market indices, market models. Includes charts, figures, tables, statistics.

104
Hoxie, Frederick E. *Overcoming Economic Dependency.* The First Newberry Library Conference on Themes in American Indian History (Occasional Papers, No. 9). Chicago, IL: Newberry Library, 1988. 233 p. Publication which resulted from a three day conference held in February of 1988, on the subject of American Indian economic history. The conference emphasized history, economics, and the interpretation of native experience. Attendees shared a common view that economic relations between Native Americans and others has been poorly conceptualized, somewhat overlooked and simplified. Conference sought to address the issue of what Indian history is and is not; positing that it cannot be viewed as the story of assimilation, the story of savagery vs. civilization or one of victimization. The result of the conference was the delineation of major themes and sub-themes in Indian history. Topical areas which emerged were issues of economic dependency, case studies of economic development as well as patterns of production and trade. Case studies also examined agriculture, ranching, fishing and how these modes of production have helped Indians to overcome economic dependency and powerlessness.

105
Hoxie, Frederick E. *A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920.* Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 350 p. There are two broad objectives made clear at the outset of this book. The first is to describe the source and impact of the campaign to bring all Indians inside of the outer bounds of the American society. The second is to examine the assimilation campaign and trace the changing perception of Indians starting with the preoccupation with the Indians as savages and toward the more complex outlook of later years. The early leaders of the assimilation process held the notion that the destruction of savage ways would convert the natives to amicable and docile believers in the American way of life. The campaign began in the later decades of the 19th century and by the 1880's, the last vestige of independent Indian nations met military defeat and tribes were largely relegated to the reservation system. As the early notions of conversion to American norms were found to be unworkable for the government and unacceptable to the Indians, a long process of relegation to minority group membership in American life commenced. As America increasingly came to view itself as a homogenous society, outlier groups such as Blacks, Asians and Indians became concentrated on the margins and outer boundaries of the society. This marked the end of the assimilation process, essentially adding up to relegation to reservations and the assignment of marginal status in the larger social structure.

106
Hudson, John C. *Plains Country Towns.* Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1985. 189 p. The midwestern United States contains thousands of small towns and villages which are a legacy to the railroad colonization era. During the 1800's, towns were selected and developed around the needs and business strategies of private railroads, who located them based upon the logistic requirements of their shipping markets. This book is a case study of such development. It focuses on towns which were located in north-central North Dakota between 1880 and 1920. The author demonstrates how the railroads competed to capture freight traffic in the region and how this led to the birth of new and death of existing towns of the period. Points out that this pattern of development bore little relation to the lives of settlers in the region. Suggests that this pattern has had profound implications for the life of the region up to present times.

107
Hunter, Floyd. *Community Power Structure: A Study of Decision Makers.* NY: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1953. 294 p. An analysis of community power structure which attempts to identify the top leaders in a large city, examining from which locations in the stratification system they emerge, how power is achieved, and how it is used. Suggests that there is a tenuous line of communication between the governors of a community and those governed which does not square with the ideological rhetoric of popular democracy. Primarily analyzes the exercise of power, recognizing that it is a necessary function in the community which formalizes decision making and organizes the execution of political policy. Points out that influence over the direction of policy is produced by the economic interests of a small elite sector of the social setting who must at once serve their self interest and maintain community consensus and equilibrium. Concludes that the core of power resides with a very small group of policy makers and that these individuals in turn direct the activity of a larger group of policy implementors. This policy making minority is determined by wealth, social status and prestige. Variations in the core power equation can shift policy emphasis which can affect the whole structure.

108
Isard, Walter. *Introduction to Regional Science.* Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975. 506 p. Presents an analysis of sub-regions as a new and alternative unit for socioeconomic analysis. Suggests that social science and related disciplines have missed the opportunity to utilize this mid-range unitary set in their attention to either local community or national level research. Covers a diverse range of problems within regional perspective including but not limited to: unemployment, growing discrepancies in per capita income, aspects of social injustice, urban problems, the challenges of economic development, conflict management, and environmental concerns. The regional conceptualization is directly applicable to economics, planning, urban studies, geography, and social science. The regional unit of analysis presents opportunities which are missed by the micro and the macro orientations. It presents the opportunity to understand the local community as a dynamic entity with integral relationship to a broader set of local communities, markets and systems.

109
Isard, Walter. *Location and Space Economy: A General Theory Relating to Industrial Location, Market Areas, Land Use, Trade and Urban Structure.* Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1956. 350 p. This volume marks the beginning of the formal development of regional and spatial conceptualization in social science as a specified and delineated sub-discipline. Contends that a comprehensive theory of society or economy must include both temporal and spatial dimensions. Suggests that social science to date, has not had a significant grasp of time as a variable and an even weaker understanding of spatial and regional frameworks. The objective is stated to be the incorporation and integration of these frameworks through the development of an adequate conceptualization of location and space-economy. Further adds that Equilibrium Theory is a necessary concept for theorizing in spatial and temporal dimensions. States that while Equilibrium is not the natural state of the real world, that the socioeconomic system tends toward the objective of equilibrium. The utilization of equilibrium as a framework can be useful and helpful for understanding systemic variation and the dynamics of change. Focus includes: The General Theory of Location and Space-Economy, Empirical Regularities, Locational Equilibrium of the Firm, Labor, Markets, Organizations and includes Tables, Figures, Statistics and Diagrams.

110
Jacobs, Jane. *Cities and the Wealth of Nations: Principles of Economic Life.* NY: Random House, 1984. 257 p. A powerful and original theoretical statement about the way in which we conceptualize and think about economies. Defends a new tautology for thinking about the economy of a nation, one which departs sharply from the reigning paradigm of macro-economics. Begins by steering away from the concept of national economies, contending that national economies are not a useful heuristic tool for understanding how economic life works and what its structures and characteristics may be. While nations are political and military entities, it is suggested this does not make the assumption appropriate that they are salient or useful concept forms for understanding economic life. Terms this national focus as a merchantilist tautology and offers the alternative of regional and city level analysis as the appropriate scale model. Presents five major forces and dynamics which are useful in regional/city analysis: markets, jobs, transplants, technology and capital. Sees cities as necessary and ultimately vital nuclei for sound economies and conceives of their surrounding environments as supply regions. Presents a theoretical conceptualization of development as a process which must be open-ended rather than goal directed and innovative and spontaneous rather than policy driven. Concludes that in societies where cities stagnate and are not subjected to innovation and improvisation, development is likely to cease and economies tend to deteriorate.

111
Jenkins, J. Craig. *The Politics of Insurgency: The Farm Worker Movement in the 1960's.* NY: Columbia University Press, 1985. 261 p. Presents the story of the United Farm Worker movement as a mass political mobilization of a poor and excluded sub-population. Portrays its basic goals and strategies as typical of the social movements of the 1960's. Suggests that the mass movements of the decade were essentially insurgencies organized attempts to bring the interests of previously unorganized and excluded groups into the center of economic and political power. The UFW story presents itself as a model for the organization and mobilization of the powerless. The book is organized into four major sections. First, it reviews recent developments in social movements theory by outlining a theory of resource mobilization and contrasts it with classical arguments. Second, it contributes to the on-going debate over the structure of and access to political power in the United States. Third, it offers an interpretation of the success and failure of poor people's movements. Finally, it interprets the generalized political turmoil that characterized the decade of the 1960's.

112
Jensen, Lief and Marta Tienda. "Nonmetropolitan Minority Families in the United States: Trends in Racial and Ethnic Economic Stratification, 1959-1986." *Rural Sociology* 54, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 509-532. Makes a demographic assessment of the economic status of Black, Latin American, and American Indian families for the twenty-seven year period between 1959 and 1986. Their analysis reveals that there was significant improvement in the economic status of these minorities between 1959 and 1976. And, nonmetropolitan minorities experienced greater improvement than their urban counterparts or urban whites. They report that labor market commitments explain this improvement more than does public assistance. However, after 1979, the pattern was reversed. During the first six years of the Reagan administration minority populations experienced steep increases in the proportion in poverty status and there was significant erosion of income across the board.

113
Johanson, Harley E. and Glenn V. Fuguitt. *The Changing Rural Village: Demographics and Rural Trends Since 1950.* Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1984. 259 p. Attempts to portray the experience of the village community as a center of residential and economic activity. Specifically focuses on the experience of the small village from the 1950's to the present. Analyzes data from numerous studies of villages and suggests certain emergent patterns, directions, and causes of change. Points out that while the majority of Americans live in metropolitan areas, villages are considerably more numerous as instances of political units and residential settings. As such they play an important part in the larger settlement pattern of the nation. This is a comprehensive study of villages which attempts to reveal consistent patterns and processes and characterizes their evolution since the 1950's.

114
Johnson, Glenn L., James T. Bonnen, with Darrell Fienup, C. Leroy Quance, and Neill Schaller, eds. *Social Science Agricultural Agendas and Strategies.* East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1991. Various pagings. The differentiation of contemporary rural sociology into distinct domains has resulted in a diffusion of agendas and a measure of paradigmatic discontinuity across the various specialty areas. This volume is the outcome of an agenda-setting conference held in June 1987 at Spring Hill, Minnesota sponsored by the Social Science Agricultural Agenda Project. The outcome was the characterization of ten agenda and strategy sets. The books agenda and strategy sets are not limited to research. They deal with the applied roles and human factors of life in social science for educators, extension workers, consultants, advisors, administrators and members of the business community. The articles and papers focus on: current issues, problem conceptualization, academia, institutional life, human development, technology, enhancement of natural and manmade resources, farm life, resources users/consumers, agribusiness, and rural society.

115
Johnson, Hildgard Binder. *Order Upon the Land: The U.S. Rectangular Land Survey and the Upper Mississippi Country.* New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1976. 268 p. The U.S. rectangular survey organizes most of the land mass of the United States into six-by-six mile townships that are divided into thirty-six sections of one square mile each. This volume looks at how the survey affected patterns of settlement and land tenure. Its focus is on the Upper Mississippi Hill Country. The author addresses a common perception (by outsiders) of this landscape as monotonous and uninteresting. Points out that the untrained eye misses much of the diversity and difference within the area. Emphasizes the effect of the rectangular system and examines its influence in the context of the rationalism of the eighteenth century.

116
Johnson, Kenneth M. *The Impact of Population Change on Business Activity in Rural America.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985. 180 p. Treats the concept of population shifts as an independent variable and causal agent in a changing social organization. Takes the approach of sociological human ecology and approaches the county as a population element and unit of analysis possessing system-like characteristics. Begins with a summary of shifts in population trends between the 1930's and the 1970's and then seeks to measure and analyze the effects change on various organization forms-particularly retail and service sectors of the nonmetropolitan economy. Views the population distribution, county geographic unit and organizational forms as an ecological complex; attempts to analyze the interaction of population change as it impacts other variables. Suggests that the resurgence of nonmetropolitan population which has been occurring since the 1960's is currently peaking and that future growth will be sectoral and organized around regional variables like amenity as retirement locations, tourist trade, urban fringe, suburban settings, and continued availability of lower cost of doing business.

117
Jones, Jacqueline. *Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work and the Family from Slavery to the Present.* NY: Vintage Books, 1986. 432 p. A study of the lives and social conditions of black women from the days of slavery up to the present. Examines the experience of black women as workers, mothers and as an exploited minority. Ranges from the days of slavery up to the turn of the century agricultural and industrial labor and then continues into the second half of the twentieth century. This is a testimony to the resilience of black women in facing the double jeopardy of being black and female in a white patriarchal society. Examines the experience of black working women-their aspirations for their children, communal solidarity and their Afro-American heritage. The author hopes that this volume will educate those seeking a valid understanding of the experience of the black female and calls for more open discussion of the relationship between social conditions, work, race and class.

118
Kaldor, Nicholas. "The Case for Regional Policies." *The Scottish Journal of Political Economy* 17, no. 2 (November 1970): 337-347. This article examines the concept of regional variation. Begins with a discussion of how one might go about modeling a region as a distinct part of a national or even continental entity. Suggests that Applied Economics offers a viable growth model. Points out that certain sub-areas, or regions of a national or geographic entity display the characteristic of growing more rapidly than others and that some regions are distinct in their tendency to remain either static or to experience a chronic lack of growth. Attempts to identify variation between these regions which can explain growth patterns. Questions the causes of variation in regional growth rates and points to the evidence that regions vary in resource endowments within the natural environment especially in regard to human capital and skill. Proceeds to offer a principle of cumulative causation to explain why some regions become more highly industrialized while others lack industrial sophistication. The concept of cumulative causation suggests that once a region begins to develop and if it is endowed with sufficient resources and if the appropriate level of capital and human resources follow suit that these factors are multi-conjunctural and display a multiplier effect which escalates the velocity and volume of development.

119
Kane, Robert, Marilyn Dean and Marian Solomon. "An Evaluation of Rural Health Care Research." *Evaluation Quarterly* 3, no. 2 (May 1979): 139-189. Reviews current health care research and evaluation techniques with particular focus on access, health personnel, and patterns of financing. The literature is reviewed and the unanswered and unresearched questions are summarized. Develops and presents a strategy for further research on rural health care. Indicates that there is a shortage of viable data on rural populations and inadequate information regarding the capacity to conduct evaluation. Contends that non-physician personnel such as physician assistants and nursing practitioners offer promise as a source of primary health care in rural areas. Critical of the expectation that new health care programs must become financially self sufficient in a brief period of time. Indicates that such a mandate tends to reinforce the paucity of health care services among populations most at risk. Suggests that the most effective way of gathering new data for the evaluation of service programs would best be served by the establishment of research consortia composed of five or more institutions located regionally around the country whose mandate would be to conduct on-going research, data collection and policy analysis.

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Keller, Peter A. and J. Dennis Murray, eds. *Handbook of Rural Community Mental Health.* NY: Human Sciences Press, 1982. 262 p. An overview of the state of rural mental health and concepts of service delivery for the rural community. Provides an overview of the issues, the changing nature of rural community, and forms of psychopathology which are prevalent in and distinctive of rural society. Discusses the stresses of life which are characteristic of rural life, pointing out that rural areas are not purely idyllic and conducive to the development of sound mind and body as the popular image contends. Rural life can be an experience in dealing with spatial isolation, vulnerability to the physical environment, social upheaval, value confusion and tensions which are implicit in cultural clash as it is manifest in the images presented by media and the convergence of rural and urban dwellers. Addresses the issues which have emerged from the rural renaissance and the resulting shift in population growth from urban to rural. Emphasizes the potential emotional difficulty of coping with value shifts, changing community relationships and the transition from agrarian to industrial modes of production. Concludes with a consideration of clinical issues: delivery of services, community penetration and differing needs of rural populations in the form and activity of community mental health centers.

121
Kerouac, Jack. *On the Road.* NY: Viking Press, 1957. 310 p. The anarchic quest for meaning and the sensual experiences of life are portrayed in this tale of travels in the United States during the 1950's. Sal Paradise, Dean Moriarty and their young beat friends traverse the North American continent by means conventional and otherwise-in cars borrowed or stolen, by train and plane, by bus and on foot. The characters are out for sensual participation and experience at any level, of any kind and at any price. This is the story of the teenage and young adult cohort after World War II. Not part of the veteran population nor product of the baby boom, these young people were left to themselves in years when America entered the age of post war modernity, loss of innocence and withering of rules and norms.

122
King, Clarence. *Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada.* Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott, 1963. 292 p. This is a chronicle of the geological survey of the Sierra Nevada and a story of encounters with the inhabitants of the region. The book was a major literary success when it was originally presented to the public in 1872, and eight of its chapters were reprinted in the Atlantic Monthly during 1871, prior to its debut as a published volume. King is simultaneously the scientist, raconteur, sociologer, and story-teller of this richly diverse region of the far west. He began to write while living the adventure itself and the book emerged from a camp tradition of story-telling. There are fourteen chapters which range from description of the range as a geological totality, to the adventures of dealing with the ascent and descent of its particular ranges, to encounters with weather, the native residents and life in the camp. Mountaineering is more a hallmark of American creative writing than scientific material. Its achievement compares to literary the genre of Twain, Tocqueville, Cooper and James-all authors whose work arose from participant observation in the discovery of a new nation.

123
Kirby, Jack Temple. *Rural Worlds Lost: The American South 1920-1960.* Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1987. 390 p. As early as the first years after the Civil War, references to a new south had appeared. This reference to a newness suggested a post-bellum sentiment of modernization. By the turn of the century, historians, politicians, and social scientists presumed a South that was no longer burdened with racial strife or separatist sentiments and that was now in step with the industrialization and urbanization of the North. This volume debunks this version of post-bellum history of the South. While the book does indicate that industrialization and urbanization were increasing, that well into the second half of the twentieth century, the South remained overwhelmingly rural and poor. The transition from rural to urban and agrarian to industrial characteristics did not become pronounced until after World War II. The author sees three principal points of division in the history of the post-bellum south: structural change in agriculture, the effects of this structural change on social conditions, and rural-to urban migration. The book emphasizes the diversity of people and environmental conditions, the distinctiveness and resilience of southern institutions, and points out the challenges of historical research when focusing on the South.

124
Kloppenburg, Jack R., Jr. *First The Seed: The Political Economy of Plant Biotechnology 1492-2000.* NY: Cambridge University Press, 1988. 349 p. A comprehensive discussion of agricultural science which employs biotechnology as an exemplar of the political economy of capitalist accumulation. Traces the political economic history of plant breeding as it originated with the world mobility of the seed brought about by the Columbian Exchange (1492) and the international trade in agricultural seed. Moves on to the modern stage of genetic engineering and plant sciences and suggests that genetic manipulation has far reaching economic and social implications. However much science may be motivated by its own implicit internal curiosity-it is organized, supported, and developed in the context of political and social relations. Uses this premise to analyze the corporatization of agricultural science and the governance of biotechnology, including a discussion of the patent process and the social production of proprietary scientific knowledge. Progression of analysis moves through science and social change, the subjugation of public science, modern agricultural technology and the social division of labor, and direction for the future.

125
Kloppenburg, Jack Jr. "Social theory and the de/reconstruction of agricultural science: local knowledge for an alternative agriculture." *Rural Sociology* 56, no. 4 (1991): 519-548. A post-modernist perspective on the state of theory and research in the sociology of agriculture. Suggests that a critical rural sociology has played an active part in deconstructing the traditional rationalist approach and is currently involved in the reconstruction of an alternative approach to the study of agriculture and rural sociology. Contends that the theoretical resources for this reconstruction can come from contemporary post-modernism and feminist interpretations of science. Conceptualizes a successor science which focuses on the indigenous knowledge systems of farmers and agricultural workers. Suggests potentially productive research areas for the future.

126
Knoke, David and Constance Henry. "Political Structure of Rural America." *The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science* 429 (January 1977): 51-62. Suggests that rural political life revolves around three basic themes: radicalism, conservatism and apathy. The attitude research which has taken place since World War II shows little evidence to support the dominance of either radicalism or apathy. The agricultural population is more conservative in its orientation-significantly more so than urban populations. Current and future trends forecast a convergence of rural and urban public opinion. Exposure of rural populations to mass media and the cross penetration of both ends of the continuum due to migration has had a homogenizing impact on social, cultural, and political values. This process of homogenization leaves political attention centered on other social dimensions than that of rural-urban difference and as a result, rural interests are unlikely to capture national political attention.

127
Lemann, Nicholas. *The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How it Changed America.* New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. 410 p. During the twentieth century there began a dramatic migration of black Americans from rural, particularly southern agricultural areas to urban and more often northern locations. This migration was one from sharecropper and largely subsistence agriculture to industrial wager earner status. The book uses the motif of a pilgrimage, but tells the story of human struggle, injustice, and perseverance as Afro-American culture in the United States made the transition to a predominantly urban setting.

128
Levitan, Sar A. and Isaac Shapiro. *Working But Poor: America's Contradiction.* Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. 142 p. Depicts the experiences and hardships which persist for the working poor in the United States and presents alternative possibilities for federal policy. Counters the widely held opinion that the American poor are largely indolent. Indicates that there are more than two million people who work full time, year round, yet remain beneath the poverty line and that there are seven million more who work in seasonal occupations or hold some combination of part-time jobs. Proceeds to chronicle the actual realities of life for the group of American citizens-the severity of their income problems, the conditions of the low wage job market, the impact of high rates of unemployment and the effect of job instability brought about by international competition and by the impingement of technology and automation. Includes charts, figures, tables, statistics. Points out that federal policies have never been generous and that the 1980's brought further reductions while the magnitude of working poor actually expanded.

129
Levy, Frank. *Dollars and Dreams: The Changing American Income Distribution.* NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1987. 259 p. From the Census Monograph Series: The Population of the United States in the 1980's, this volume analyzes the changing pattern of income distribution in the United States from the end of second world war through the early 1980's. Points to a growing gap between the working and the upper class and a shrinking middle stratum. Suggests that the job market has bifurcated into few high paid, upper-level positions and a proliferation of low paid service sector jobs. Contends that there is a growing malaise, especially among the young who fear that they will not live as well as their parents and as a result are highly money oriented. Demonstrates that there is a growing proportion of children who are born into and raised in poverty conditions. Summarizes the census statistics; traces the industrial structure of the economy; demonstrates the geographic differences in income; and analyzes the demographics and the internal conditions of family and household structure. Includes extensive charts, tables, figures and statistics.

130
Lichter, Daniel T. "Race, Employment Hardship and Inequality in the American Nonmetropolitan South." *American Sociological Review* 54, no. 3 (June 1989): 436-446. This is an article resulting from statistical analysis of the Current Population Survey and it examines the employment experience and labor market participation of nonmetropolitan blacks from 1970 through 1985. The analysis compares the employment rates of nonmetropolitan blacks to whites and blacks in metropolitan areas. The results point out that nonmetropolitan blacks are subject more profound employment hardship than metropolitan counterparts. Two of five blacks in rural areas experience either unemployment, under-employment, or that even in full-time employment their earnings are insufficient to bring them above the poverty threshold. Also points out that while the quality of labor market participation for metropolitan blacks has steadily declined through the late 1970's and into the 1980's that the rural black still experiences the higher level of employment hardship. Discusses the deficient level of human capital among nonmetropolitan blacks and their high concentration in blue collar occupations within sunset industries. Concludes that neither the human capital deficiency or blue collar concentration is sufficient explanation for the higher rate of employment hardship among nonmetropolitan blacks.

131
Lichter, Daniel T. and D.J. Eggebeen. "Child Poverty and the Changing Rural Family." *Rural Sociology* 57, no. 1 (Summer 1992): 151-172. Presents a demographic perspective on changes in the economic circumstances of nonmetropolitan children since 1960. Reveals that more than on-in-five of these children live beneath the poverty line and an increasing proportion of children are hovering near this location on the income distribution. Points out that changes in family structure between 1960 and 1980 has accounted for nearly sixty percent of the increase in poverty and near poverty status. The change has been toward single parent households and break-up of nuclear families. Concludes that while increases in female labor force participation and higher incomes for females have been in evidence, that this has not offset the loss in economic status for children.

132
Lincoln, C. Eric and Lawrence H. Mamiya. *The Black Church in the African American Experience.* Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990. 519 p. Suggests that a good way to understand the culture, social life, and ethos of a people is to study their religion and its practical manifestations. Points out that traditional thought has assumed that the black church and black religion is largely a replication of the white counter-part. Emphasizes that African American religion in the United States contrasts sharply from this set of assumptions. Attempts to provide an authentic and objective image of the black church by employing historical, empirical, and ethnographic field methodologies. Presents general descriptive data about black churches and religion in the United States. Then illustrates the diversity within the black religious experience. Links the church and contemporary black political consciousness and social movements. Includes extensive data, tables, and charts throughout.

133
Lipset, Seymour Martin. *Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan.* A Study in Political Sociology. NY: Anchor Books, 1968. 487 p. This is a study of the conditions under which new social movements are sparked, emerge, and gain structure. Specifically it is about the emergence of the only socialist governmental form to appear in North American politics up to the present time. The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, the governing party of Saskatchewan was elected in 1944 and remained the governing party up to the time this book was published. It is the only governmental party which emerged, acquired, and retained power in North America with clearly articulated socialist objectives. Lipset sets out to study the social, political and economic background of the region in order to analyze why the movement succeeded to the extent that it did. Also concerned with the relations and interaction between the governing socialist party and the capitalist nation state in which it was situated. Looks at the particular characteristics of the western Canadian wheat basket in terms of its single location class structure, export orientation, market, and ecological vulnerability and its extra-political social and cultural formations. Proceeds to draw a distinction between the United States and Canada as potential locations for mass socialist political movements and sees several critical differences between the two nation states. This is a second edition.

134
Lobao, Linda. *Locality and Inequality: Farm and Industry Structure and Socioeconomic Conditions.* Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1990. 291 p. Analyzes how the transformation in the agricultural economy has affected economic and social equality in the United States. Notes that the small family farm has faced the greatest adversity, while corporate and agribusiness forms of agricultural production continue to command greater control of the market. Shows the uneven development of farm and industrial structures. Illustrates the pattern of increased socioeconomic inequality that has resulted, as well as the linkages between local inequality and national trends. Points out that the family farm has maintained a foothold largely through a transition to part-time farming. Calls for government support, but stresses the importance of community empowerment and broad-based political coalitions for fundamental change.

135
Long, John F. *Population Deconcentration in the United States.* Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, 1981. 105 p. Part of the Special Demographic Analyses Series which conducts analytic interpretation of the decennial census and this contribution focuses on the 1980 census. Concentrates on the causality of population distribution and the trend for dispersion of the population to less urban and more rural areas. Points out that for the first time in a century the urban population has been shrinking dramatically while there has been a sharp rise in rural and suburban population growth. Geographically, the dispersion has been directed toward the southern and western portions of the United States and for the first time in a century there has been no nationwide population trend toward concentration. It is suggested that this shift is connected to the tendency for urban populations to disperse into suburban and exurban areas as improvements in transportation have come about and by the migration of industry to southern, western, rural and generally cheaper labor markets.

136
Lonsdale, Richard E. and H.L. Seylor. *Nonmetropolitan Industrialization.* Washington, DC: V.H. Winston, 1979. 196 p. Prepared by and for professional geographers, this is an examination of the outcome of industrialization in rural America as it took shape up to the late 1970's. The book is divided into two broad sections, the first examines the transformation of the nonmetropolitan industrial landscape and the second focuses on the impact of nonmetropolitan industrialization on the community, the social structure and its institutions. Indicates that 63.8 million people or 31.4% of the nation's total population lived outside of metropolitan areas as of 1970 and that more than 6 million of the nation's manufacturing jobs were held by rural workers. Considers the position of those opposed to and those in favor of industrial expansion in rural areas. Those in favor view it as a kind of salvation from and hedge against the prospect of rural decline. They argue that it provides jobs, presents an alternative to out-migration and indicate that it supports the nonmetropolitan demographic turnaround. Those opposed see it as a force which acts to undermine traditional rural values, ways of living and institutions. They charge that industrial expansion in rural areas is directed at exploitation of a cheap source of labor.

137
Loomis, Charles P. "The Nature of Rural Social Systems-A Typological Analysis." *Rural Sociology* 15, no. 2 (June 1950): 156-174. Examines and compares various social groups in rural settings for the form and function of their methods of cohesion and stability. The nature of the social systems are determined by the interrelation of all the elements which compose its value orientation and its structure. Utilizes the Weberian concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to point out broad distinctions in the social functioning of groups. The former embraces those relations which arise from an emotive base while the latter emerges from a rational and instrumental ethos.

138
Loomis, Charles P. and J. Allan Beegle. *Rural Social Systems: A Textbook in Rural Sociology and Anthropology.* NY: Prentice-Hall, 1950. 873 p. From the vantage point of 1950, Loomis and Beegle attempt to organize nearly thirty years of findings and research which focus on the rural continuum. Offers a conceptual tool-the social system as a means of characterizing human relations and social interaction. They contend that the exercise of conceptualization is essential for the proper organization of knowledge and that it is the first step in the scientific approach. Suggesting that a concept is both definitive and interpretive, they proceed by employing the Weberian conceptual dichotomy of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Proceeding from this conceptual base, the authors suggest that social systems can be viewed either as social bodies composed of persons who act primarily within the confines of a substantive in-group or social bodies which are structured by a broad and widely shared set of values and objectives. They analyze social systems from several levels: family and informal groups, locational systems, rural strata, religious formations, educational groups, as well as political, occupational and service groups.

139
Luloff, A.E. and Louis E. Swanson, eds. *American Rural Communities.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990. 276 p. Starts by indicating that the 1980's were a decade of competition and growth in many sectors of the United States economy, but not for rural America. Chronicles the major economic social transitions that have occurred in the rural United States in the past two decades. Examines the economic and institutional changes that have taken place and the effect these changes have had on life in rural communities. Looks at multiple dimensions of rural community viability, including health, education, religion, crime, development planning, and leadership. Concludes with a prescription for the future based on forging linkages between federal, state, and local government.

140
Madden, J. Patrick and David E. Brewster. *A Philosopher Among Economists: Selected Works of John M. Brewster.* Philadelphia, PA: J.T. Murphy Co., Inc., 1970. 294 p. A collection of philosophic essays and critical commentary on the ethical, cultural and organizational condition of American society as it was viewed by Brewster from his vantage point as an Economist with the Department of Agriculture. The uniqueness of this philosophical commentary is that it was never specifically intended for publication by the author. It was pulled together from papers and memorandum produced by Brewster over the course of his career with the United States Department of Agriculture. Brewster lived, worked, and wrote through the transition from nineteenth century agrarian to twentieth century post-industrial dominance of American socioeconomic life. While he held the position of Economist, his academic training had been in Philosophy. Concentrating on Social Psychology, Brewster studied under the noted symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead while at the University of Chicago. He later completed his studies at Columbia University. Graduating in 1936, he accepted a position with the Department of Agriculture during the days of the New Deal. Brewster remained with USDA until his death in 1965. The book is a broad set of philosophical meditations on topics which range from values, ethics, the changing nature of democracy in the industrial world, to cultural transition, belief systems and commentary on public policy.

141
Mandle, Jay R. *The Roots of Black Poverty: The Southern Plantation Economy After the Civil War.* Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1978. 144 p. Focuses on the historical roots of black poverty in the antebellum and contemporary south. Poses as the central question-why it is that incomes for blacks have remained so consistently low in comparison to other groups in the national society. Contends that the answer to this question is largely regional and requires an analysis of why blacks remained predominantly southern even into the post world war two period. The subsequent issue taken up by the author is black response to the situation and the strategies they have employed in attempting to overcome poverty. Contends that much of the existing research has focused on southern agriculture and stresses resource allocation and market efficiency, missing the ultimate source of black poverty-underdevelopment of the economy of those parts of the south in which black populations are concentrated. Addresses this counter-argument by utilizing the mode of production as the unit of analysis. Suggests that the limited economic development was the result of plantation dominance. The plantation mode of production employed repressive tactics and enforced immobility. Views the post-bellum south as similar in characteristics to the colonies and nations of the Caribbean basin.

142
Marsden, Terry, Jonathan Murdoch, Philip Lowe, Richard Munton, and Andrew Flynn. *Constructing the Countryside.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993. 220 p. As the postwar-economic surge slowed to a halt in the 1970's, the political and economic world was in a state of flux. This set of curcumstances forced leaders and prominent thinkers to reconsider the functions and interactions of society. Out of this broad-based analysis came the premise for this work, which is the first in a series of publications condenscing the work of the UK Economic and Social Research Council's Countryside Change Initiative (1988-93). Researchers consider whether the evaluation of the roles in society would suggest a more prominent role for rural society now and in the future. As the authors delve into their premise, they consider the progression of events in rural Great Britain since the 1860's and how these circumstances have affected property rights and land interest, the planning of land development, and even the resulting consequences of a locality and the power it places on change.

143
Marshall, Ray. *Rural Workers in Rural Labor Markets.* Salt Lake City, UT: Olympus Publishing, 1974. 183 p. Defines rurality and delineates the characteristics of population and work force in rural areas. Examines agricultural employment, non-farm employment, models rural manpower programs, describes rural organizations such as community development corporations, economic action and interest groups and unions. Presents a description and analysis of wage structures, benefits and patterns of unemployment and its treatment. More specific sub-topics include: conditions of blacks in southern agriculture; agricultural policy and small farms; problems of migrants; rural non-farm economic development; examination of rural manpower programs which are intended to match worker with employer; the need for a representative organization that could promote the interest of low income and small farmer social and economic need. Closes with recommendations for policy that would enhance the economic conditions of small farmers, agricultural workers and low-income, non-farm residents.

144
Marshall, Ray. *Rural Workers in Rural Labor Markets.* Salt Lake City, UT: Olympus Publishing, 1974. 183 p. Defines rurality and delineates the characteristics of population and work force in rural areas. Examines agricultural employment, non-farm employment, models rural manpower programs, describes rural organizations such as community development corporations, economic action and interest groups and unions. Presents a description and analysis of wage structures, benefits and patterns of unemployment and its treatment. More specific sub-topics include: conditions of blacks in southern agriculture; agricultural policy and small farms; problems of migrants; rural non-farm economic development; examination of rural manpower programs which are intended to match worker with employer; the need for a representative organization that could promote the interest of low income and small farmer social and economic need. Closes with recommendations for policy that would enhance the economic conditions of small farmers, agricultural workers and low-income, non-farm residents.

145
Marti, Donald B. *Women of the Grange: Mutuality and Sisterhood in Rural America, 1866-1920.* Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991. 157 p. As participants in the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, commonly called the Grange, women have played an important but usually secondary role in the Order's work. Grange sisters have worked together on all parts of country life from decorating to cooking to taking the platform in the Grange Hall to demand the women's suffrage. Grange sisters were key participants in the women's movement that preceded twentieth century feminism. Grange women also resembled their contemporaries in the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). Both organizations were founded within a few years of each other. While the women of the WCTU and other urban women's grouped combined with each other to seek greater political influence, the strategy of the Grange women was to seek mutuality with men. This volume traces the role of women in the history of the Grange and particularly examines the differences in strategy between rural and urban women's groups.

146
Martin, Lee R. *A Survey of Agricultural Economics Literature: Economics of Welfare, Rural Development and National Resources in Agriculture, 1940's to 1970's.* Vol. 3. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1981. 653 p. Anthology published for the American Agricultural Economics Association which reflects their effort to investigate the major contributions to the literature of Agricultural Economics from the 1940's through to the 1970's. Prepared for use by a cross-disciplinary audience and deemed appropriate and useful to researchers, teachers and students in Economics, Sociology, Geography, Demography, Political Science and Anthropology. Examines the economics of rural poverty, including special focus on income, welfare, growth, small farms, labor markets, human capital, health and quality of domestic life. Presents analysis of and assesses the well-being of rural peoples, communities and regions, examining resource availabilities, technology, markets, land-use, institutions and development issues. Addresses Natural Resource Economics including intellectual approaches to the field, the theoretical paradigms, applied practice and continued evolution of the field. Offers an overview of Agricultural Markets including the framework of industrial organization, market competition, cooperatives, grades and standards, spatial and temporal factors and vertical organization and performance.

147
Martin, Philip L. and David A. Martin. *The Endless Quest: Helping America's Farm Workers.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993. 160 p. Examines the development of government programs which address the needs of migrant farm workers. Demonstrates how the programs operate with greater and lesser efficiency and success. Explores ways the modify, change, or replace these programs in order to meet the needs of migrant labor. Suggests policy changes and offers data to support the policy making and program design and implementation process.

148
McPhee, John. *Coming into the Country.* NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1976. 438 p. A social and environmental portrait of Alaska with images of its history and cultural development up to the present. It is a blend of character sketches, landscapes and descriptive narrative which is organized into three sections. Book One is titled-The Encircled River and tells the story of a trip by kayak and canoe down a river in the Brooks Range, an area of Alaska which is known as America's ultimate wilderness-touched only by hunting parties of forest eskimos. Book Two-What They Were Hunting For, tells the story of the urban side of Alaska and the search for a new state capital. The story serves to portray the cultural ethos of the Alaskan people. While it is a part of the United States, Alaska is characteristically distinct, much in the way that a foreign country would differ from mainstream America. Book Three-Coming into the Country, looks at the region of the upper Yukon and examines the mixture of folks who inhabit the region including Indians and Whites and the assortment of trappers, skinners, miners, welfare recipients, those in various forms of early retirement and the inhabitants of tiny isolated towns who migrated from the lower forty-eight seeking to create new lives.

149
McConnell, Grant. *The Decline of Agrarian Democracy.* Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1953. 226 p. Presents a historical account of the development of populism as a structural manifestation of political power. Examines its genesis from grass roots representation of agrarian individuals and small groups against the interests of the urban and industrialized power structure. Outlines the historical development of agrarian populism from its roots in the economic debate and its growth into a political mass movement and national political party with its own Presidential and Congressional candidates. Traces the rise of the Populist tide as it reflected the political strength of rural and agrarian interests in the United States until it was ultimately defeated by the interests of the urban and industrial power base. McShane, Damian. Mental Health and North American Indian/Native Communities: Cultural Transactions, Education, and Regulation. American Journal of Community Psychology 15, no. 1 (February 1987): 95-116. Discusses the challenges inherent in transcultural delivery of mental health services. Particular focus is on Native American populations residing on reservations or living in rural areas. Points out that service delivery by the culturally unfamiliar accentuates rather than reduces stress levels in many cases. Summarizes previous approaches to bridging the gap and indicates why these have not succeeded. Presents a service delivery model which the author believes can provide greater positive outcomes. This model focuses on modifying: the psychotherapists' expectations and orientation, traditional treatment approaches, patient knowledge and expectations, and shared role-relationship expectations.

150
Molotch, Harvey. "The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place." *American Journal of Sociology* 82, no. 2 (September 1976): 309-332. Offers a view of local community development as a process of competition among local elites. The local elite is seen as attempting to maximize personal profit and economic power through intensifying the development of local land. Indicates a pattern of competition within regions between local land-based elites who seek to mandate development in its land domain as opposition to the interests of all others. Suggests the existence of an elite hegemony in local government which manipulate local governmental mechanisms to maximize its competitive advantage over other elites. This elite model is metaphorically presented as a growth machine and asserts that the conditions of community life are a consequence of these elite forces. Suggests that as this pattern of elite hegemony and domination becomes increasingly clear that counter-coalitions can and do emerge in an effort to redefine and redirect the logic of development.

151
Mooney, Patrick H. *My Own Boss? Class, Rationality, and the Family Farm.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988. 306 p. Employs Marxist and Weberian theory and concepts to develop a model for analyzing class, status and political participation in agricultural production and places an emphasis on the independent proprietor of family owned and operated farms. While grounded in Marxian conceptions of class relationships, the book calls upon Weber's typology of the rationality of action. Focuses on post World War II Wisconsin as a case study in the social, economic and technological transformation of family farming. Examines trends in tenancy, indebtedness, credit, hired labor, commodity production and market participation as each contributes to the dynamics of class formation among farmers. Contends that class, status and demographic factors structure the forms of collective action and political behavior of independent farmers. Suggests that proletarianization and rationalization of agriculture are conjoint and reflexive processes that are stifling the potential vitality of the independent farmer and subsuming his or her independence to the rationality of the market and the political rigidity of bureaucratic organizations.

152
Morrison, Peter A. *A Taste of the Country: A Collection of Calvin Beale's Writings.* University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990. 249 p. From the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and in extensive travel throughout the United States, Calvin Beale has chronicled and interpreted the changing population characteristics of the American nation with a special emphasis on the nature of rural life. This is an edited collection of his wide ranging publications and internal or informal documents produced over the years. Divided into three sections, the writings focus on Rural America in Retrospect, Economic and Demographic Transformation and Contemporary Rural America. One principle strength in Beale's work is the capacity to create telling typologies of rural America and to place the nation into distinctive and homogenous sub-regional contexts which illuminate the variability and diversity of rural areas. Beale created a descriptive map of the United States which divides the continent into some twenty six sub-regions, reflecting economically and culturally distinct sub-populations which are economically and culturally homogenous. Most importantly, the three sections of the book guide us through Beale's impressions of the rural american social world, past and present. He illustrates the common heritage, ethnic background and cultural homogeneity of the various sub-regions; demonstrates the transformation that rural America experienced through the period of the 1970's when migration to rural areas outpaced out-migration and on into the developments of the 1980's when economic diversification and downturn began to stem the population flow and alter the economic terrain of rural regions once again.

153
Murray, J. Dennis and Peter A. Keller, eds. *Innovations in Rural Community Mental Health.* Mansfield, PA: Mansfield University Rural Services Institute, 1986. 285 p. An edited collection intended to be a diverse and wide ranging collection of short chapters covering issues in rural social service delivery. The chapters are written by a variety of actual practitioners who focus on and operate within the rural continuum. This is a practical guide to innovation in rural mental health service delivery. The first section addresses the needs of the professional care-giver: how to adjust to, stay within and cope with the rural world as a specialized setting. The second section is an assortment of innovative ideas, techniques and adaptive measures for working with rural communities and clients. Section three emphasizes how to be effective in utilizing community resources and suggests what is possible in regard to establishing linkages with other groups, practitioners and entities in the community. In addition, attention is given to some of the particular issues and therapeutic needs of rural communities and points out a role for therapeutic journalism as a form of community outreach. Section five is devoted to addressing some of the key factors in the preparation and training of the rural practitioner. Includes suggestions for Postdoctoral Fellowships, rural-specific academic curriculum and concludes with a discussion of the meaning of rurality. Each chapter offers bibliographic citations.

154
Myrdal, Gunnar. *Economic Theory and Under-Developed Regions.* London: Duckworth, 1957. 168 p. Emerged from a series of lectures by the author at the National Bank of Egypt Anniversary Commemoration Lectures in Cairo. Myrdal focused on one particular aspect of the international situation, placing specific emphasis on uneven development and inequalities between countries and regions within countries. Addresses the issue of how and why these inequalities emerge, develop and become perpetuated. Proceeds to consider how such inequalities and inequities in developmental opportunities might be redressed. Focuses specific attention on the mechanisms of national and international inequality. Suggests that there is a pattern of circular and cumulative causation. Considers the role of the state both in the sense of the production of and the remediation of inequality. Critiques the ideological orientation which attributes some of the conditions and circumstances of inequality to cultural or innate types of causation. Suggests a theoretical template for development studies.

155
O'Hare, William P. *The Rise of Poverty in Rural America.* Population Trends in Public Policy. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau, July 1988. 16 p. Addresses the decline in the quality of life and the standard of living which has taken place in the rural United States during the 1980's. Details the economic distress which is experienced by the rural population and compares their experience to urban counterparts. Examines the characteristics of the poverty population in rural areas and indicates that the percentage of the population living below the poverty line is fifty percent greater and unemployment is twenty six percent higher than in urban areas. Attests to the absolute decline in real income for rural families during the period 1979 through 1986 (a ten percent decline) and indicates that the median family income in rural areas is twenty six percent less than in urban areas. Suggests that federal and state programs are not reaching the rural poor to the same extent as they reach the poverty stricken in urban areas. Makes clear the need for a re-evaluation of policy and social programs which focus on the rural population.

156
Olsen, Wallace C. *Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology: The Contemporary Core Literature.* Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991. 346 p. An attempt to analyze the literature of agricultural science. Seeks to provide an informed overview of the discipline through the author's research with online bibliographic utilities. Suggests that such an attempt is timely, given that the 1980's are viewed as a watershed in agricultural science, particularly as the field has become global and must take account of the differing needs of scholars in developed and in developing countries. Especially useful to advanced scholars and to professional librarians involved in collection management. This volume provides assistance in evaluating collection strengths and weaknesses of both monograph and journal literature holdings.

157
Ostrum, Vincent, Robert Bish and Elinor Ostrum. *Local Government in the United States.* San Francisco, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1988. 251 p. Examines the history, development and future prospects of local governance in the United States, pointing out that local government has always been a fundamental characteristic of the American experiment in self governance. Views the mission of local government to be the self regulation of social life from the neighborhood, the township to the local jurisdiction as one of the most vital aspects of civic life. Contends that if local government is to survive and prosper it must come to understand its linkage from local to regional to state and finally to the national dimensions. Demonstrates substantial diversity by comparing different local governmental forms in various regions. Points out that the nineteenth century presented a great challenge and ranging debate over the autonomy of the local government in relation to the state and the national level but that the local governmental form ultimately prevailed. Proceeds to theorize about the cohesion of governmental units and how they are bound together in a functional system of local governance. Discusses the interaction between local governments in the regional continuum. Evaluates the effect of different institutional structures and their viability in maintaining a coherent and functional local system and concludes by examining some of the problems and prospects which will challenge local government as we approach the next century.

158
Pahl, R.E. "The Rural-Urban Continuum." *Sociologica Ruralis* 5, no. 3 (1966): 299-324. Summarizes and discusses the state of the debate between those who are concerned with the viability of rural and urban settings as substantive and necessary distinctions to make in the field of Sociology. Takes note of the fact that there are academic societies in existence which pre-suppose Rural Sociology to be a distinctly separate field from mainstream Sociology. Points out that those concentrating on Rural Sociology in the United States have led the way in the assertion that the distinction is necessary and examines their position. Proceeds to question the criteria for such a distinction and takes a historical view of the literature, dating back to the 1930's and the work of Wirth. Concludes that while there are levels upon which the rural and urban worlds behave as a single continuum that there are also sharp discontinuities in social interaction patterns, community participation, class awareness and occupational differences. Suggests that one of the sharp differences is the confrontation between local and national levels of the social structure. Points toward the need to examine and analyze the impact of the national on the local level of social structure for further research on rural-urban difference.

159
Parker, Edwin B., Heather E. Hudson, Don A. Dillman and Andrew D. Roscoe. *Rural America in the Information Age: Telecommunications Policy for Rural Development.* Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1989. 170 p. Examines the role that can be played by telecommunications in revitalizing the rural economy by making it a more competitive sector and especially by opening up new markets, industries and technology. Points in the direction of the information industry as an easily transplanted option for renewing rural competitiveness and upgrading its infrastructure. Further indicates that the changes brought about by FCC policy and options expanded by the advancement of communications technology including: digital, microwave and fiber-optic capabilities presents a potential opportunity for the rural sector. However, the authors emphasize that this opportunity can only be tapped if the technological capability is brought to the rural environment. Includes a detailed set of policy proposals and specific action steps which need to be taken to bring the rural economy into competitive position for participation in the information age. Includes charts, figures, tables, glossary and extensive references.

160
Parks, Arnold G. *Black Elderly in Rural America: A Comprehensive Study.* Bristol, IN: Wyndham Hall Press, 1988. 333 p. Social Gerontology is an emerging sub-field in social science and has tended to situate its research interests with metropolitan populations. Extension of research to rural and minority sectors tends to lag behind the majority population and Parks criticizes the dearth of research and information on rural and specifically black elderly and then proceeds to present extensive and intensive data on this minority sub-group. Begins with an assessment of the literature and indicates that much of the extant research on black elderly has been comparative in nature. He further demonstrates that rural research in general has been essentially characterized by interpretive and descriptive data and analysis. Departing from this research agenda, Parks embarks on a presentation of empirical findings which examines the conditions of the rural black elderly. Major focus is divided between: the demographics of rural black aging in three states-Arkansas, Mississippi and Tennessee; a presentation of empirical methodology; wide ranging presentation of dependent variable data; a statistical analysis of the decline of black farming and finally a summary of data and an extensive bibliography. Contains charts, graphs, figures, statistics and maps.

161
Perloff, Harvey S. and Edgar S. Dunn Jr., Eric E. Lampard and Richard F. Muth. *Regions, Resources and Economic Growth.* Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. 716 p. Begins with a discussion of the great extent to which regions of the United States vary with regard to economic growth on the one hand and decline on the other. Posits that in order to understand the interrelationships which produce growth or decline that it is necessary to analyze the natural resource and productive base of regions within the broader framework of national context. Indicates two primary objectives: 1. to furnish information and insight that will be valuable to individuals and organizations concerned with aspects of growth and decline and its relation to the resource base; 2. to provide a conceptual and methodological framework to guide research in resources and regions. Key assumptions are: that regional economic growth in the volume of economic activities is subject to a different constellation of socioeconomic forces than are the welfare aspects of growth; that regional economic growth is evolutionary and influenced directly by the decisions made in prior history; and that the critical and determinant elements in the patterns of regional economic development are the locational and production decisions of business firms in the context of major industry sectors. Continues by providing an overview of each major business sector; highlights the growth of regional economies in the U.S. since 1870 and then traces the sub-national economic patterns up to 1950.

162
Pfeffer, Max J. "Social Origins of Three Systems of Farm Production in the United States." *Rural Sociology* 48, no. 4 (Winter 1983): 540-562. Analyzes systems of farm organization in the United States and suggests that farm structure is explained by variations in the economic, social and political factors. Farm structures emerge around the particular constraints of labor availability and characteristics as well as the opportunities and limitations imposed by natural conditions. This set of theoretical assumptions is considered in comparing the genesis of corporate farming in California, sharecropping in South Carolina and family farming on the Great Plains. Points out that in each of these regions farm production initially arose under conditions of concentrated ownership but that differences between the regions in regard to the patterns of labor, systems of production and environmental constraint led to distinct social forms.

163
Pigg, Kenneth E, ed. *The Future of Rural America: Anticipating Policies for Constructive Change.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. 285 p. This text initiates an exercise that envisions a positive future for rural America and suggests a framework in which thinking and conceptualizing about rural policy might be fruitful in manifesting such a future. Individual chapters discusses the various conceptualizations of rurality and point out how this set of assumptions influences thinking about rural problems and challenges. Attempts to make thinking about rural policy more of a future oriented and proactive enterprise. Specific topics include: geography, linkages to the global economy, the future of community, farm economy, development planning, social and individual problems, education and extension, governance, and visioning.

164
Polsby, Nelson W. *Community Power and Political Theory.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963. 144 p. Emerged from a community study of New Haven, Connecticut and in the process found itself in need of a reconstruction of community power and stratification theory. Culminated in a pluralist position and formulated empirical models. In the history of stratification and community power structure research this became the self styled alternative to Warner, Hunt, Lynd and others who had pioneered the field during the 1950's. This pluralist alternative examines a community from an interactive standpoint: who participates, who gains, who loses, who succeeds and who prevails? Seeks to answer these questions through observation and analysis of interaction in urban redevelopment, public education and political nominations. Ultimately states that power is a subsidiary aspect of the community social structure-that it shadows and traces the stratification system. The pattern of power is suggested to be: 1. that the upper class rules the community; 2. that political and other civic leaders are subordinate to the upper class; 3. that a single power elite rules in a community; 4. that it rules in its own interest; 5. that conflict and antagonism are characteristic of the relations between the upper and lower classes.

165
Prucha, Francis Paul. *The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians.* Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 608 p. An extensive study on the history of American Indian relations with the Federal Government. In the 19th century it was common for the Indians to refer to the President of the United States as the Great White Father. This was indicative of a paternalistic attitude which ordered the government-Indian relationship and continued to be perpetuated by both sides until about the 1880's. This imagery of the Great White Father passed but the characteristic paternalism remained until recent time. Prucha concentrates on the history of federal policy toward Indians and not on the detailed history of Indian communities. This history of relations is carried forward to the decade of the 1980's. The author's premise is that Indians have changed and developed through time and that their relations with the government have therefore changed as well. This metamorphosis is the focus of the book. It is organized into ten major sub-sections which provide detailed attention to: The Colonial Experience, The Indian Wars, The Rise of the Reservation System, Indian Emigration, The Civil War Years, Americanization and the Rise of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Education, Land Issues and American Indian Self Determination. Contains an extensive collection of maps, illustrations and tables. Notable reference source for further scholarly study.

166
Rasmussen, Wayne D. "The Mechanization of Agriculture." *Scientific American* 247, no. 3 (September 1982): 76-90. A short history of the mechanization of farming-tracing the evolution of farm implements from the colonial version of plows, to reapers and tractors and then to their modern day counterparts. Points out that the industrialization and mechanization of agriculture has reduced the percentage of the population working in farming from 70% to 3% and takes stock of the productive capacity which has emerged from modern farm mechanization and efficiency. Analyzes the impact that mechanization, computerization and modern commodity markets have had on the productivity gains of large farms. Suggests that in the future the family farm will be ultimately be ascendent to the contemporary domination by large agri-business corporations due to the superior efficiency of the family as a labor unit. Further contends that technology and automation will make the practice of farming less an experience of hard physical labor and drudgery and that along with the availability of modern consumer goods in rural areas, the quality of life for the family farming unit will be significantly enhanced.

167
Rasmussen, Wayne D. *Taking the University to the People: Seventy-Five Years of Cooperative Extension.* Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1989. 314 p. Provides a descriptive history of cooperative extension including legislation, dates, places, people, and things. While the book is detailed and documentary, it also contains the critical insights of the historical perspective taken by its author. Covers early history of extension and a detailed discussion of its role in responding to the Great Depression, World War II, and the Farm Crisis of the 1980's. Reviews the programming accomplishments and directions of extension in agriculture, home economics, youth, and community development. Concludes with a look at the programming agenda of the next half century.

168
Rochin, Refugio I. and Monica D. Castillo. *Immigration, Colonial Formation and Latino Poor in Rural California: Evolving Immiseration.* Claremont, CA: Toms Rivera Center, 1993. 70 p. The research reported in this paper focuses on the well-being of hispanic american agricultural laborers in rural California. Particular focus is on examining the state's Latino colonias. Analyzes social and economic conditions and conceptualizes the critical issues for the future. Constructs a framework for developing policies to improve the welfare of rural Latinos and Latinas. The paper links research and policy making and provides a wealth of data, demographic information, charts, tables, and bibliographic references.

169
Rosenblatt, Roger A. and Ira S. Moscovice. *Rural Health Care.* NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1982. 301 p. Addresses the problems and unique challenges of delivering health care service to rural areas. The U.S. has neither a national health service nor national health insurance and as a result there are special challenges to the policy and service delivery systems as they can be influenced from the national level. Ready access to personal health services is a serious problem for significant sectors of the rural population in a society whose national energies are more directed toward an urban constituency. Additionally, it is more difficult to conceptualize both rural needs and the diversity of rural community forms. Assesses the major strategies of the past: the community health center, organized group practice, free standing primary care centers, and institutional extension/linkage. Proceeds to a conceptualization of social change and how it might be introduced through: individual theory, institutional strategy, organizational forms and community structures. Focuses in on the social and economic contexts of rural life and its implications for health care. Examines the role of primary care and the role/function of the community hospital for in-patient, emergency and clinical care. Calls attention to the special needs in mental health, geriatrics and dental medicine. Makes suggestions for the development of a strategy for improving rural health care: the importance of planning; the integration of local with special and regional service providers; payment and financial systems; resource capacities and community integration.

170
Rosenfeld, Rachel Ann. *Farm Women: Work, Farm and Family in the United States.* Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1985. 354 p. This book arose from the author's experience as principal investigator on a survey of farm women which was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture. It is the first book on the subject of farm women which uses data from a national sample: The Farm Women Survey Data Set. Women are connected in some way with most U.S. farms, but the work of these women and their participation in agrarian economic life has been incompletely understood, since farming was thought to be carried out primarily by men. Focuses attention on some of the American farm women-those who operate their own farms and those who are wives of farm operators. Questions how the nature of their farms and their families shape the work they do, both on and off of the farm, with or without pay. Specifically examines farm work, household work and decision-making, off-farm employment, political and social organizations, and self perceptions of farm women. Rich in statistics, tables, figures and contains a copy of the National Opinion Research Center questionnaire which was used for the project.

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Rural Sociological Society Task Force on Persistent Rural Poverty. *Persistent Poverty in Rural America.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992. 379 p. Result of a project sponsored by a grant from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation and the four Regional Centers for Rural Development. Presents the findings of a team of social scientists, economists, geographers, political scientists, and other social practitioners who examined the causes for persistent poverty in the rural United States. Their findings discount the psychological and cultural explanations and point in the direction of structural causality. Topics focus on demography, human capital, labor and work structures, spatial models and regional economies, natural resources, culture, ethnicity, class, gender, the family, and the elderly.

172
Ruttan, Vernon W, ed. *Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment: Perspectives on Growth and Constraints.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. 189 p. Emphasizes the relationship between agricultural practices and environmental impact. Evaluates prospects for the future of sustainable agriculture and does so from the perspective of industry, political policy, scholarship, institutional practices and the role of government agencies. Discusses how the behavior and discourse of these actors affects the possibilities for a sustainable agriculture which minimizes environmental degradation. Chapters are written by specialists who can be grouped into three broad specialty areas: scientific and technical constraints on crop and animal productivity; resource and environmental constraints in sustainable agriculture; and health constraints in agricultural development.

173
Salamon, Sonya. *Prairie Patrimony: Family, Farming, and Community in the Midwest.* Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. 297 p. This is an ethnographic inquiry into the conduct of life on the family farm in the midwest. It looks at the historical context and background of ethnic farmers. Focuses specifically on the family as a complex unit of analysis and intricate network of production and reproduction of the family farm within and across generations. Takes a close look at family interactional processes and at patterns of inheritance. Also examines broader social networks and how farm families tend to link with local communities. Includes an appendix that focuses on a methodology for conducting field work in farming communities.

174
Sandefur, Gary D. and Marta Tienda, eds. *Divided Opportunities: Minorities, Poverty and Social Policy.* NY: Plenum Press, 1988. 279 p. Begins by pointing out that even into the late 1980's the prospect of reducing poverty for many minority groups remains bleak. Directs attention to the continued high percentages of Blacks, Hispanics and Native Americans who live in poverty conditions. Compares these and other minority groups in regard to changes in economic status over several decades. Assesses the outcomes of anti-poverty programs, impacts of public expenditures, educational programming and policy which addresses the problems of the homeless, the jobless and families in poverty. Questions whether it is appropriate to treat diverse ethnic groups with a single uniform policy. Continues to examine variation within and between minority groups and looks at the differential impact of economic conditions. Chapters emphasize the diversity of the poverty population and critiques the polarized argument between subjective and structural causation. Stresses that a healthy economy is the best asset in fighting poverty but that growth and development alone will not close the gap. Specific attention to family and intergenerational processes, structural factors and addresses the need for new thinking in the realm of social policy. Contains charts, figures, tables, statistics.

175
Sanders, Irwin T. and Gordon F. Lewis. "Rural Community Studies: A Decade in Review." In *Annual Review of Sociology: 1976*, 35-54. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc., 1976. An overview of the research that had taken place in rural community studies during the late 1960's through the mid 1970's. Studies were selected through a size of place criteria. Rural was taken to represent small communities with populations which were about twenty five hundred or less and geographically located outside of a census defined metropolitan area. Indicates that the decade displayed a marked trend toward hypothesis testing and data analysis rather than the comprehensive case study method which had typified community studies since the 1940's. Rather than studying the community as a totality, research has moved in the direction of four predominant analytic categories. There are descriptive studies which are essentially concerned with a description of a set of conditions, characteristics or situations, doing little to relate back to holistic analysis of the community. There are general analytic studies wherein certain phenomenon are placed under observation for variance and then related to general conditions on a global level. There are specific analytic studies in which one certain set of discrete phenomenon were related to a second set of discrete phenomenon (such as the relationship between migration patterns and industrial location). And, there are formal analytic studies which center attention solely on hypothesis testing. Points out that the classic approach as typified by Dollard's Caste and Class in a Southern Town, seem no longer in evidence. The holistic community studies of the 1940's and 1950's which provided ethnographic emphasis and a view of community as the object of study are now discontinuous with the more discrete and variable oriented data analysis which is the new dominant methodology.

176
Schultz, Theodore W. *The Economics of Being Poor.* Nobel Lecture. Nobel Foundation. Stockholm, Sweden, 1979. 24 p. Emphasizes the centrality of human capital to the process of development in agrarian society and suggests that two intellectual mistakes tend to mark the work of development economists. The first is their assumption that land and its qualities outweigh the importance of human input and second, that this assumption prevents them from understanding the power and impact of human agency. Calls for economists to place an emphasis on the development of human capital as the key structural catalyst for development. Illustrates the quality of human agency in the calculating rationality of entrepreneurial farmers and suggests that it is those most clever and skilled who are successful. Taking this point to the operational dimension, the author concludes that policy and programs might maximize their effectiveness in promoting development by placing the cultivation of human capital as their priority in the first instance.

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Schwarzweller, Harry K., ed. *Research in Rural Sociology and Development: A Research Annual.* Vol. 1. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984. 353 p. As part of the annual series which focuses on the most recent developments in rural sociology and its sub-disciplines, this volume is devoted to the sociology of agriculture. Suggests that recent years have brought a shift in direction for rural sociology, especially due to concern for the environment, preservation of natural resources, the necessity of specialized rural social policy, agricultural technology and shifts in population. Central theme is the characterization of a sociology of agriculture. Particular attention is given to agricultural labor, the status of women, family dynamics, youth in the labor force, ethnicity and land ownership patterns, market participation, the environment and the role of science in everyday life.

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Shannon, Fred A. *The Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860-1897.* Vol. 5. The Economic History of the United States. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1945. 434 p. This is the fifth volume in the series The Economic History of the United States, and focuses on the development and maturation of the agricultural sector of the American economy as it occurred between 1860 and 1897. Attempts to portray the viewpoint and frame of reference of the farmer as he was affected by the development of agricultural markets on a national scale. Prior to 1860, agriculture had still maintained a predominant subsistence character, yet in the forty years leading up to the turn of the century developments in technology, plant and soil science, transportation and patterns of land tenure led to a commercialization of agricultural production. During this period agriculture reached the point of saturating virgin and frontier lands and moved toward more intense cultivation and advances in output. The book emphasizes this stage of the rounding out of agriculture and its effect on the national economy. Particular emphasis on the role played by soils, climate, transportation, markets, financial arrangements, immigration and internal migration. Presents analysis and discussion of the theory of the safety-valve and the agricultural ladder.

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Sher, Jonathan P., ed. *Education in Rural America: A Reassessment of Conventional Wisdom.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977. 392 p. There are greater than fourteen million students attending rural public schools and they receive a disproportionately minor amount of available public funding, resources and professional human capital. Contends that both state and federal policy in education has essentially treated the metropolitan student population as its primary consideration and rural as peripheral and secondary. Implicit to this argument is their evidence that rural students are treated as and acted upon in ways that impart an almost second class and subordinate status. Suggests that their interests and needs have been overlooked, misinterpreted and insulted by educational authorities who administer the schools from the ideological and practical framework of the metropolitan value system. Asserts that rural students and their social setting deserve respect, tact and a willingness of the educational system to respond to their characteristic needs. Presents a history of the developments in the American educational philosophy and its infrastructure from the mid-nineteenth century to the 1970's. Demonstrates the existence of a reified bureaucracy and its insensitive, instrumental rationality which holds economy and efficiency above all other human considerations. Presents an analysis of implicit and explicit class conflict in rural education. Includes a case study of centralization vs. decentralization in a rural Vermont school system. Suggests a research agenda, structural and substantive reforms and offers a model for school based community development programs. Includes: Tables, Figures, Statistics, Path Analysis Models.

180
Smith, Page. *As A City Upon A Hill: The Town in American History.* NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968. 332 p. A historical study which analyzes the township as an institution in American history (as opposed to the history of particular towns). Offers a language and develops concepts and typologies for analyzing the role of towns in the larger society. Distinguishes two types of towns-the colonized and the cumulative. The colonized town is distinguished from the cumulative in its motive and origin. The colonized town is typified by intentional, planned settlement by a pre-existing and cohesive group, while the cumulative town emerged from economic origins-growing and developing by the influence of trade, market and economic forces. The author tends to focus on towns in the northern portion of the nation, New England in particular and admits that there is little emphasis on the south or the west. Specifically examines types of towns, patterns of expansion, religious, economic, political and social life.

181
Snipp, Matthew C. *American Indians: First of This Land.* NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1989. 408 p. A contribution to the Census Monograph Series on the Population of the United States in the 1980's. Addresses the issues and complexities of developing information about the early history of American Indian and Alaskan native populations. Presents an extensive array of demographic information about these populations drawn from data collected by the 1980 census. The Census Bureau went to great lengths to gather detailed information about native populations in 1980. There were 1,423,043 counted inhabitants who were designated under the heading of Native Americans and this comprises only one half of one percent of the total population of the United States. Presents some of the characteristic statistical information of this sub-population and provides some new insights. It is noted that 44% have less than twelve years of schooling, 13% are defined as unemployed and that more than 30% live below the poverty line. The intention of the book is to contextualize the position of Native Americans within the larger American population and to build knowledge of their population size, location and social characteristics. Indicates the broad diversity between the groups as well as their substantial geographic dispersion. Finds that certain groups are urbanized and integrated into mainstream American society while others reside in very remote areas and are culturally distinct. Presents a history of early population estimates and the techniques utilized to develop these estimates. Describes other characteristics including housing, family patterns, language, education, labor force participation, income distribution and patterns of migration. Includes a geographic dispersion by state, characteristics of mortality, maps of regions, tables, charts, figures and statistics.

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Sokolow, Alvin D. "Local Governments: Capacity and Will." In *Nonmetropolitan America in Transition,* edited by Amos H. Hawley and Sara Mills Mazie, 736-766. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1981. Contends that local government makes a major contribution to the quality of life in a given locality in rural America and points out that little formal knowledge of the nature, dynamics and qualities of rural local government is in existence. This chapter attempts to redress the paucity of knowledge in this area and specifically focuses on the financial characteristics of small local governments. Examines the recent changes which have occurred such as revenue sharing, rapid inflation and the re-emergence of population growth in rural areas. The chapter is divided into three major sections. The first includes material from the 1977 census of governments which describes local government financial characteristics outside of metropolitan areas. The second divides nonmetropolitan counties into four groups-reflecting local population growth rates and points to the problems and challenges faced by each. Finally, addresses the effect of inflation on the fiscal integrity of small local governmental forms. Includes policy suggestions, charts, tables and figures.

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Spillman, William J. "The Agricultural Ladder." *American Economic Review Supplement* (September 1919): 170-179. An early empirical and comparative study which focuses on stages of progression in the farming profession. Suggests that there is a ladder of development which begins with homestead farmers-the stage of unpaid agricultural labor on the subsistence farm. This stage is succeeded by the rise of paid agricultural labor. The third stage on the agricultural ladder is occupied by the tenant farmer and the fourth and final stage represents the status of farm owner. The author presents frequencies and bar charts to describe the population in his study area. He describes the means of land acquisition, the characteristics of the wage labor sector and the patterns of progression of individuals through the steps of the agricultural ladder.

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Stanley, Sam. *American Indian Economic Development.* Paris, France: Mouton Publishers, 1978. 609 p. A collection of papers prepared by Anthropologists and American Indians about the concept of economic development and its significance to Indian communities. Each chapter draws attention to a distinct tribal community and its indigenous economic characteristics. Cases were selected for their efforts to resist absorption into the industrial system of the United States. Specific attention is given to the meaning of development for the community rather than on simplistic presumption of modernization, industrialization and macro integration. The book is organized around a careful study of seven of these efforts. The central point of inquiry is an effort to understand what is involved in the process of economic development as it influences Indian community vitality. Attempts to understand and convey the Indian point of view on development-efforts to improve conditions on reservations and surrounding communities. Uses comparative analysis to pinpoint factors contributing to or detracting from the success of such efforts. Tribal communities included are the Navajo, Lummi, Morongo, the Pine Ridge Community, Passamaquoddy, Cherokee and the Papago. Includes charts, figures, statistics and material from ethnographic interviews.

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Steinbeck, John. *The Grapes of Wrath.* NY: Viking Press, 1939. 619 p. This classic is powerful and graphic criticism of our capitalist economic system and of the social relations which arise because of its instrumental rationality and acquisitive consciousness. Tells the story of how mechanization, commoditization and industrial concentration in agriculture brought about the destruction of a way of life for midwestern tenant farmers and precipitated their migration to other parts of the country in efforts to deal with their social and economic disenfranchisement. In the course of this displacement and migration, they move from the status of small semi-subsistence farmers to marginal and migrant workers who are deeply exploited by the agricultural wage relation. Steinbeck is an impressionistic and metaphorical author, well known for his ability to create graphic passages which describe encounters between individuals and the social structure- images which are filled with irony on the one hand and a concomitant struggle against ultimate fatalism. He employs this technique throughout the work telling the story of the Joad family as they seek simple survival through the stages of displacement, migration and subjection to temporary and poorly paid fruit picker employment in California.

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Strange, Marty. *Family Farming: A New Economic Vision.* Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1988. 311 p. Written by the co-director of the Center for Rural Affairs located in western Nebraska-this is a current and carefully argued defense of the small scale family farm as an optimum agricultural form. Summarizes the causes of the farm crisis and leaves no party without critique. Presents an analysis of the trends and currents which produced the crisis including-concentration, government policy, misplaced values by the farmers themselves and their ecological abuse of the land. Suggests that the core of the crisis is financial and that it is grounded in the notion that bigger is better and that only the largest industrial farms are capable of efficient and profitable production for the market. Argues that a broad spectrum of small scale farms-owned and operated by independent proprietors is the most productive and efficient policy for the future. Believes that this new type of revitalized family farm would maximize benefit both to the proprietors and to the consumer market. Presents policy alternatives and an image of a positive future for family farming.

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Summers, Gene F., et al. *Industrial Invasion of Non-Metropolitan America: A Quarter Century of Experience.* NY: Praeger Publishers, 1976. 231 p. Assesses the impact of studies which have been carried out during the twenty eight year period from 1945-1973 on the social and fiscal effect of capital and industrial migration into rural and small town areas. Employs the term invasion to refer to the introduction of foreign or exogenous elements into a rural/small town social environment and attempts to evaluate potential dangers and desirable outcomes. Employs flow charts for public sector costs and benefits derived from new industry. Studies impact on local social relationships as capital in-migration precipitates social realignment, spatial redistribution and as local-national linkages are formed. Contains 186 study documents from 245 locations. Includes demographic data; income and employment analyses; fiscal impact assessment data and a full appendix of all case studies.

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Summers, Gene F., et al., eds. *Agriculture and Beyond: Rural Economic Development.* Madison, WI: Department of Agricultural Journalism, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1987. 127 p. Collection of papers and remarks presented at the Policy Options for Rural Development in a Restructured Global Economy: An International Symposium, held at Wye Plantation, November 9-12, 1987. Asserts that North American and Western European economies must be understood as part of a world community and as segments of a global economy. Further, it is posited that rural communities must generate non-farm patterns of economic development to include manufacturing, mining, tourism, retirement income, government employment and private services. Proposes a policy of resource adaptability and mobility. Resources must be viewed as capital of both human and material forms. Examines the role of the rural infrastructure and its place in policy formation. Defines infrastructure as composed of five broad elements: public physical capital, human capital, private capital, agglomeration infrastructure and research and development. Believes that each must be included in the conceptualization and practice of local and regional development. Calls for new policy and for a greater integration of federal, state and local government action.

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Summers, Gene F. and Kristi Branch. "Economic Development and Community Social Change." *Annual Review of Sociology* 10 (1984): 141-166. Points out that economic development in advanced industrial society generally occurs by patterns of uneven development which result from massive capital migration from one industry, region or nation to another. Such a process of capital migration results in the expansion of one region at the expense of another as capital is motivated to relocate in order to maximize profit. The process of expansion or depletion which occur through such a pattern of development carries with it certain social costs, challenges and periods of instability in the local social structure. Changes are manifest in employment patterns, income distribution, population, agriculture, local business and in variation in the cost and benefit to the public sector. Concludes that change and instability are momentary in nature and that equilibrium has a tendency to re-emerge. Calls for social science to increase its awareness of the consequence and nature of uneven patterns of development and to increase its knowledge base of local socio-economic change and its affect on structural inequalities.

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Swanson, Louis, ed. *Agriculture and Community Change in the U.S.: The Congressional Research Reports.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988. 355 p. The book emerges from original papers commissioned through a Congressional mandate to the Office of Technology Assessment. The intent was to analyze the underlying ideological, structural and political forces which impact American agriculture and then help to determine possible and preferable goals for the future. Covers five major regions of the country as units for analysis, comparing them on the level of changes in farming and the non-farm rural economy and for community well being. Quickly evaluates and then discards the uni-causal argument that farming and agricultural organization are the basic building blocks of rural community life. Asserts that the commercialization of agriculture and the accompanying proliferation of a highly differentiated non-farm economic infrastructure has led to a decreasing deterministic relationship between agricultural forms and rural community well-being. Suggests that there is an apparent split or dual economy in rural society. Agricultural corporations are isolated from family farms, traditional agriculture and its supportive non-farm enterprises are distinguished from the emerging service, manufacturing, government and retail enterprises which are migrating into rural communities. Extends and differentiates its theoretical and practical insights across the five major geographic sectors of the country: South West, South, Midwest, Plains and Northeast. Effectively demonstrates that these regions are substantively different from each other in their relations to agricultural forms and in the tendencies toward economic diversity. Abundant and detailed presentation of data, statistics, charts, tables and references.

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Taylor, Lee and Arthur R. Jones, Jr. *Rural Life and Urbanized Society.* NY: Oxford University Press, 1964. 493 p. The mission of the book is to present a new interpretation of rural life by placing it in context to the national social continuum and its political and economic system. Summarizes and labels this as urbanized social organization, suggesting that both rural and urban citizens live in relation to the same basic pattern of social action. Points out that while the entire population is subject to a common social pattern, that sub-groups do not all respond to it in similar fashion. Illustrates that there are urban, suburban and rural responses to the macro-continuum. Examines the effect of the macro-level socially, economically, politically and institutionally.

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Thompson, Paul B. and Bill Stout, eds. *Beyond the Large Farm: Ethics and Research Goals for Agriculture.* Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. 312 p. Evaluates U.S. agricultural policy past, present, and future. Gives attention to ethical and societal values, and evaluates both the concerns of production and those of consumption practices. Discusses a conceptualization of Agroethics and moral imperatives of rural development. Also focuses on a land ethic, a cultural ecologist conception of justice, and examines the relationship between the structure of agricultural production and the quality of the environment. Suggests goals for agricultural research that attempts to move beyond the large farm approach to agricultural production.

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Thompson, Wilbur R. "Internal and External Factors in the Development of Urban Economies." In *Issues in Urban Economics,* edited by H. Perloff and L. Wingo, 43-80. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968. Begins by outlining the export base concept and indicates that it is the dominant paradigm for explaining local and regional growth models. Contends that up until the time of this publication the emphasis had been placed on viewing growth as a function of export based organizations who import capital and thereby support the local retail and service infrastructure. Views the export sector as generative and the local service sector as derivative. However, since the end of world war two there has been growing interest in a possible interactive and parallel relation between the export base and an export multiplier concept. Thompson steps beyond both of these conceptualizations and introduces an emphasis on comparative costs. Rather than analyzing and modeling growth on the basis of currency flow as the key causal mechanism, he focuses attention on local and regional infrastructure and the process of human capital formation. Proceeds to analysis of regional income based on labor characteristics, stability of employment, supply and demand of labor and its impact on changes in population composition. Continues by examining the economic forms of diversification in the infrastructure and its properties of shock absorption when upward and downward shifts occur in specific market sectors. Uses large metropolitan areas such as greater New York City and Chicago to operationalize his concept and presents input-output models and illustrative statistics.

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Thoreau, Henry D. *Walden, or Life in the Woods.* NY: Dutton, 1949. 294 p. As a young graduate of Harvard College in the 1840's, Thoreau sought to take a period of about two years and live as close to the land and as simply as he possibly could. Seeking not only simplicity but the minimizing of his needs by desiring only what was truly essential for simple comfort, he constructed a crude cabin on the outskirts of Concord, Massachusetts by the shore of Walden Pond. Here he lived with as little responsibility and as little money as possible using his time to think and write. He had little respect for possessions and material things, holding the notion that most men were possessed by their belongings rather than the other way around. He wrote of what ever seemed to come to mind, producing literature which was at once autobiographical, philosophical and rich in description of the natural setting around him and the changing character of the physical world as it moved through the seasons. He employs the incidents of daily life, his likes and dislikes, his intellectual and physical activities as starting points for philosophic meditations on the meaning of life, the nature of the universe and man's place in it all. The book's place in the heritage of American literature is grounded in its originality, complexity and its preoccupation with individualism as a social and psychological virtue.

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Tiebout, Charles M. "Exports and Regional Economic Growth." *The Journal of Political Economy* 64, no. 22 (April 1956): 160-169. Critical of the theory of regional economic growth which stresses both export base and logical passage through successive stages in development and specifically challenges the work of Douglas C. North who maintained that regional growth was closely tied to the success of exports as an autonomous variable in regional income determination. Tiebout's purpose is to demonstrate that the export factor is only one of several factors in a larger theory of income distribution and is basically short run analysis. North offers a retort to Tiebout which contends that his export theory is a long run rather than short run in its perspective and that short period income distribution and long run economic growth are not the same thing. Tiebout's rejoinder to North accepts that his own assumptions are focusing on short run analysis, but that it is still unsound to suggest that a region must pass through law like stages in its process of development.

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Tolbert, Charles M. and Thomas A. Lyson. "Earnings Inequality in the Nonmetropolitan United States: 1967-1990." *Rural Sociology* 57, no. 4 (1992): 494-511. Contrasts income inequality in rural and urban areas with data from the Current Population Survey for the years 1968-1991. Finds that income inequality is greater in rural areas. Decomposition of the variance suggests that the pattern of income inequality in nonmetropolitan areas is distinct from metropolitan areas. Assesses the utility of neoclassical and restructuring theoretical frameworks. Suggests that an adequate explanation requires a mix of both theoretical systems. Calls for national policies that take account of metropolitan/nonmetropolitan differences in patterns of income inequality.

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Tonnies, Ferdinand. *Fundamental Concepts of Sociology.* NY: American Book Co., 1940. 293 p. This edition has been translated and supplemented by Charles P. Loomis and pays close attention to Tonnies central idea and theory of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft which depict two fundamental modes of consciousness and behavior, along with its divergent types of social form. Tonnies develops the two contrasting modes throughout the work and it is evident that the differences between the two correspond to the difference in social cohesion and ethos which many rural sociologists believe differentiate the metropolitan and the rural social worlds. Tonnies develops the idea that the two modes, while sharply polarized, do converge, co-exist and compete. He suggests that Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft can appear as a synthesis of rationalism and romanticism, idealism and materialism and as realism and nominalism. The social characteristics of community which are most clearly oriented toward Gemeinschaft are fellowship, traditionalism, ancestral bonding and substantive rationality. The characteristics of Gesellschaft are rooted in social cohesion which is maintained by association, society, worldly connection, contractual relationship, self interest and instrumental rationality. Tonnies' concepts are similar to those of Durkheim's organic and mechanical solidarity and to Weber's notions of substantive and instrumental rationality.

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Torrence, Susan Walker. *Grass Roots Government: The County in American Politics.* NY: Robert B. Luce, Inc., 1974. 243 p. Beyond the academic literature on local and regional government which usually caters to an audience comprised of students in Political Science, little has been published about the political form and function of county government in the United States. The mission of Grass Roots Government is to provide the reader with a fundamental historical background of the county level of regional government. Torrence contends that a vital and effective county branch is critically important for the productive and successful maintenance and development of traditional American federalism. Suggests that the county is the most effective level of interaction between regions and the federal level and that the county provides the catalyst for communication and coordination of local interests and common action of communities on behalf of shared regional interests. Specific attention is given to the history of county government; an analysis of its service functions; its importance in the regulatory sectors of government and its potential for the future.

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Turner, Frederick Jackson. *The Significance of the Frontier in American History.* NY: Ungar, 1963. 375 p. When Turner announced his hypothesis of the frontier in 1893, his work was little noted and not broadly acknowledged. It would not be until the late 1890's that his theory of the significance of the frontier in the development of American political and social life would begin to advanced-first by the community of academic historians and a positive embracing by the American public. The popularization of the thesis owed a large debt to the support it was given by Woodrew Wilson. At the turn of the century, the United States began to find itself on the cusp of a fundamental change in the national ethos. The frontier lands had largely been settled, at least to the extent of private land ownership, the connecting of the outlying regions to the eastern seaboard by transcontinental rail and by the emerging call of international relations. The Turner thesis offered an analysis which explained the distinctiveness of American democracy as a derivative of the pioneer spirit and that frontier settlement patterns, along with the differential resources of nature, had led to a nation divided by regional resources and bound loosely together by fundamental ideological beliefs about democracy and the role of a national government. The work provides careful support and abundant scholarship to support its argument. While it is the work of one of the most noted students of American History, it is cross-disciplinary in innovative ways that historians would emulate in the years which followed. Its attention to population migration, economics, social patterns and political development make it most like the work of political economists in sociology.

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Twain, Mark (Samuel L. Clemens). *Life on the Mississippi.* NY: Harper and Row, 1917. 526 p. An interesting, diverse and rambling collection of impressions which arose from Twain's reminiscences of life on the Mississippi River where he trained as a riverboat pilot and to where he returned many years later for a second look. Throughout his childhood, Twain dreamed of becoming a pilot and the opportunity arose when he met Mr. Bixby, the most famed pilot of the times to navigate the Mississippi river. Twain tells the story of learning, at first more and then less about the navigation of what is, beneath its romantic imagery, an extremely treacherous and very difficult river to travel. With the coming of the Civil War, steamboat navigation of the river came to a standstill and Twain found other paths to wander. However, many years later he returned and leisurely traveled the river, this time as a passenger and established writer. The balance of the book is comprised of the characteristic social commentary, criticism and tales of the peculiarity, irony and humor which make up the Twain literary legacy. He wrote of the difference the years had brought to both the river, the process of navigation and the social world of the people and communities which all rise and fall with the independent whims of the waterway.

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U.S. National Advisory Commission on Rural Poverty. *Rural Poverty in the United States.* Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968. 601 p. Collection of papers prepared for the National Advisory Commission on Rural Poverty. Intended to provide background information for the Commission in arriving at recommendations to the President in its report: The People Left Behind. The report os organized into five major sub-sections: Community, Occupations, Health, Agriculture and Natural Resources, and Poverty Studies. Rural community focuses on labor, the black population, the aged, village characteristics, community infrastructure and patterns of growth. The Occupations sub-section is concerned with patterns of mobility and migration including: the achievement process, farm labor, migration from agriculture, rural migration to urban environments and the relationship of the economy of the northern U.S. to the southern economy and markets with a special focus on the relation to poverty. Health focuses on a needs assessment for social services, child health, rural-urban differences, family planning and poverty. Agriculture and Natural Resources addresses growth and structural change, agricultural labor, migrants, economics in micro and macro perspective and the distribution of benefits within the rural agricultural economy. The sub-section on the economics of poverty is directed at assessment and projections, remedial recommendations and an understanding of the socio-economic production and maintenance of poverty conditions as it relates to the equilibrium of the status quo. Includes Charts, Tables, Statistics and Maps.

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Vidich, Arthur J. and Joseph Bensman. *Small Town in Mass Society: Class, Power and Religion in a Rural Community.* Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1958. 493 p. Small Town in Mass Society is one of the most widely regarded classics in the field of rural studies and one which is cross disciplinary to Cultural Anthropology, Community Studies and Social Psychology. The book was prepared as a case study of a small community in a rural fringe area of New York State and is accessible by interstate to New York City, Boston and Washington. It was selected for its characteristics as a rural small town with a traditional history of small town social relationships and only limited economic integration beyond the immediate region. The sense in which the book is a case study is in its intentional limit to an analysis of integration into mass society. The authors view the community as a limited and finite universe which can be analyzed for linkages to the national context of social issues. It focuses on the social and economic roots of rural class structure and assesses the impact of mass society on the stratification system. It conceptualizes the continuum between overt public life and the lived experience of private individuals in the community. Analyzes the mechanisms of integration and the internal organization of the community infrastructure. Attempts to uncover the foundations of social life in the community and the network of power relations which organize and rule its collective action. Metaphorically and symbolically the community becomes a stage on which the issues and themes of national and mass society are played out and are integrated or mediated by local social structures and patterns of communication. Contains an extensive discussion of the methodology of community research and data analysis.

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Vogt, Evon Z. *Modern Homesteaders: The Life of a Twentieth Century Frontier Community.* Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1955. 232 p. Published from research conducted under the direction of the Laboratory of Social Relations of Harvard University, t his volume documents a six year field study of the value systems of five distinct cultural groups in New Mexico and begins from 1949. In part, it is a comparative study of values in the five cultures which include the Navaho, Pueblo, Spanish-American, Mormon and the Texan Homesteaders. Researchers from multiple sub-disciplines in the social sciences took part in the project and shared the common task of developing the concepts, heuristic tools and field methods which were employed. The first section presents an in-depth discussion of this conceptual framework and draws heavily on ethnographic technique and upon cultural Anthropology. Continues with the selection of one cultural group-Texan Homesteaders for an in-depth case analysis. Particular emphasis was placed on studying the emergence and function of social values in the equilibrium of the community and for the role which they play in maintaining social cohesion in the face of various challenges. The field method included an initial immersion into the community through participant-observation, followed by the selection of a set of key informants for in-depth interviewing and finally textual analysis of public records.

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Wardell, John, M. "Rural Education and Small Schools." *Rural Sociology* 57, no. 1 (Spring 1992): 135-150. Reviews the literature that focuses on research on rural education. Characterizes the special requirements of public school students in rural areas and then focuses on special programs. Gives an emphasis to work with the at-risk student population. Indicates that these students are proportionately overrepresented in rural versus urban schools. Also reviews the literature focusing on the social context of education, definition and measurement of risk, institutional failure as integral in the generation of at-risk students, and a demographic and epidemiological view of this problem.

205
Weller, Jack E. *Yesterday's People: Life in Contemporary Appalachia.* Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 1965. 163 p. A sensitive and psychologically oriented analysis of the appalachian mind, placed in broad social context and written by a mountain minister whose ethnographic and hermeneutical skills are a natural talent. Examines the distinctive ways of life and the cultural forms of southern appalachian people. The enigmatic mountaineer is examined in regard to his reticence, stoicism, strengths, aspirations and value orientations toward the material, interpersonal and the broader concentric circles of the social continuum. Explains and illustrates how his world view sets the patterns of communication and establishes social proximity and intentional distance. Begins with examination of the homeland of southern appalachia, portraying its social characteristics of individualism, traditionalism, fatalism, action and person orientation. Proceeds to a social contextualization of the family and child-rearing practices; the experience of youth, young adulthood and marriage. Traces the life course of the adult through the working life and portrays the folkways which structure and govern the community, orientation to the outside world, care of elderly and the characteristics of the mountaineer's spiritual sense of self in relation to meaning, belief and faith. While this is a brief volume, the quality and depth of its analysis is in no way lacking substance.

206
Wells, Miriam J. "Ethnic Groups and Knowledge Systems in Agriculture." *Economic Development and Cultural Change* 39, no. 4 (July 1991): 739-771. Take a human ecology and sociosystemic perspective to analyze farmer decision-making about technological innovation and the application of agricultural knowledge to practice. The research presented in this article hypothesized that culture and ethnicity are important intervening variables than explain differences in knowledge utilization and adoption of innovations in agriculture. Compares the attitudes and behaviors of farmers of Anglo, Japanese, and Mexican descent. Interview data were gathered between 1976 and 1988 among strawberry growers in California. Presents a summary of findings focused on sociocultural constraints on farming decisions. Discusses the implications of this perspective for theories of agricultural development. Suggests that a deeper appreciation of cultural and ethnic variation is critical to future research in this area.

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Whiting, Larry R. *Rural Industrialization: Problems and Potentials.* Ames, IA: Iowa University Press, 1974. 153 p. A collection of papers presented at the symposium Problems and Potentials of Rural Industrialization held at Purdue University in 1972 and sponsored by the North Central Regional Center for Rural Development. It focuses on some of the pragmatic considerations which need to be taken into account when industry locates to or relocates within a rural community. Centers its attention on the logistics of integrating new industry into rural areas and on the positive effects such location offers. Its purpose is to organize, interpret and communicate existing knowledge on industrialization as a means of empowering communities to both attract and constructively integrate new industry into the social, economic and physical locale. Presents information on what characteristics of a community act as industrial attractants and provides advice on corporate leader/community leader communication. Major sub-topics include: location of industry, national policy, guidance of market forces to achieve benefit maximization, industry's view of rural areas, impact on the community and effects on labor demand and employment.

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Wikstrom, Nelson. *The Political World of a Small Town: A Mirror Image of American Politics.* Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993. 207 p. Advances the argument that by focusing on a small town as a case study, one can obtain a general image of the character of a large segment of American politics. This is an in-depth analysis of the political sociology of West Point, Virginia. It specifically examines the processes of bargaining, negotiation, compromise, and consensus, as they occur in a small town setting. Examines the processes of political and economic dominance by local elites. Demonstrates how the pluralist configuration of power functions. Illustrates the privileged position of the business sector in the political dimension. Concludes with a discussion of the functioning of polyarchy in West Point and how it provides a mirror image of political life in similar sized places throughout the United States.

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Wilkinson, Kenneth P. *The Community in Rural America.* Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991. 141 p. Calls for rural sociologists to begin to reformulate their image of the subject matter of rural community in the United States. Addresses fundamental questions: What is a community? How do they affect social welfare? How do they develop or decline? How do population characteristics affect community development? And, what is fundamental in promoting rural community development. Provides a detailed review of the literature and the rural community research program in the United States. Suggests that community should be conceptualized as an organizing theme for analysis of theoretical and applied issues. Concludes with a discussion of the implications of this research program for rural community development theory and policy.

210
Wilkinson, Kenneth P. "In Search of the Community in the Changing Countryside." *Rural Sociology* 51, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 1-17. Addresses the concept of community and locality as units for social analysis. Suggests that the conventional sociological concept of community has continuing significance in rural sociology. Rurality is viewed as an advantage for community development but that it can also contribute to problems of dependency. Conceptualizes an Applied Sociology which uses the technique and theory of Sociology to analyze and describe rural social life and employs its scientific capability for the purposes of development and improving the quality of life. Concludes that the Sociology of community has given little attention to the study of development and needs to turn its focus to scientific study which can test and refine models. Contends that Rural Sociology, with its substantive focus on social life in small localities should be a leader in efforts to understand the processes of development and improvement in the quality of life.

211
Williams, Raymond. *The Country and the City.* NY: Oxford University Press, 1973. 335 p. At once sociological, political, economic and comparative literature-this is a collection of intuitive, intellectual and artistic impressions of the nature and character of the countryside. The author, working from his home in the hinterlands of Wales and Scotland, writes about the cleavage and the connection of city and country. The images are developed from the stories of the English literary tradition, utilizing both prose and poetry. Sees the cleavage of country and city as an illustrious metaphor of the social world in capitalist society. Views the history of the division as the domination of rural culture by the urban industrial towns. Characterizes this division of city and country as a reflection of the division of human relationships brought about by the capitalist system of production and markets. Contains an extensive bibliography from the European literary tradition.

212
Willits, Fern K. and Robert C. Bealer. "An Evaluation of a Composite Definition of Rurality." *Rural Sociology* 32, no. 2 (June 1967): 165-177. Offers an image of rurality which includes multiple dimensions and substantive aspects. The concept includes ecological factors, the occupational dimension and accounts for the cultural context. Uses multiple correlation techniques to analyze behavioral phenomenon from a sample of Pennsylvania adolescents. The outcome of analysis suggests that the rurality components are weak, inconsistent and diffuse. Data analysis using a composite definition is seen as ineffective-confusing more than it accurately describes. Suggests that further data analysis, using a larger and more diverse sample across a wider and more discontinuous geographic area may produce more viable data in relation to the attempt to denote a concept of rurality.

213
Wilson, William Julius. *The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass and Public Policy.* Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987. 254 p. By the author of The Declining Significance of Race (1987), which sought to present a new analysis of racial change in the United States from a macro-theoretical perspective, this book calls attention specifically to the most disadvantaged of racial minorities-the urban underclass. Compares the conditions and circumstances of the urban underclass black to the black middle class. Considers the question of utilizing the term underclass and attempts to explain why the liberal perspective on this ghetto population has declined in influence in recent years. Describes the living conditions of this group and its daily exposure to violent crime, birth out of wedlock, welfare dependency and substance abuse. Suggests that the underclass can neither be explained or helped with a simplistic racial analysis and points out the need to include other critical factors such as changes in the urban economy, joblessness and the class transformation of the inner city. Proceeds to present analysis of regional and national data and uses the city of Chicago as an exemplar. Examines public policy and its failures and concludes with a presentation of policy alternatives.

214
Woodward, C. Vann. *Origins of the New South 1877-1913.* Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1951. 542 p. This is volume IX in the series: A History of the South. Others in the series have focused on the history of the south from the colonial era, to the rise of slavery, to development of southern sectionalism, the Confederacy, Reconstruction and into the modern era. This is a collection which was intended to be part of a conscious and comprehensive program to promote the research and writing of the history of the south-a project which had largely been overlooked outside of the Civil War and Reconstruction periods. The south is conceived of as the original eleven Confederate States, as well as Kentucky and Oklahoma. Both economically and socially the south has been set apart from the rest of the nation because of its peculiar economic institutions. While war and reconstruction had set aside some of these peculiar variations, it is suggested that others arose in their place. Focusing on the period after formal reconstruction, this history presents the segmented and forked paths of redevelopment. The modern era has accentuated the differences between the urban and industrial and the rural and agrarian power structures of the region. This history tells the story of the struggles and ultimate forms of mediation and conciliation which have been necessary to maintain a status quo and a socio-economic equilibrium in the south.

215
Youmans, E. Grant. "The Rural Aged." *The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 429 (January 1977): 81-90. Suggests that the rural aged are substantially less well off than their urban counter-parts. Compared to the metropolitan population, the rural aged experience restricted mobility because of the absence of public transportation, substantially lower income levels, more limited access to health care, report poorer health and have a more negative outlook on life. Infers that industrialization and development have a negative impact on the elderly. Contends that periodic research studies of the rural elderly in strategic locations of the nation are needed to provide guidance for programs and services.

216
Young, John A. and Jan M. Newton. *Capitalism and Human Obsolescence: Corporate Control vs. Individual Survival in Rural America.* Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1980. 253 p. Originated from a five state regional research project sponsored by the Western Rural Development Center at Oregon State University. The organization of the project was cross-disciplinary and included Agricultural Economists, Sociologists and Anthropologists from five land grant institutions in the western United States. The project began with a theory suggesting that decline in rural communities was contributing to poverty and unemployment in urban regions due to the migration patterns of displaced rural labor. Explores the decisions to migrate or to stay on in rural areas by individuals from five communities which were experiencing decline. Studied the responses of displaced labor and small producers in Oregoncommunities whose economy has been dependent on the wood products industry, miners in Bisbee, Arizona, pineapple workers in Molokai, Hawaii, small farmers in Colusa county, California and shopkeepers in Lincoln County, Washington. Considers three central questions: what is causing the community decline; 2. what are local people attempting to do about the decline, and 3. if they were not acting to counter the decline-why not? Suggests that community decline can be traced to the logic of capital accumulation in that capitalists seek to maximize the return on investment. The industrial capitalists will display a tendency to abandon a region and/or a market where the maturation of the labor force leads to a rise in the cost of employing labor-a process which causes a fall in the rate of profit and production of surplus value. Offers a theory of the necessity of human obsolescence in capitalist social formations which will always produce declining communities and the waning of industries and suggests that a critical re-evaluation of capitalism as the mode of production is the ultimate challenge.

ACCESSING RURAL STUDIES RESOURCES

Below is a partial list of current databases available in the field of rural studies. There are a number of ways to access databases available to the rural studies scholar. Typically, library reference departments offer online searching as a fee-based service. Some university libraries allow students and faculty access to a limited number of databases for free.

Many libraries maintain subscriptions to databases, or in another format such as print and/or CD-ROM. The CD-ROM format offers relatively inexpensive access to databases. CD-ROM's contain the contents of a database for a certain time period. The institution subscribes to receive the disk and scheduled updates. Typically, CD-ROM's are user-friendly and provide free access to the same data contained in online databases.

Contact your local academic or public reference librarian for information concerning the availability of online, print, or CD-ROM databases and services.

DATABASE SERVICES
DIALOG Information Retrieval Service
Dialog Information Services, Inc.
3460 Hillview Ave.
P.O. Box 10010
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0993
(800) 334-2564

DIALOG contains more than 450 databases on a variety of topics. The various databases contain millions of documents of all types, from newspapers to trade journals, and from science literature to newswire services. There are databases on agriculture; arts and humanities; business; government and politics; law; social sciences and more. Many databases accessed through DIALOG are available on CD-ROM from a number of vendors.

EPIC/FIRSTSEARCH
OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc. 6565 Frantz Rd.
Dublin, OH 43017-3395
(614) 764-6000

The EPIC service through OCLC offers access to OCLC's Online Union Catalog containing over 27 million records that include books, magazines, videocassettes, films, sound recordings, music scores computer software, maps, and manuscripts. ArticleFirst provides access to recently published information in journal literature from 11,000 journals, including 2 million articles and 300,000 tables of contents. FirstSearch Catalog is an online reference service designed specifically for library users. EPIC and FirstSearch offer access to many relevant databases.

INTERNET
The Internet provides access to hundreds, if not thousands, of information sources. As an emerging technology, the rules for Internet are still being written for access and usage. Most anyone with a computer and a modem can gain access to the Internet either through university affiliation or by purchasing access from a communications vendor (i.e., CompuServe, On-Line America, etc.). Access and the cost of searching the enormous number of information sources on the Internet depends on the type of account set up by the institution or vendor.

Some of the sources of information in the Internet include:

University and public library catalogs

Databases such as the ones listed
Full-text journals
Discussion groups
Legislation

DATABASES
ABI/INFORM
UMI Data Courier
620 S. Fifth St.
Louisville, KY 40202-2475
(800) 626-2823 (US/Canada)
(502) 583-4111 (KY)
(502) 589-5572 (Fax)

ABI/INFORM includes information on most aspects of business, including company histories, competitive intelligence, and product development, 1971 to present. The database contains bibliographic citations and 150-word summaries from professional publications, academic journals, and trade magazines published worldwide. Full-text articles are available for about 250 of the 800 journals. The file is updated weekly.

Academic Index
Information Access Company
362 Lakeside Dr.
Foster City, CA 94404
(800) 227-8431

ACADEMIC INDEX provides access to more than 400 scholarly and general interest publications, 1976 to present. The database includes information in the areas of the social sciences and the humanities. It indexes articles, news reports, editorials on major issues, product evaluations, biographies, short stories, poetry, and reviews. The file is updated monthly.

AGRICOLA
Reference Branch, Rm. 111
National Agricultural Library
Beltsville, MD 20705
(301) 504-5204

The AGRICOLA bibliographic database includes material from 1970 to present and is updated monthly. The database provides comprehensive coverage of worldwide journal literature and monographs on agriculture and related topics. AGRICOLA includes literature on rural issues. The file is updated monthly,

America: History and Life
Judith Bernstein
Online Services Coordinator
ABC-CLIO
P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, CA 93116-1911
(800) 422-2546
(805) 968-1991 x166
(805) 685-9685 (Fax)

AMERICA: HISTORY AND LIFE is a comprehensive file that includes abstracting and indexing of U.S. and Canadian history, area studies, and current affairs literature, 1954 to present. The database includes coverage of history, interdisciplinary studies of historical interest, and history-related topics in the social sciences and humanities. Emphasis is placed on the following fields: American studies, cultural history, economic history, ethnic studies, family history, folklore, history of ideas, prehistory, historiography and methodology, Indian-White relations, International relations, libraries and archives, local history, military history, oral history, politics and government, popular culture, religious history, science, technology, and medicine, teaching of history, urban affairs, and women's studies. The file is updated quarterly.

Arts & Humanities Search
ISI Technical Help Desk
Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) 3501 Market St.
Philadelphia, PA 19104
(800) 336-4474
(215) 386-0100 x1591
(215) 386-6362 (Fax)

ARTS & HUMANITIES SEARCH is an international, multidisciplinary database. The database covers 1,300 of the world's leading arts and humanities journals as well as relevant social and natural science journals, 1980 to present. The file is updated weekly.

Dissertation Abstracts Online
University Microfilms International
Candace C. Wise
Manager, Online Support
Dissertation Publishing
300 North Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
(800) 521-0600 (except MI)
(313) 973-9821, x708 (within MI)

DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS ONLINE is a subject, title, and author guide to all American dissertation accepted at accredited institutions since 1861. Selected Masters theses have been included since 1962. Since 1988, UMI has been adding indexing for dissertations from 50 British universities, collected by and filmed at The British Document Supply Centre. The File is updated monthly.

ERIC
U.S. Department of Education
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Washington, D.C. 20208

ERIC Research and Processing Facility
1301 Piccard Dr., Suite 300
Rockville, MD 20850-4305
(301) 258-5500

The ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) database, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, is a bibliographic database that contains education-related documents and journal articles, 1966 to present. Information in ERIC corresponds to two printed abstract/index journals: *Resources in Education* (RIE) and *Current Index to Journals in Education* (CIJE). Most documents announced in RIE are reproduced in paper copy and/or microfiche. The file is updated monthly.

GPO Publications Reference File
Superintendent of Documents
United States Government Printing Office Records Branch, STOP: SSMR
Washington, DC 20401
(202) 275-3301

The GPO (Government Printing Office) PUBLICATIONS REFERENCE FILE provides access to public documents that are currently for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, as well as forthcoming and recently out-of-print publications, 1971 to present.
All publications are produced by the legislative and executive branches of the U.S. Federal Government. The file is updated biweekly.

Historical Abstracts
Judith Burstein
Electronic services Coordinator
ABC-CLIO
P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara CA 93116-1911
(800) 422-2546 x118
(805) 968-1911 x118
(805) 685-9685 (Fax)

HISTORICAL ABSTRACTS provides access to periodical literature in history and the related social sciences and humanities published 1954 to present. The database includes the history of the world from 1450 to the present, excluding the U.S. and Canada, which are covered by AMERICA: HISTORY AND LIFE. Topics include: area studies, bibliography, cultural history, diplomatic history, economic history, historiography and methodology, history of science, technology, and medicine, intellectual history, international relations, libraries and archives, military history, philosophy of history, political history, social history, social sciences with historical perspectives, and teaching of history. The file is updated on an irregular schedule six times per year.

Magazine Index
Information Access Company
Online Services
362 Lakeside Dr.
Foster City, CA 94404
(800) 227-8431 (U.S.)
(415) 378-5000

MAGAZINE INDEX provides access to general-interest magazines, 1959 to present. This database was created especially for general reference and interest. The database includes coverage for more than 435 popular magazines and providing coverage of current affairs, the performing arts, business, sports, recreation and travel, consumer product evaluations, science and technology, leisure-time activities, and other areas. In addition to indexing, MAGAZINE INDEX contains full-text articles from more than 100 magazines form 1983 to the present, the file is updated weekly.

NEWSEARCH
Information Access Co.
Online customer Service
362 Lakeside Dr.
Foster City, CA 94404
(800) 321-6388
(415)358-4643
(415) 358-4759 (Fax)

NEWSEARCH provides daily access to more than 2,000 new stories on a wide range of topics such as: the arts and entertainment, business and economics, telecommunications, education, finance, health and more. The services reviews over 1,700 newspapers and magazines, including over 100 local and regional publications, and the complete *PR Newswire.* The file is updated daily.

PAIS International
Lawrence J. Woods
Public Affairs Information Service, Inc. 521 West 43rd St.
New York, NY 10036-4396
(800) 288-PAIS (800-288-7247)
(212) 643-2848 (Fax)

PAIS INTERNATIONAL provides access to documents of the Public Affairs information Services, covering a broad scope of the social sciences, with emphasis on contemporary public issues and the making and evaluating of public policy, 1972 to present. PAIS indexes publications in English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and spanish. the file is updated monthly.

Social SciSearch
ISI Technical Help Desk
Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) 3501 Market St.
Philadelphia, PA 19104
(800) 336-4474
(215) 386-0100 x1519
(215)386-6362 (Fax)

The SOCIAL SCISEARCH database is an international, multidisciplinary index to the literature of the social, behavioral, and related sciences, 1972 to present. The database permits searching by cited references. The file is updated weekly.

Sociological Abstracts
Miriam Chall
Sociological Abstracts, Inc.
P.O. Box 22206
San Diego, CA 92122
(800) 752-3945
(619) 695-8803
(619) 695-0416 (Fax)

SOCIOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS includes coverage of the literature in sociology and related disciplines in the social and behavioral sciences, 1963 to present. Over 1,600 journals and other serial publications are scanned each year to provide coverage of original research, reviews, discussions, monographic publications, panel discussions, and case studies. Conference papers and dissertations are also included in the file. The file is updated five times per year.

SUBJECT INDEX

Note: This is an alphabetical index of key words and phrases. It is designed to guide the reader to items in the text which directly address the subject matter. All numbers refer to the entry number (not to pages).

Agri-business: 6, 26, 33, 45, 49, 53, 58, 65, 74, 85, 94, 124, 162.

Agriculture-cultural aspects: 6, 22, 85, 94, 104, 130, 136, 139, 154.

Agriculture-department of: 65, 74, 104.

Agriculture-economic aspects: 7, 8, 57, 61, 74, 94, 105, 107, 111, 130.

Agriculture-historical aspects: 7, 10, 11, 25, 26, 33, 57, 58, 94, 104, 131, 107, 136, 139, 160.

Agriculture-mechanization: 26, 49, 57, 61, 74, 94, 124, 130, 140.

Agriculture-policy implications: 25, 65, 85, 94, 96, 140.

Alaska: 109.

Anthropological perspective: 22, 34, 43, 44, 54, 61, 67, 88, 153, 154.

Appalachia: 21, 41, 154.

Black experience: 88, 105, 119, 127, 160.

Black history: 69, 105.

Biography: 69, 146, 151.

Biotechnology: 94.

Capital flow: 76, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 106, 107, 115, 140, 145, 147.

Coal mining-social aspects: 21, 41, 155.

Communications: 118.

Community studies: 27, 32, 34, 38, 41, 44, 54, 61, 81, 110, 122, 128, 153, 154, 155, 157, 162.

Conflict: 55, 110, 122.

Convergence: 4, 8, 73, 95, 101, 112, 117, 133, 144.

County government: 149.

Democracy: 32, 108.

Demography: 51, 28, 97, 100, 106, 107, 112.

Dependency-economic aspects: 79, 137, 143, 147.

Disaster: 41.

Eco-centrism: 18.

Economic conditions: 2, 79, 89, 94, 96, 97, 98, 110, 115, 140, 143, 147.

Economic decline: 86, 110, 120, 143, 155, 163.

Economic development: 40, 64, 71, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 86, 101, 106, 107, 140, 141, 142, 145, 156, 157.

Economic model: 84, 145, 147.

Education: 52, 132.

Elderly: 30, 119, 161.

Elites: 1, 55, 61, 81, 110, 122.

Employment: 76, 101.

Environment: 81, 109, 151.

Ethics: 104, 146.

Ethnicity: 27, 34, 56, 67, 88, 93, 109, 154.

Ethnography: 43, 44.

Family farm: 6, 10, 20, 45, 111, 121, 126, 139.

Family relations: 30, 44, 45, 111, 121, 126, 130.

Farm crisis: 6, 111, 139.

Farm labor: 43, 53, 61, 85, 111, 121, 126, 130, 139, 163.

Farm policy: 25, 61, 111.

Farm workers: 43, 53, 111, 121, 126.

Farmer-small: 106, 111, 121, 124, 129, 154.

Fiction: 20, 42, 72, 92, 138, 151.

Flood: 41.

Frontier: 28, 32, 131, 150, 154.

Geography: 4, 5, 11, 87, 93, 100.

Gerontology: 30, 119, 162.

Great plains: 27.

Growth models: 50, 89, 110, 120, 143, 145, 147.

Health care: 23, 29, 30, 31, 90, 91, 113, 119, 125, 162.

History: 7, 57, 58, 150.

Household-economic aspects: 43, 67, 97, 126.

Human capital: 129, 140, 145.

Income: 2, 16, 35, 96, 97, 98, 101, 105, 106, 107, 127, 129, 147.

Income distribution: 9, 47, 63, 86, 96, 97, 105, 106, 107, 127, 129, 151.

Industrialization: 9, 35, 40, 45, 68, 71, 77, 101, 108, 140, 141, 142, 147, 56, 162.

Labor market: 48, 63, 78, 83, 85, 88, 97, 100, 101, 106, 130, 145, 156, 163.

Labor-policy aspects: 85, 106, 145, 152.

Land grants: 74.

Land reform: 59.

Land tenure: 14, 61, 129.

Land use: 18, 24, 59, 83.

Local government: 116, 135, 149.

Local economy: 76, 110.

Materialist perspective: 49, 63, 94, 105, 111.

Marketing: 4, 5, 84.

Markets: 11, 12, 64, 82, 84, 89, 106, 107.

Mental health: 91, 113, 161.

Midwest: 10, 27, 51, 57, 58.

Migration: 13, 47, 48, 73, 75, 85, 87, 100, 101, 112, 115.

Mississippi River: 151.

Native American: 37, 46, 79, 80, 109, 123, 127, 134, 137.

Natural resources: 77, 130.

Nature: 42, 72, 146, 151.

Philosophy: 104, 146, 148.

Policy action: 1.

Policy analysis: 60, 89, 115.

Political action: 1.

Political movements: 19, 62, 95, 108, 111.

Political structure: 15, 19, 55, 95, 99, 108, 110, 111, 116, 122, 135, 149.

Politics-rural: 15, 95, 149.

Population: 51, 68, 71, 73, 75, 86, 87, 100, 101, 112, 115.

Population turnaround: 13, 73, 87, 100, 101, 112.

Populism: 19, 62, 99, 108.

Poverty: 1, 9, 16, 35, 36, 44, 47, 63, 96, 98, 105, 115, 127, 129, 152, 155, 159.

Power structure: 1, 32, 81, 108, 122, 135, 153.

Prairie: 10.

Psychology: 23, 91.

Race relations: 34, 38, 88, 98, 105, 127, 160.

Railroad: 57, 58.

Regional analysis: 3, 11, 13, 39, 48, 50, 56, 68, 71, 75, 76, 83, 84, 85, 89, 99, 110, 112, 114, 87, 120, 133, 140, 141, 143, 145, 163.

Regional development: 50, 59, 77, 84, 85, 89, 114, 140, 141, 142, 143, 163.

Regional economy: 3, 4, 5, 16, 39, 40, 48, 64, 78, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 99, 110, 114, 120, 142, 143, 163,

Regions-socio-economic aspects: 85, 87, 89, 99, 119, 142.

Regions-trade aspects: 12, 21, 84, 85, 89, 99, 114, 142, 163.

Religion: 14, 70.

Retail: 4, 5.

Rural development: 36, 39, 40, 50, 60, 114, 120, 129, 140, 142, 143, 156, 157.

Rural-historical aspects: 66, 103, 157, 159.

Rural-urban difference: 30, 51, 66, 68, 71, 73, 95, 101, 112, 115, 117, 133, 143, 144, 153, 158, 159.

Rurality: 17, 23, 27, 60, 66, 71, 91, 93, 95, 102, 103, 104, 117, 143, 144, 148, 156, 158, 159.

Rurality-social aspects: 73, 91, 95, 103, 104, 143, 144, 153, 157, 158, 159.

Small towns: 51, 68, 86, 102, 103, 133, 158.

Social class: 34, 38, 47, 49, 97, 105, 111, 122, 132, 138, 153, 159.

Social cohesion: 27, 102, 103, 117, 153, 155, 157.

Social groups: 85, 99, 103, 122, 153.

Socialism: 99.

Sociology-rural concepts: 17, 117, 130, 148, 157, 158, 159.

South: 2, 105, 106, 160.

Spatial analysis: 31.

Spatial distribution: 5.

Steamboats: 151.

Technological developments: 68, 74, 84, 118, 124.

Telecommunications: 118.

Tenant farmer: 34, 121, 138.

Tragedy: 41.

Transportation: 57, 58, 75.

Unemployment: 63, 115.

United Farm Workers: 53, 85.

Urbanization: 8.

Washington, Booker T.: 69.

Women: 43, 45, 67, 88, 126, 130.

Women farmers: 43, 45, 67, 88, 126.

Youth: 72, 92, 130.