PETITIONED PUBLIC HEALTH ASSESSMENT
GSX LANDFILL
PINEWOOD, SUMTER COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA
The GSX Landfill(1), is adjacent to Lake Marion, near the town of Rimini, in Sumter County, South Carolina. An opaline claystone mine and a solid waste landfill were operated at the site in the 1970s. Since then, a series of owners has operated a commercial hazardous waste management landfill at the site. The landfill is now owned and operated by Laidlaw Environmental Services of South Carolina, Inc. (Laidlaw). The South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulate the landfill under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), the Hazardous Waste Management Act, and other applicable state laws. SCDHEC issued a five-year RCRA operating permit for the landfill, which became effective in March 1994.
In the past, area residents expressed a variety of concerns about the GSX Landfill. Residents are concerned that wastes disposed of at the site might cause illness in their community and contaminate air, groundwater, surface water, or fish. Concerns have also been expressed that waste transportation activities could result in human exposure to site-related contaminants. Because of those concerns, an environmental awareness group called the Citizens Asking for a Safe Environment (CASE) petitioned the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to conduct a health assessment of the site.
Environmental studies identified heavy metals and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in on-site groundwater and on-site surface water and detected particulates (dusts) and VOCs in on-site air. Periodic groundwater and surface water monitoring have not indicated the release of any contamination resulting from the landfill's activities; no data are currently available for off-site air. Sampling data reviewed by EPA and SCDHEC indicates that all groundwater and surface water contamination on-site is attributable to previous owners' past mining and waste burning operations activities at the site.
ATSDR did not identify completed human exposure pathways for the GSX Landfill; however, potential human exposure pathways exist. On-site workers could be exposed to contaminants in on-site air, although the use of personal protective equipment mitigates this exposure pathway. Area residents are unlikely to be exposed to site-related contaminants in their drinking water because: 1) groundwater contamination presently exists only on-site, 2) groundwater under the site appears to flow in a west/southwest direction toward Lake Marion and away from residences to the east, north, and south, and 3) no downgradient drinking water wells exist between the landfill and Lake Marion. Contaminants in on-site groundwater, surface water, or leachate could possibly migrate off site to Lake Marion. Lack of data prevents ATSDR from determining whether exposure occurred as a result of releases from trucks and rail cars carrying wastes to the landfill.
Whether area residents have been or are being exposed to airborne contamination has not been established because off-site air data are lacking. No monitoring data are available to determine the concentration of contaminants that may have been released into the air by an on-site kiln that was used until 1990 for drying clay mined from the site. The kiln was dismantled and removed in 1991. The landfill's 1994 operating permit requires the operator to institute an air monitoring program for any emissions from landfill operations. In 1994, Laidlaw prepared an Ambient Air Monitoring Plan that is currently (summer 1997) under review by SCDHEC. In September 1997, SCDHEC requested that ATSDR review the Ambient Air Monitoring Sampling Plan. ATSDR agreed to review the sampling plan and provide comments to SCDHEC.
Health outcome data available to ATSDR do not indicate that operations at the site have resulted in adverse health effects in residents living near the landfill. Stress associated with living near the GSX landfill is the primary health effect reported by residents.
Using available information, ATSDR concludes that the GSX site is an indeterminate public health hazard. There is no evidence that persons have been exposed to hazardous substances at concentrations likely to cause adverse health effects. However, ATSDR has identified data gaps that limit ATSDR's ability to fully evaluate the site. The agency recommends the collection of off-site air samples and the continued treatment and monitoring of contaminated groundwater. Surface water discharges to Lake Marion and to groundwater downgradient from the waste cells should continue to be monitored. The landfill's operating permits currently require quarterly sampling of downgradient monitoring wells and on-site streams; these sampling data are submitted to EPA and the SCDHEC for review. In addition, laws regulating transportation of hazardous wastes and the speeds of trucks hauling wastes should be strictly enforced.
ATSDR's Health Activities Recommendation Panel (HARP) reviewed the GSX site to determine whether any follow-up health activities are necessary. ATSDR will evaluate air sampling data when it becomes available and will update this Petitioned Public Health Assessment (PPHA) as appropriate. After exposure information becomes available, ATSDR will consider the appropriateness of a health study and conducting an environmental health education program to advise public health professionals and the local medical community of the nature and possible consequences of exposure to contaminants at the GSX site.
ATSDR released the GSX Landfill PPHA for public review and comment for a 30-day period beginning July 19, 1993, and ending August 17, 1993.The purpose of the public comment period was to give the public and/or interested parties an opportunity to voice additional concerns about the site or to make comments pertaining to the GSX Landfill PPHA. ATSDR received comments during this period and has incorporated the comments into Appendix E.
A. Site Description and History
The GSX landfill(2) is located approximately 40 miles southeast of Columbia, in Sumter County, South Carolina. The site is adjacent to the eastern shore of Lake Marion and lies in a rural agricultural area approximately 1.5 miles northwest of the town of Rimini. The site's location is shown in Figure 1 of Appendix A. GSX Chemical Services, Inc. (GSX) operated a commercial hazardous waste landfill at the site from 1984 until 1989. Since 1989, Laidlaw Environmental Services (Laidlaw) has operated the facility. Laidlaw currently employs 76 on-site workers. Wastes are transported to the site by rail and truck from a variety of hazardous and nonhazardous waste generators in the eastern United States.
The 280-acre site consists of a two-lane gravel, access road leading west from Route 51 to a gate, with a series of administrative and process buildings just west of the entrance gate. A rotary kiln, used to dry opaline claystone until 1990, sat on a small bluff southwest of the entrance gate until the kiln was removed in 1991. A large, open, active hazardous waste disposal cell (Section III) is northwest of the buildings. Hazardous waste is pretreated in a waste treatment area before landfilling. Laidlaw installed a large enclosure over the waste treatment area in the summer of 1997 to limit the dust generated during pretreatment. A fingerprint laboratory in the waste treatment area is used to ensure that incoming waste matches the physical properties described by the generator. A larger laboratory located near the administrative buildings is used when a more in-depth chemical analysis of received waste is needed; this laboratory is certified by the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) to perform several metals analyses. Two grass-covered, closed sections of the landfill (Section I and Section II) are located southwest and west of the open cell. West of Sections I and II lies the site property boundary, a buffer zone wetland owned by the Santee-Cooper Water Resources Authority, and then Lake Marion. Two sedimentation ponds are on the western portion of the site. East of Route 51 lies a dirt road with a bar gate that leads to a bulk-waste-transfer rail station where waste is loaded and unloaded. The transfer point consists of a small concrete pad beneath an open-sided shed with a corrugated metal roof. Figure 2 in Appendix A shows important features, on the GSX site.
Land at the site was used for agriculture until the mid 1970s, when an opaline claystone mining operation began on site (1). The claystone was used to produce sanitary absorbent "kitty litter." In 1977, the mining operator applied for a SCDHEC industrial waste disposal permit. After a permit was granted in 1977, wastes were deposited into unlined pits.
The landfill was purchased by SCA Services, Inc. (SCA), in 1978 (1). SCA upgraded the disposal pits by placing a compacted clay layer (several feet thick) on the bottom of the pits and installing a synthetic liner over the clay liner. SCA also installed a leachate collection system and groundwater monitoring wells. SCA applied for and was granted interim status under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1980. Wastes previously deposited in unlined pits were excavated and placed in lined cells by 1979.
GSX purchased the landfill from SCA in 1984, and expanded the operation to include new double-lined cells with leachate collection and detection systems, as required under the 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) to RCRA (2). The landfill's design exceeded regulatory standards, with an additional 5 feet of clay liner. A series of regulatory actions culminated in a draft RCRA operating permit in September 1988. Since 1984, several environmental sampling studies and public health evaluations have been conducted in response to citizens' concerns about the impact of the landfill on the surrounding community. Laidlaw purchased the landfill from GSX in 1989. Following a lengthy appeal process initiated by Laidlaw and various citizens groups, SCDHEC issued an operating permit, effective in March 1994. As of the summer of 1997, an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) operating permit is pending.
Residents living near the landfill expressed concerns that the facility could adversely affect their health. The Citizens Asking for a Safe Environment (CASE), an organized group of concerned residents, petitioned the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to conduct a public health assessment of the site.
A detailed history of the site is included in Appendix B.
ATSDR representative, Dr. Virginia Lee, met with the SCDHEC and the University of South Carolina (USC) Department of Environmental Health on March 5, 1990, to discuss the GSX Landfill. SCDHEC's information on the health aspects of the site were reviewed, including copies of relevant newspaper articles, environmental sampling, and health reports. The USC Department of Environmental Health provided information on fish kills in Lake Marion (3).
On March 27, 1990, ATSDR regional representative, Chuck Pietrosewicz, met with representatives from SCDHEC and GSX Chemical Services, Inc. During this meeting, GSX agreed to provide ATSDR with all environmental monitoring data and the results of ongoing medical monitoring of site workers (4).
On April 4, 1990, Dr. Lee traveled to Charleston, South Carolina, to obtain medical information on the community near the GSX landfill. Meetings were held with physicians at the Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC) and with a private physician. During these meetings, toxicologic and physical examinations of selected community members were discussed with Dr. Lee (5).
Dr. Lee, Mr. Pietrosewicz, Joe Hughart, and Chris Schmidt conducted visits to the landfill and the surrounding community on May 17 and 18, 1990. ATSDR representatives met with concerned residents to discuss community health issues related to the landfill. ATSDR toured the community closest to the landfill, the town of Rimini, and observed demographic conditions of the residents. Cotton and corn crops were evident adjacent to the GSX Landfill. Residents stated that pesticides are applied to crops by helicopters and by tractor-mounted tanks. En route to the facility, ATSDR representatives observed a large volume of truck traffic on state and county highways. Most trucks were transporting waste to the GSX landfill. Many trucks appeared to be traveling above the posted 55 mph speed limit (6). ATSDR asked to see areas or operations related to community concerns. The french drain surrounding the landfill cells consisted of gravel and pipe wrapped in filter fabric, with cast concrete sumps. At the rail transfer station, across the highway from the landfill, ATSDR observed cracks and holes in the rail cars. Entrance to the transfer station was marked by a bar gate and a "No Trespassing" sign. Chemical odors of unknown origin were noted during the tour, especially near the drum shredding area (6).
On March 28, 1991, Dr. Lee met with physicians from the Sumter-Claredon-Lee Medical Society and held a public availability session in the home of a Rimini resident. The purpose of the both meetings was to gather health concerns related to the GSX Landfill. Primary health concerns expressed by the physicians were: 1) the need for health evaluations of persons living around the landfill to determine whether they had been exposed to emissions from the facility, and 2) lack of proper evaluation for environmental media around the site had not been properly evaluated.
ATSDR representatives, Robert Safay and Maureen Kolasa, conducted a site visit on January 21, 1992. During this visit, ATSDR discussed site-related issues with SCDHEC. ATSDR staff also toured the site and the surrounding community. One church and approximately 18 homes and small farms were noted within 1 mile of the site entrance. The nearest residence was approximately ¼ mile southeast of the site. Cotton and food crops bordered the GSX Landfill to the east, southeast, and northeast. A locked gate and a guard were present at the site entrance, and a chain-link fence with no apparent breaks in integrity surrounded the site. ATSDR staff noted that the laboratory and rotary kiln were not present on site. Laidlaw staff stated that the rotary kiln was not used after 1990 and was removed from the site in 1991. The laboratory was dismantled in 1992 to make room for the expanding landfill and has since been replaced with two new on-site laboratory facilities.
In August 1997, ATSDR representative Carl Blair conducted a site visit to the landfill. During this visit, ATSDR staff noted that Laidlaw enclosed the bulk treatment facility with a metal structure that is designed to eliminate particulate emissions to the atmosphere. The facility unloads wastes inside of the building. During the unloading and treatment process, any particulates that may be generated are collected by a ventilation system and directed into a baghouse. The baghouse filters particulates and the exhaust is vented through a stack and ultimately discharged. The baghouse has a reported control efficiency of 99.9%. The SCDHEC Bureau of Air Quality reviewed design specifications for this operation and approved its use under Permit # 2140-0017-CI.
In addition to these site visits, ATSDR also discussed the site with representatives of the EPA Region IV office in Atlanta, Georgia.
C. Demographics, Land Use, and Natural Resource Use
Demographics
The population of Sumter County increased from 57,634 in 1950 to 95,000 in 1986 (8). Population density also increased from 87 to 143 persons per square mile. Nonwhite residents represent about 47% of the population. The elderly constitute about 8.3% of the county population, and children less than 5 years of age make up another 8.7%. The median age in Sumter County has been in the mid 20s (22.2 years, as of 1970) since the 1950s.
Nearby residents live in two block groups: Block Group 2 of Census Tract 18.01 in Sumter county and Block Group 1 of Census Tract 9608 in Clarendon county. The population for those two census block groups was 2,107 in 1990. The Sumter county area was much less densely populated than was the Clarendon county area. About 20% of the population in both block groups was under age 10 years. About 10% in the Sumter county block group and 15% in the Clarendon county block group were over age 65. The block group in Clarendon county had a high minority population (90%). The Clarendon county block group had a much lower median value of owner-occupied households. See data tables 1 and 2 for a complete breakdown of population and housing in those areas.
Many residents of the village of Rimini appeared to be of low socioeconomic status. Age, sex, racial group membership, and socioeconomic status are important public health factors because some diseases are more prevalent in certain demographic groups, and some groups may be more sensitive to exposure to environmental contaminants.
TABLE 1. Population data for GSX site, Sumter and Clarendon Counties, South Carolina, 1990
| Sumter County CT 18.01, BG 2 |
Clarendon County CT 9608, BG 1 |
| Total persons Total area, square miles |
1,103 82.22 |
1,067 32.05 |
| Persons per square mile |
13 | 33 |
| % Male % Female |
48.7 51.3 |
47.8 52.2 |
| % White |
57.9 | 9.8 |
| % Black |
41.6 | 89.9 |
| % American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut |
0.1 | 0.0 |
| % Asian or Pacific Islander |
0.4 | 0.3 |
| % Other races |
0.0 | 0.0 |
| % Hispanic origin |
0.3 | 0.1 |
| % Under age 10 |
19.8 | 17.8 |
| % Age 65 and older |
9.7 | 14.6 |
| Source: 1990 Census of Population and Housing, Summary Tape File 1 (South Carolina). Prepared by Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC, 1991 | ||
Table 2. Housing data for GSX site, Sumter and Clarendon counties,
South Carolina, 1990
| Sumter County CT 18.01, BG 2 |
Clarendon County CT 9608, BG 1 |
| Households* |
384 | 342 |
| Persons per household |
2.87 | 3.12 |
| % Households owner-occupied |
72.4 | 73.7 |
| % Households renter-occupied |
27.6 | 26.3 |
| % Households mobile homes |
35.4 | 29.2 |
| Median value, owner-occupied households, $ |
57,600 | 31,800 |
| Median rent paid, renter-occupied households, $/month |
125 | 99 |
| * A household is an occupied housing unit, but does not include group quarters such as military barracks, prisons, and college dormitories.
Source: 1990 Census of Population and Housing, Summary Tape File 1 (South Carolina). Prepared by Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC, 1991. |
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Land Use
The GSX Landfill is in a rural agricultural and recreational area. Lake Marion lies ¼ mile to the west of the site, with a wetland area between the site and the lake (9). Manchester State Forest is 1½ miles north of the landfill. On the eastern and southern site boundaries lie small to medium-size farms. The nearest residence is ¼ mile southeast of the site (10).
Farms near the site produce cotton and food crops (e.g., corn, oats, soybeans, wheat) and a few head of livestock. Row crops adjacent to the GSX Landfill and to residences in Rimini are probably treated with agricultural pesticides and commercial fertilizer. Because these crops are near residences in Rimini, residents could potentially be exposed to these chemicals through airborne application and migration, and through surface water runoff to fish in surface water bodies such as Lake Marion, to soils in gardens and play areas, and to groundwater and residential water wells. In addition, aquatic weed control and mosquito control programs using herbicides and pesticides have been carried out in the Lake Marion area.
Natural Resource Use
Natural resource use near the GSX site includes pumping groundwater for potable water and for irrigation; fishing, boating, and swimming in Lake Marion; use of soils for agricultural purposes; and timber harvesting in nearby forests (1,2).
Residents living around the GSX site use groundwater from private wells for their drinking water supply. In the area of the GSX Landfill, groundwater exists within three major aquifers: the Middendorf/Tuscaloosa, Black Creek, and Sawdust Landing/Black Mingo aquifers. The Middendorf/Tuscaloosa aquifer lies approximately 600 feet below the surface at the GSX Landfill and is the deepest groundwater zone underlying the site. Groundwater in this zone is found in sand and clay (11). The Middendorf/Tuscaloosa is a large groundwater zone that extends over much of South Carolina. It is used as a municipal water supply, and for irrigation and industry (10).
The Black Creek aquifer lies above the Middendorf/Tuscaloosa and consists of clays, shales, and sands. The top of the Black Creek aquifer is approximately 80-140 feet below the surface at the GSX site (11). The groundwater in this formation is confined under most of the GSX Landfill by overlying clays. However, along the western property border, these confining clays are absent and the Black Creek formation is in direct contact with Lake Marion (10). Time-of-travel studies commissioned by Laidlaw and reviewed by regulators have shown that contaminants from the landfill would take decades to migrate to Lake Marion (128b). Groundwater in the Black Creek formation is used for irrigation and industry in the area (10). The Black Creek aquifer may also be used as a drinking water source (7).
The Black Mingo formation lies above the Black Creek. The primary water-bearing zone in the Black Mingo formation is called the Sawdust Landing aquifer. The top of the Sawdust Landing aquifer lies 20-120 feet below the natural surface at the GSX site and it averages about 30 feet in thickness (11). Although private wells in this aquifer are probably not used for drinking, they may be used for agricultural purposes (9,10).
Sediments on the surface of the GSX site are partially saturated with groundwater under natural conditions. These sediments consist of sands, silts, and clays that vary in thickness with the topography. When on-site excavations occur in these sediments, groundwater contained in the sediments is collected by a french drain system and diverted around the landfill areas to the sedimentation ponds. No uses have been reported for this shallow groundwater (11).
Groundwater flow across the site is generally to the west/southwest, toward Lake Marion (10-12).
One drinking water well, installed within the past four years, is present on site. However, the facility uses all on-site wells to supply non-potable water for dust control and other industrial purposes (9). The facility supplies workers with bottled water. Since March 1994, SCDHEC has routinely collected and analyzed water samples from the well. Water analysis determined organic contaminants present in the well are at levels several orders of magnitude lower than maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) or ATSDR comparison values (136).
Surface water from Lake Marion used primarily for hydroelectric power generation. The lake is also used for fishing, waterfowl hunting, swimming, and recreational boating. No drinking water intake sources from Lake Marion are within 3 miles of the site (10).
No streams within 1000 feet of the facility except for man-made streams found on site. As the landfill units are constructed, water in the shallow surface soils is diverted around the landfill to two siltation ponds that ultimately discharge to Lake Marion (10). Surface water runoff is also directed into these ponds (9).
Using local and state health databases, it may be possible to determine whether certain health effects are more likely in the area around the GSX landfill than would be expected. This section identifies the relevant, available databases, which are evaluated and discussed in the Public Health Implications section of this document.
Information on occupational illness was obtained through a report on exposure information provided by the facility (10).
Ten children and five adults who complained of various illnesses (hair loss, rashes, and open sores) and who lived in Rimini were examined by the MUSC in September 1986 (13-18). Results of these examinations are discussed in detail in the Public Health Implications section of this public health assessment.
Residents from the area were examined again by a private physician in Charleston in October 1986. Blood samples were collected from 11 children and 7 adults in Rimini at the time of the exams. These samples were analyzed at a private laboratory retained by a group of concerned residents. Results are discussed in detail in the Public Health Implications section of this report.
Interviews were conducted with two physicians who had examined area residents (19). Those interviews provided information on the health implications of the site.
The EPA Toxic Chemical Release Inventory developed under the Community Right to Know Act indicates that no other sources of hazardous substance releases were within 1 mile of the site.
Individual residents, organized citizen groups, and the local medical society have expressed several community health concerns that they believe are related to the GSX landfill. The Sumter-Clarendon-Lee Medical Society has been very active in presenting the concerns of the local medical community about the landfill. Beginning in 1987, the Sumter-Clarendon-Lee Medical Society has sponsored several resolutions calling for the closure of the facility that were unanimously passed by the South Carolina Medical Association (SCMA). Although public interest in these landfill-related health concerns has historically been high, it has decreased since the state issued the landfill operating permit in 1994.
Community health concerns related to the GSX Landfill may be grouped into three broad categories: environmental monitoring, waste disposal operations, and health effects in the surrounding communities (20).
Residents have expressed the following concerns regarding environmental monitoring.
1. Air emissions from deposits of waste dusts into cells are not routinely monitored at potential emission points, the site perimeter, or off-site potential human exposure points. Past air emissions from burning waste oil, used to fuel the rotary kiln, also were not monitored. Residents are concerned that burning waste oil at low temperatures did not thermally destroy organic compounds and that these compounds were released into the atmosphere. Representatives of the medical society expressed concern regarding the lack of adequate air monitoring around the facility.
2. Residents were concerned that groundwater contamination detected on site may migrate to off-site water wells or to Lake Marion. They also expressed concern that monitoring conducted by SCDHEC did not include all potential hazardous substances that could have been present in the residential water wells. The medical society is concerned that the hydrogeology of the site has not been fully characterized, and that present monitoring may therefore not be adequate.
3. Residents were also concerned that migration of contaminants into Lake Marion via contaminated air, surface water, and groundwater may result in contamination of fish and subsequent human exposure to contaminants.
Some residents have expressed concern that waste disposal operations have resulted in human exposure to contaminants.
1. Residents have stated that trucks transporting wastes to the GSX Landfill travel at excessive speeds on state and county highways, presenting a physical hazard to other motorists. They also stated that the volume of waste-transporter truck traffic on roads leading to the landfill is excessive. They expressed concern that some truckloads of waste leaked, or were burning, or were spilled en route to the landfill.
2. Residents were concerned that rail cars transporting waste to the landfill may have leaked, resulting in releases of hazardous substances to the environment.
3. Residents were also concerned about odors and dust migrating from the landfill to residential areas.
C. Concerns Regarding the Relationship of the Landfill to Community Health
Residents expressed concern that the following health issues may be related to the GSX landfill.
1. Residents believed that, because of the lack of environmental monitoring in the past (particularly from 1978 to 1985), the community may have sustained adverse health effects. The community is also worried that current environmental monitoring systems at the site are not capable of detecting site contaminants.
2. Residents also questioned whether volatile organic compounds (VOCs) detected in blood samples collected from residents in Rimini may be related to releases of VOCs into groundwater on the site, or may be related to releases of organic compounds into the atmosphere from disposal operations at the cells or from burning waste oil at the rotary kiln.
3. Residents were concerned that open sores, skin rashes, hair loss, and nausea experienced by Rimini residents may have resulted from exposure to contaminants migrating from the GSX site.
4. Residents expressed concern that one case of fever in an 18-month old female infant may have resulted from eating contaminated fish caught in Lake Marion. The fish reportedly had open sores that were cut out before being cooked.
5. The medical community was concerned that the effects of long-term, low-level exposures to most of these compounds are not known; therefore, physicians may not be aware of the types of monitoring or testing to conduct to detect exposure.
Because of these concerns, residents requested that ATSDR proceed directly to a health study of the community, which would include obtaining tissue and blood samples from potentially exposed residents (20).
ATSDR released the GSX Landfill Petitioned Public Health Assessment (PPHA) for public review and comment for a 30-day period beginning July 19, 1993 and ending August 17, 1993. Copies of the PPHA were available to the community/interested parties at the Sumter County Library (111 North Harvin Road, Sumter) and the Harvin Clarendon County Library (215 North Brooks Street, Manning). In addition, news releases were sent to local weekly and daily newspapers and to radio stations in Columbia, Orangeburg, and Santee. The purpose of the public comment period was to give the public and interested parties an opportunity to voice additional concerns about the site or to comment on the GSX Landfill PPHA. ATSDR has incorporated into Appendix E the comments received during this period.
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