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PART ONE METHODS AND TERMS Chapter one TI. Protectionism .............................................................. 7 M1. Selection of scholars ....................................... ........... 9 T2. Anymals, Nonhuman Animals, Other-Than-Human Animals ...................................................... ...................... 10 M2. Applied philosophy .......................................... .......... 12 T3. Moral standing ............................................................ 16 T4. Morally relevant distinctions .................................... . 18 T5. Inherent value/intrinsic worth ....................................... 22 M3. Lifeboat scenarios ...................................................... 24 M4. Idealism .................................................. .................... 27 M5. Consistency and logical extremes ................................. 32 T6. Intuition .................................................. .................... 37 T 7. Speciesism ......................................................................... . 38 M6. Impartiality ................................................................ 40 M7. Casuistry ................................................... ................. 47 T8. Living entity ................................................. ............... 49 T9. Western morality/ethics .................................... ........ 50 M8. Interdisciplinary ............................................................... . 52 Final Note .................................................... ...................... 56 PART TWO PHILOSOPHICAL PROTECTIONIST THEORIES -.Chapter two Tom Regan: The Rights View .................................. ..... 59 A. Regan's Rights View 1. Equal inherent value ...................................... .......... 60 2. Welfare ........................................................................... . 61 3. Moral standing ............................................ ............ 64 4. Respect Principle .......................................... ........... 65 5. Harm Principle ........................................... ............ 66 6. Overriding rights ............................................. ........... 66 Summary ................................................. ..................... 68 B. Discussion .................................................. .................... 68 1. Methods ................................................. ................... 68 2. Central concepts .......................................... ........... 70 3. Undesirable consequences ...................................... ..... 94 Conclusion ............................................................................ 101 Chapter three Peter Singer: Utilitarian Protectionism .................................. 103 A. Singer's Utilitarian Theory ................................................ 103 1. Utilitarianism ............................................... ............. 103 2. Sentience ..................................................................... 105 3. Mental capacity .............................................................. 109 4. Death and killing .......................................................... 110 Summary .............................................................................. 112 B. Discussion .............................................. ........................ 112 1. Common concerns ........................................................ 112 2. Problems associated with utilitarianism ........................ 113 3. Sentience .......................................................................... 128 4. Mental capacity ............................................ ........... 130 5. Reason without virtues .................................................. 142 6. Speciesism ........................................................................ 143 Conclusion ............................................................................ 144 Chapter four Paul Taylor: Bio-Protectionism .............................................. 145 A. Protectionism and Environmental Ethics: An Uneasy Alliance ........ ................................................. 145 B. Taylor's Foundation :........... ::: ............................. .I... . 150 1. Individual versus species ................................................ 150 2. Natural and nonnatural ................................................ 150 3. Moral standing .............................................................. 151 4. Moral agents and moral patients ................................ 154 5. Rights ................................................................................ 155 6. Philosophical principles and standards ........................ 158 C. Taylor's Respect for Nature ............................................. 158 1. Belief system- Biocentric Outlook ................................ 159 2. Attitude- Respect for Nature ...................................... 161 3. Four rules and moral triage .......................................... 162 4. Five principles ................................................................ 165 Summary .............................................................................. 169 D. Discussion .............................................................................. 170 1. Controversial assumptions ............................................ 170 2. Theoretical considerations ............................................ 177 3. Humanocentrism ............................................................ 190 Conclusion ............................................................................ 210 PART THREE PROTECTIONIST THEOLOGY Chapter five Andrew Linzey: Christian Protectionism ................................ 213 A. Theology ................................................................................ 214 B. Christianity and Protectionism Across Time .................... 217 C. Linzey's Protectionist Theology ........................................ 228 1. Creation ............................................................................ 229 2. Covenant .......................................................................... 235 3. Challenges ........................................................................ 236 4. Life of Jesus ...................................................................... 243 5. Linzey's Generosity Paradigm ...................................... 245 Summary .............................................................................. 250 D. Discussion ....................................................................... 251 1. General issues ................................................................ 251 2. Interpretation of scripture ......................................... 55 3. Theoretical considerations ......................................... 70 Conclusion ..':: .................................. .................. .... ..... 281 Chapter six Consistency across Religious Traditions ................................ 283 1. Indigenous traditions ...................................... .......... 288 2. Vedic/Hindu tradition .................................................. 302 3. Buddhism ....................................................... ............... 321 4. Daoism and Other Chinese Religions .......................... 333 5. Islam ....................................................... ................... 47 Summary ................................................ ...................... 359 PART FOUR CONSISTENCY AND IMPARTIALITY IN APPLIED PROTECTIONIST PHILOSOPHY Chapter seven Six Medical Cases: The Value of Innocent Human Life ...... 363 1. Six medical cases ....................................... ............. 365 2. Comparative value of human life ................................ 374 3. Western ethics and the value of human life in practice ................................................. ..................... 385 Chapter eight Minimize Harm Maxim .......................................................... 391 1. Premise One: All Living Entities Have Moral Standing ...................................................................... 391 2. Premise Two: Death and Harm Are Part of Life .......... 407 3. Premise Three: Hierarchies of Moral Standing Are Indefensible ...................................................................... 408 Maxim: Minimize Harm ........................................................ 418 1. Subpoint One: Minimize Interference .............................. 419 2. Subpoint Two: We May Use Other Life-forms Only with Consent .............................................................. 435 3. Subpoint Three: Intentions Matter .................................... 437 4. Subpoint Four. Self-Defense Is Morally Permissible ........ 440 5. Extending Ethics Regarding Protection of Human Life: A Parallel Theory .................................................... 443 Summary ............................................................................. 445 Chapter nine Application: Contemporary Moral Dilemmas .......................... 447 A. Ongoing protectionist issues ............................................ .... 447 1. Zoos and circuses ............................................................ 447 2. Clothing ............................................................................ 455 3 . Diet ...................................................... .. ........................ 4 ,58 4 . Science .............................................................................. 468 5. Anymal companions ............................................. .......... . 474 B, Hypothetical scenarios ........................................................ . . 4 77 1. Organs versus organisms/Species versus individuals .... 477 2. A drift on a lifeboat ..... .......................................... ........... 479 Conclusion ............................................................................ 489 Chapter ten Review and Future Directions ........................................................ 491 A . Overview ......... ....................................................................... 49 1 1. A conspicuous problem .................................................. 491 2. A cooperative enterprise ........... ................................... . 493 3. The Minimize Harm Maxim .......................................... 494 B. Philosophical standards and the Minimize Harm Maxim 495 1. Ethical theories ................................................ .. ................... . 495 2. Examining the Minimize Harm Maxim ........................ 497 3. Comparison ...................................................................... 497 C. Reexamining Predominant Western Ethics ........................ 499 1. Reconsidering the value of human life .......................... 500 2. Continuing the trend-moving ethics outward ............ 502 3. Human limitations ............................................................ 5013 4. An ongoing endeavor ........................................................ 504 Bibliography .......... ............................... ... .................................... 509 Index .... ...................................... ........................................ 5 3 1