196 MONTHLY WEATHER R;EVIEW. MAY, 1906
-1 Date.
(1) 1 1SYi.
0.08 1 YPh. 4... . ....... Fch. 7 ... .
,_ _. ._, F r l ~ B ._.. ....... Fell. 1 1 .... 0.18 Feb. 15 _.__ 0.04 1 E'eh. 18 ...
0.06 1 pein. 22 .... ....... I Jlnr. 72.. . 0.07 1 ; h'ov.2; ,"...
SNOWFALLS, FRESHETS, AND THE WINTER FLOW OF STREAMS IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK.
~
Depth.
0 Iiichrs.
S.267
10.236
11.811 9.646
7.874
I;. 968
3.150
0.197
0.512
TABLE I .- Water contmt of mow, Potadam, Pruaaia, redwed to Engliclh
unib by Robert E. Horton.'
~~
(1) 1n56.
.Tan. 1 .. .. Jau. 3 ... Jsu. 5 ... .Tau. 7 . ... .Tau. s .... Jsu. 9 .... Jan. 10. __. Jan. 11. .. Jan. 12 .... .Ian. 13 .... Jan. l f i . _. .
J;1n. 17.. ..
.I:Lli. 1s. ...
.Tail. 2 0 .. ..
.Tall. 2.. ..
.Tau. 2:;. ... .Ian. 26 .... .IBU. 27 .... .Inn. 2 9 .. .. .Inn. 30. ... Feh. 15' ... Fch. 16.. ..
.IS....
I. 19.. ..
b . 28. ... Mar. 9 2 .. . Mar. 1 3 2 .. .
Nor. 30.. .. Dec. 16 .... Dec. 2 6 .. .. 1397. Jnu. I O ' .. ,
Jau. 11 .... Jan. 12 ..... .Tau. 15 .... Jsu. 16.. . .lsu. 17 .... .Tan. 22 .... .Tau. 23 .... JRII. 2 4 .. ..
.Tau. 2'5. ... 3au. 26. ... .Tau. 27. .. Jan. 25 ....
F~A. 1;. ...
NUV. as ?. ..
By ROBERT E. HORTON, Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey. Dated Utica, N. Y., Arm1 18. 1905.
I n a region having a somewhat rigorous climate, as does
New Pork, the conditions controlling stream flow in winter
are greatly differeot from those pertaining to the summer
months.
For summer periods, a knowledge of the depth ancl distri-
bution of precipitation and of the temperature, wind, and
relative humidity, the latter factors controlling evaporation
losses, are sufficient to enable the run-off of streams during
different years to be rationally compared and the main causes
of their diderences traced. Such data have been provided in
the records of the U. S. Weather Bureau.
I n order to reasonably analyze and compare the records of
a stream for the winter periods of different years, milch acldi-
tional data are required which are not a matter of general
record; for example-
(1) Dates between which the soil is frozen.
(2) Dates between which soil is snow covered.
(3) Successive depths of snow accumulations.
(4) Dates and general extent to which water surfaces within
the watershed are frozen.
(5) A record of the depth and fluctuation of the level of tlie
ground water horizon is also desirable in studying
both winter and summer records.
Few systematic records of soil temperatures are kept in the
winter. The date when frost permanently enters and leaves
the ground can, however, be closely inferred from the air
temperature records.
The water equivalent of loose freshly fallen snow is usually
between one-seventh and one-twelfth. The difference in water
equivalent between loose freshly fallen snow and compact
accumulated snow should not be overlooked. The water
equivalent of the layer of snow lying on the ground late in
winter is very much greater than that of fresh fluffy snow;
a fact which may be of some importance in predicting floods,
although data on this point are surprisingly rare.
In the accompanying Table 1 the results of a valuable series
of Prussian experiments are given. These are of practical in-
terest from the fact that an attempt mas macle to separate tlie
freshly fallen snow from the preceding nccumulation. The
average water equivalent, for the total snow cover was found
to be 15.26 per cent, and for the freshly fallen portion, 8.48
per cent. The snow cover came ancl went at frequent inter-
vals, and in many instances the entire layer was freshly fallen.
The total depth was usually but a few inches. The results
probably represent with precision the water equivalent of a
thin snow cover under the conditions described.
In Table 2 are given the results of experiments made in
the New England States, chiefly in the years 1903 and 1904.
I n general, the mater-snow ratios for diEerent localities agree
closely for the same dates.
The winter of 1903-4 was one of unusual and continued
cold in New Pork and New England. The snowfall was very
heavy and there was little rain ancl very few thawing clays
from December 1 to March 35.
I n Table 3 are shown the results of a series of experiments
made by the writer n t Utica, N. Y., in the winter seasons of
1903-4 and 1904-5.
A level sodded plot in a city park was selected over which
the snow was found by trial to lie quite uniformly. Large
deciduous trees surround but do not overshadow the plot,
near the center of which, and a t successive points, a tin tube
about three inches in diameter was thrust vertically downward
and a cylinder of snow obtained, whose equivalent water
depth was accurately determined by weight. A sample was
taken each Monday to correspond with the weekly snow re-
(2) Inrhr.s.
3. 54
3.07
0.87
0. 71
1 .1 1
1.57 2. 76
2. I6
1.5i ?.It? 2. 79
6.14
5. 12
2. 05
1. 77 2.36
3.15
2.28
3. 1Y
3.03 3.07
2.13
1.<w 0.67
0.24
0. 79
0.08
0.47 1.1s 1.50
0.315 0.315
n. 197 0.827 1.456 n.9'54
1.574 3. 740
fi. 300
6.S50
7.087
9.645
a. n i
0. ?n
n .o m
Date.
~
Depth.
n. os .......
ls9:l.
.Tau. 2 2 .. . 0.63
I
0.07 I
...... ./ 0.12
....... o. 0:j 0.12
.......
0 .3 1 ,
__
IVaie. ratio
(3)
n. 21
__
0. 17
0. :J5
0. :34
0. 27
0. 20
......
......
...... ..... 0. lii
0. 21 0. :34
0. '6
0. 24
0.27
0.24
0.07 0.10
0. I 1
0.16
I). 30
0. I ?
0. 31 0. IO
0. 10
0.07
0.0s 0.08
0. 16
0. 20
0. 12
0.08
U. 07
0.09
0. 12
0. 14
0. 15
......
.....
......
n. 03
......
......
......
...... ......
......
......
JRU. 3 2 .. . 3.3s
Fell. 2 2 ,. . 0.197 Feh. 3 _. . 1 .M
Feh. 6 ... . 0.58
nia1.. w.. . 0.59
hrar. 232.. . 0.197
hfsr. 279.. . 0. 114
Ilec. I]?.. . 0. 866
cover.
Fresh snow cover.
0. os ....... ....... 0.08
0.03
NOS
0.07 0. 1 I
0.07
......
Depth
(4 )
Inche~
0. 75
~
..... ...... ...... 0. I 6
0.43
0. \3
0 79
1.29
8. 11
.....
.....
1900.
Jau. 1 .... 2.16 Jan. 1 2 2 .. . 0.67
Jau. 15 .... 0.71
Jnu. 14. ... 1.83
.Tau. XI c .. 9.50
Feh. 9 ... . 3.74
E'eb. 12 .... 7.64
Frli. 15 ... S. 47
E'vIJ. 19.. . 6.30
.......
Fel,. 1. _. . E'el,. 3 ....
...... 0. 39
1.5;
0 16
3.07
0. os
......
......
......
...... ...... 0. 28 0. 59
0.20
0. 16
I. 1s 0.59
0.315
n. OB
...... ...... 0.70s 0.551
0.0236
1. 42
3. 15 3.03 1.30 1.30
2.36
1.61
0.906
I . 22
......
...... 4.780 4.s5s
1!100.
hr;trvh 17 ..... March 31.. .... 1 wx.
6,.is. .Jj Averagc. .......
I w h r s .
38 20
~
Watei
ratio.
(3)
~
0. IS
0. IS
0. ?2
0.25
0.30
I). x?
0. 10
0. 10
0.06 0. IO
.....
......
n. 11
I). 0.q
0.20
0. 13
0 16
0.2?
0. 13
0. a9
0. os 0.05
0. 15
(1. 0ti
0. u9
0. 14
0. I4
0.03
0.04
n. 13
.....
0.19:
0.03
(I. 04:
I). I l i
0.Ofi-1
0. 181
0. 15:
0.1%
0. ?S(
0. 18:
0.06;
0. 15:
...... ......
~
1 Ergebuissr der hleteorul~lgische Beobachiungeu, Eoluigl. Prros!
2Old mow cover melted aod uew one fnrtued siure prwtdiny record.
t i l t , 1W-1900. Berlin.
Freah snow cover.
Depth.
(4) Inches.
2.76 3.86
~
.......
......
...... ...... 0.197
O.bI2
0. 787 1.417 0.236
0.9s4
1. 50 0.79
1.30
0.39
0. 63
3.35
0.197
1.50 0.236
0.59 0.197
I). Sfi6
0.906
0.590
0.906
n. 11s
......
......
U. 67
0. I 6
0. 65
n. 32
...... 0. 28
n. 20
0. 20
(1. 12
0.32
0. I%
......
......
Wnter ratiu.
(5) __
..... 0. 11
0. 14
..... ...... ...... ..... 0.10
0.10
0. 10
0. 11
0.09
0. 13
0. 16
0.22 ,
0. 13
0. os
0. 05
......
n. 06
......
...... ......
0. n i n. 15
0. 06
0.05
0. 17
0.06
...... ......
...... 0.03
0.125
0.091
0.075
0. 105
......
.....
...... ...... 0. in0
0. 19
0. 0067
0.084s
~lrteorologische Iusti-
TAIiLE 2.- Wufer eqftivdent of 8110r. Renuh qf observctlions un&r the
Com- dirwtton of N. C. Brorer, made in ,Veto England during 1903-4.
pilei1 by H. K. BW'rOlG8, December, 190.j.
hlarrlt I . ..... 19
March 1Y ...... 10
hfareh -. ..... 10
1904. January 29.. .. 16.75
Feliruary 2 . ... 20 Fel,ru:iry 3 .. .. 24
Fahroary 4 ... 20
b o .. ...... 16.5
r)o ........ 28
Frliruarv 7 .. .. 27
FelJruary 5.. .. 24
Feliriiary 6 .. .. 22
. Feliruary 1 I ... 20
Fel~niary 2 6 .. . 32 Fehruary 29.. . 18
Felmiiary 9..
March i ....... hfarch 8 ....... 24
1)O. ....... 18
March 10 ...... 18
h ~a r c l i l l ...... 12
110 ........ 14
Tin ........ 16.5
April 21 ..................
411ril IS.. ..... 10
April 20 ....... 9
Inehcs.
10.49 9.84
6. 12 4.60 8.00
2.35 6.20 5. 12
4.16
3. 25
6.54
6. 70
5. 20
5. 92
4.83 4.33
2.00 6. 20
5. 30 5.59
1. "0 1. 32
1.41
3. 54 6.8s
7. on
4. na
4. an
Rat;',,
rater delrtli
3iuw dqm1
~~
0.276 0 492
0.322 0.460
0. 800
0.149
0.221
0.213
0. 20s
0.197 0.292 0. "33
0.305
CJ. 260
0.296
0.240 0. 1091 0.25s
0.294
0.327 0.100
0.094
0.430
n. 149
n. is1
n. os7
n. 394
..........
watrr. 1
I 3.62 Rllruhr~l Falls, hIe. 2. U3
~
l h ~.
6. 71
4.53
4.69
4. 61
5. 113
3. $2
4. "9
3.2s 6.71 3.85 5.38
6. cj?
4. I7 10.99
3. 88
3. 40
3 06
10. 111)
10.64 11.4!1 2. 82
a. 54
..........
MAY, 1906. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 197
December 31 ........... 1904. January 2 ............. January 5 ............. January 11 ............ January I9 .......... January 25.. .......... February 1 ........ February S... ..... February 15 ........... February 22.. ........ February 23 ......... hlarch 2. ............. hhmh 7 ...............
Narch 14 ............. March 21 ............. March 25 ............. 1904.
November 29. ......... Uecem1~t.r 5 .. ..........
December 19.. ....... December 27.. ......... 1W5.
........ March 11 .I
January 16 ............ January 23. ........... Jaouary 30 ..........
February 23 ........... March 6 ... ...........
TABLE 3.- Water equivalent 03 accumulated mmu on ground at Utica, N. 1’.
Observed bg Robert E. Horton.
13.0
19.0 13.0
19.0
21.0
21.5
18 22
Depth of Date.
.................. 2.39
.................. 3.56
................. 3. 65
.................. 5.28
.................. 4.92
.................. 6. 165
.................. 6. J?
.................. I 3.52
Dry, light.. ..... 0. 625
... .do ........... 1.635
.. .do ........... I . 131
Dry, ice Irottoni. 0. 2s
1)ry.. .......... ... .du ........... Dry, settled.. ... ... ,110 ..........
~~
Inches.
2.0
T. 18
12.6
10. 9
12.0
11.9
1904. December 1 .. ................................... December5 ...................................... December 12 ..................................... December 19.. ................................... December 26.. ................................... im
~__~
............. ............ ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
Inrhr,s. li,ehrx
3.5 0.24
3.75 (1.35
6.0 0. 70 9.0 1.14
4.5 0.81
Iiiches.
................ ...............
3.5 8.5
7.0
8.5
10.0
17. 0
20.0
22.0
22. 5
24
21.5
14.5
8. 5
2.260
2.77
... 2. 64
... 2.39
n. e7 1.98
1.88
2. 38
2. 61
5.06
5. 97
6.25
7.30
6.66
6.03
4. 88
3.37
..... 0.35
1.0 .. ........... 0.125 2.75 ... ........... 0. 25
4.5 ... .do ........... ..............
5.0
G. 75
J
2. 25
6
10
19.25
14.5
12
10.25
1.131
2.359 3. 2 i 2
3.27’2
3.1%
2.893
Ratio
water depth
mow depth. -~
............ ............ ............ 0.1xo
0. “54
0. 220
0.202
0.184
I ). IS6
0. ?i 4
0.192
0.251
0. ?“I
0.3*2
u. 292
0.333
0.275
0.287
0.413
0.301
0.260
0. -10s
0.300
0. 09
0. I25
0.09 0.125
0.25‘:
0. 126
0.212
0.2x3
0. I 1
I ). IS3
0.23s
0. 171
0. 326
0. 265
0. 252
Inches
now er inck‘ water.
......... ......... ........ 5. 57
3.91
4. 55
4.96
5. 44
5.39
3. 65
5. 211
3.99
4.37
2. 9”
3. J2
5. 64
3. 4s
2. 42
3. 82 2. 79
2. 45
3.33
11.11
11.11
3. on
R. 000
3.wo 3.368
7.936
4.19:!
3. s33
9. 0Y
5. ::I9
4. 201
5. R-17
4. .124
3. i i 3
9.546
I I I ~___.-
TABLE 4.- Water equtvnlent of nccnmzlloted moio nt Hizncocli, N. I-. D. B. V m Etten, Obaemer.
im.
January 2.. .....................................
...............
In vh PR.
0. 12
1.85
2.93
3. 49
2. 4.5
2. 40
I . 30
1.35
Date.
5.952
8. e20
6.134
S. 064
4.081
3.745
3. R46
2.959
0. 168
0.116
0.124
0. 24.5
0.267
0.260
0.338
n. I*;(
TABLE 5.- Wafer equimknt of ccccumulnted anow, nt Cfraefcnberg Iraervnir,
near Utira, N. I-. R. 0. Saliwbury, Observer.
Date.
......................... .. Jaouary 9. ...................................... January 16. ............ ................... Jauuary 23.. ............ ................... January 30.. ...................
February 1 3 .. ............................... February 20. .............. ............
February 6 ......................................
hlarch 27.. ......................................
I O.Ofi!l 14.49
u. w3 10.75
0. 11; s.547
8.130
ports of the U. S. UTeather Bureau, ancl the actual depth of
snow was also measured.
These measurements show nearly a continuous increase in
the water equivalent of a foot of accumulated snow as the
mamn advanced, and in general, an increase in depth of the
snow layer was accompanied by an increase in the water
equivalent per unit depth.
The heavy snow accumulation lying on the ground in
March, 1904, was found to consist of strata of snow of vary-
ing compactness, nearly always with a half inch or more of
nearly solid ice a t the bottom, which should not be omitted
in measuring. Measurements taken immediately preceding
and again following a moderate rain, showed that the total
rainfall had been added to the snow. The depth of the layer
settled considerably as a result of the rain, so that the
measurement taken just afterward showed the maximum snow-
water ratio.
Similar records obtained at two other stations in New York
during the winter 1904-5, are given in Tables 4 and 5.
All records indicate that for the heavy and persistent snow
accumulations occurring in New Pork and New England a
progressive growth in the water equivalent per inch of snow
on ground will usually take place as the season advances due
to compacting by wind, rain ancl partial melting, and to the
weight of the superincumbent mass on the lower layers.
The water equivalent of compacted snow nccumulation is
commonly between 4 and 3 or at least double that for freshly
fallen snow. It is believed that the mater-snow ratios de-
termined in one locality mill app19 approximately to any other
locality where the temperature, depth of snow cover, and
length of time i t has lain on the ground are about the same.
The depth of snow on the ground at the end of each week,
for about twenty-five stations in New Tork, is given on the
snow and ice charts of the U. S. Weather Bureau.
Utilizing the water-snow ratios for Utica, a map has been
prepared showing by isohydral lines the depth of water stored
on the ground December 31, 1903, throughout the State of
New York, representing precipitation during the calendar
Tear 1908, but which became available to feed the streams dur-
ing IHM. See fig. 8.
A very large percentage of accumulated snow subsequently
appears as run-off in the stream, and i t will be seen at once
that in this locality the difference in water held on the ground
as accumulated snow n t the 1Jeginning and ending of any
year, may be several inches; nn important disturbing element
in any attempt to correlate precipitation and flow of streains
by calendar years.
The estimated average cleptli of water stored on the ground
surface in New Tork in the form of siiow, December 81, 1903,
was 2.15 inches. On December 31,19U4, a large portion of the
State was bare, while there were from one to eight inches of
loose, dry RUOW elsewhere. It appears that about two inches
of precipitation was thus added to the availalile supply for
streams during 1904. As this water nearly all appears as
run-off, i t would cause nn increase of one and one-half or two
inches, or five to ten per cent in the run-oE for the calendar
year 1904 in excess of the amount resulting from the contem-
poraneous precipitation.
The agreement between the weekly precipitation measured
as melted snow and the increment of accuiuulatecl snow is not
very close. This may be for the reason that an ordinary rain
gage does not properly register snowfall, or because the accu-
mulated snow was of necessity measured in n protected place,
whereas rain gages are usually exposed in the open. At
Graefenberg reservoir, for example, the accumulated snow is
measured in an opening in a small grove, while the precipita-
tion is measured in an adjoining open field fully exposed to
the wind, where the ground is nearly always bare. I n Janu-
ary, 1905, the snow accumulated in the grove increased 1.74
inches. The total precipitation was 1.76 inches. I n Febru-
ary, 1905, the snow storage increased 4.69 inches in the grove
while the measured precipitation was only 0.54 inch. I n gen-
eral, however, the total precipitation is in excess of the snow
198 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. MAY, 1906
F I ~. 1.-Water equivalent of snow on ground in New York, December
MAY, 1906.
\
MONTHLY WEATHER REVlEW. 199
31, 1903. Contour lines bound areas of varying water depth in inches.
27-3
200 MONTHLY WEATHER RXVIEW. MAY, 1905
MAY, 1906.
E .- c
- .: .-
i ;
-.
4.42
4.91
1. 51)
.I. 08
4.2"
3. ss
3. 01
MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 201
!$
~
1.38
3. 47
1.27
0.94
8.34
2.33
:i. IJO
same month during the severe and snowy winter of 1903-4.
Only a few cases are given out of a much larger number of
observations.
On West Canada Creek area a precipitation of 10.61 inches
in December, 1903, was accompanied by a run-off of 1.31
inc.i-s, or 12.35 per cent. In April, 1905, the same stream
yielded 13.26 inches run-off, the contemporaneous precipita-
tion being 3.72 inches, or less than one-third the run-off.
The run-off continued in excess of the contemporaneous pre-
cipitation during two, three, or four months in the spriug of
1903-4. I n seasons of less snowfall the duration of the
season of excess of run-off over precipitation is shorter, but
tlie run-off invariably exceeds the rainfall during one or two
spring months. This is illustrated hy Table 7 giving the
monthly precipitation and run-off of Mohawk River at Little
Falls, N. Y., during several winter periods.
TABLE 6.--Compn~on of winter preczpitation and run-off, winter of 1903-.&
~~
d .- -
.:
1 8 4
4.09 4.02 3.93
6. 12
1.49 2.24
storage, indicating a loss from the snow on ground through
evaporation.
In conjunction with the meteorological records a t Graefen-
berg reservoir, a weir was erected and a careful record kept
of the flow of Starch Factory Creek. Referring to the diagram
(fig. 2) it will be seen that during the period from December
1, 1903, to February 7, 1904, the temperature was almost con-
~tantly below 32O. There was no precipitation as rain, and it
thawed but little. This being the case, the interesting con-
Qlusion arises that during this period of 69 days the entire
supply to streams in this locality must have been from ground
water, or lake or marsh storage, or from these sources combined.
There is no lake or marsh storage in this catchment basin.
The snow cover in a very close winter season effectually cuts
off all surface run-off into streams. Such a period affords
therefore, in a basin without lakes or marshes, a ready means
of determining the inflow to the stream from ground water.
With this end in view, a record of the ground-water level in
wells is also kept.
FIG. 3-Estimated water equivalent of accuiriulated snow on gruuuil
at points in New Pork SLate, winter of 1903-1.
The method of studying ground water is outside the scope
of this paper. It may be mentioned in passing, however, that
the winter season of 1903-4, occasioned the lowest known
volume of flow in many New England streams; the cause, as
above outlined, being the shutting off of the surface inflow
from lakes and precipitation.
Fig. 2 clearly shows that the stream flow did not respond
even to heavy precipitation (snowfall) at any time covered by
the diagram, unless the temperature was above 32'. It ap-
pears that the winter flow of such a stream is much more
nearly a function of the temperature than of the precipitation.
The lack of direct relation between precipitation and run-off
during the spring freshet season is even more marked, con-
firming the proposition that during the season of snow storage
there is no direct relation between monthly precipitation and
contemporaneous stream flow, inasmuch as water may be
carried forward from the earliest snowfall to the spring
freshet, in the form of surface storage. As a rule, any rise of
temperature above 32' is accompanied by rise of the stream
and by a diminution of the snow storage.
The lack of direct relation between precipitation and run-
off during the winter season is further illustrated by the data
given in Table 6, prepared from gagings under the writer's
direction. The figures show the percentage relation between
run-off of each month and the actual precipihtion for the
5
g
~-
1.45 2. 69
4.86
b. 08
2. 18
6.Y5 1 .w
a
.- - e
.z .-
i ;
2.63 4.5:'
4. I6
2.YI
3. '?I
3.28
3. 74
v
1.46
1.32
1.20
1.83
6. U7
3.36
, 7.01
2.31
4. Rb
3.17 3. IlY
5. sn 2. 1.3
0. 15
2.21
2.93
1.90
2.87
9.51 3.56
U. ti7
d
e
s q .7 1 1
3fi4
256
€2 I
44
1534
2400
263
1313
\\red CanadsCreek. Eaht Cauadn Creek Sardtiac River. Reel'q Creek.
Twin Rock, N. Y. llulgcville, N . Y. F'lattqbiirp. N. Y. Uticu, N. 1'.
Bingbnmtou, N. T.
Binghamtou, N. T.
Sooth Cairo, N. T.
Scrwppela Bridge,N.I
Current meter
llam and mill
llatii aud mill Weir.
Current meter
Current metet
Curreut meter
Curretitmeter
Rugged, wooded Rugged. aewiclcarcd. W~.onled, Preripib tiiatiy us. sodded, lakes.
tin lakes. Rollinr, mo-tly clrared. no lakes. Rolliug, iuoetly cleaird, fern lakes. Prrci~~itotis, rocky, nto,tly wooded. Flat, large lake areu.
Clienaugo River.
Susquehauna River.
Catskill Creel;.
Oueida River.
TAHLE 6, CONT'D.-PeTC~kf~ge of ra6daZZ appeariiiy in strenm as mwof.
~
-~ I I I
47
2A3.7
113.2
116.2
~
29. 1
19
25
296
294
4s. 7
43.6 115.
61.4 84
183. 6 'LO7
281 162
132 173
50. 7 60. 7
40
102
166 224
165
TABLE I. - CoinpariRon qf winter prccipittction and r ~t i -o f , Mvhau-k River at
Little Falb, *V. 1: Drutnctge w e n , 1 3 ~6 Hqunre miles. Duptha are in
inches fur the whole cntchmecit urea.
19w1901. 1901-2. 190%4.
6.96
3.4s 3.09 2.37
3. 15 3. 13
5. 16
3. 30
2.85
1.59
0. SY
4.02
6. u6
2.53
During the winter season, when the soil surface is frozen and
covered with snow, the flow in streams is comparatively steady.
The wide variations appearing in the percentages of Table 6
for the months of December, January, and February are chiefly
due to the varying precipitation during the different montlis.
202 MONTHLY WEXTHER REVIEW. MAY, 1905
There are a number of considerations in addition to snow
storage which may tend to increase the apparent rainfall run-
off ratio during the winter season.
(1 ) The stream gagings may be in excess, due to the accu-
mulation of ice on dams or in streams, causing backwater.
This is not true in the cases observed in April and May, and
it is believed it does not materially affect any of the results
here given.
It will be noted that gagings made by different methods,
weirs, dams, mills, and by current meter, all lead to the same
result, namely, the measured run-off during the winter season
nearly equals and sometimes for several months exceeds the
measured precipitation a t nearby stations.
(2) The ground-water level is nearly always drawn down
considerably in the course of a long, cold minter; hence, there
should be added to the possible supply to the stream from
direct precipitation the amount drawn from ground-mater stor-
age during the wini!t?r. I n the case of areas like those listed
in Table 6 it is not very large, probably not more than one or
two inches, as a maximum.
(3) Regarding the measurement of winter precipitation, the
U. S. Weather Bureau stations are mostly located in the ra1-
leys and a t other than the highest elevations. The ineasurecl
precipitation, even if correctly determined a t these stations,
would probably be somewhat deficient, as precipitation increases
with altitude in many localities.
(4) The measurement of snowfall by catching it in n rain
gage, in the same manner as rain, is likely to give deficient
results inasmuch as the rain gage offers an obstruction and
deflects the air currents. The snowflakes, owing to their
small specific gravity, as compared with raindrops, do not enter
the mouth of the gage, but are diverted to the side or carried
over by the wind. This source of error is aggravated by the
fact that nearly all the U. S. Weather Bureau rain gages are
a t considerable distances above ground ancl mostly in very
open locations fully esposed to the wind.'
(5) As to distribution of snowfall, even though the snowfall
were correctly measured a t the points where the U. S. Weather
Bureau stations are locatecl, it can easily be seen that tlie
results might not represent correctly the average snowfall
even in the imniecliate locality. This was graphically illus-
trated a t a rain-gage station in the Mohawk Valley last min-
ter. The gage in question mas located in the open, surrounded
by cultivated fields. With some precaution the clepth of mow
which actually fell in the immediate vicinity of the gage was
determined with fair accuracy. A t no time in winter did the
snow on the ground near the gage accumulate to a clepth es-
ceeding about one foot. The adjacent country comprises
deep valleys occupied by streams, patches of woodland, and
also clearings siniilar to that containiug the gage. In the
woodland and valleys within one-fourth mile of the rain gnge.
snow accumulated to a depth of three or four feet; thus i t will
be seen that the snowfall measured in the clearing, under
conditions similar to those existing a t many U. S. Weather
Bureau stations, would represent very much less than tlie
average of the entire region, including the woodland, valleys,
and clearing, although it niight be quite accurate as regards
the snow that fell on the clearing itself.
With regard to the question whether the existing rainfall
stations truly represent the average precipitation on the clrain-
age basins, it may be said that the summer season rainfall-
run-off ratios for these streams conform closely to existing
notions, and i t appears that the effect of this error, if any, is
greatly exceeded by the other conditions described.
'For a number of years past the Weather Bureau has entirely disre-
garded gage measurements of snowfall whenever there was reason to
believe that the gage was not collecting the full amount of fall. At such times measurements are made in some level place where it is apparent
that an average depth can be obtained.-H. C. F.
The inaxilnnm flood discharge on northern streams may
result chiefly from melting snow, accompanied by more or less
rainfall.
TABLE 8. -iUelting-stiour frenhet, March, 1,904; gield of emall catchment
wens near Uliccr, N. I-.
~
$,A 1 Duration of freshet. 1 A$'
Inches.
8.67
5.56
3.55
Table 8 shows the run-off of Mohawk River and a number
of its tributaries in March, 1904, during the melting-snow
freshet. None of these streams have lake storage. The con-
temporaneous rainfall is shown in Table 9.
TABLE :l.-Precipifation diiriny *ping Jood, 1904, upper Mohawk River
calchncent area.
~~~
~__~
.................................................. .................................
Nareli 11.
Marvli "'1
Rlarclr 2% ................ 0. i l
0. 35
0. 1s
..............................
............................. ........................... ............................. RIarch SO.. .............................................................................. >rarcil 81. ................ 0. os 0.35 0.45 0. 15
RECENT PAPERS BEARING ON METEOROLOGY.
R. A. EDWARD\, 4ctiuK Librarian
The subjoined titles have been selected from the contents
of the periodicals ancl serials recently received in the Library
of the Weather Bureau. The titles selected are of papers or
other communications bearing on meteorology or cognate
branches of science. This is not a complete index of the
meteorological contents of all the journals from which it has
been conipilecl; it shows only the articles that appear to the
compiler likely to be of particular interest in connection with
the work of the Weather Bureau. Unsigned articles are indi-
cated bv n -
,Wenee Abatmcts. London. T-01. 8.
B[orns], H. Relative scarcity of rain on the German flat coasts. [Abstract of arliele of G. Helln~ann.]
Blutler]. C. P Actinometer olrsert ations on Mont Blanc. [Ab- stract o f article of A. Hail
B[utler], c. P. Zodiacal light. [Ak~5traCt of article of A. Hmsky.] P. 313.
B[orns], H. [ dbstract of arti- cle of A. Boltzmann.] P. 336.
Science. Neio Ilork. Xew Seripa. T-01. f f .
Ward, R. DeG. Mountain *iclrue*+ in the Sikhini Himalaya. [Notc
on article of Douglas W. Freshfield.]
Stirling, James. Underground temperature. P. 24218.
Lockyer, William J. 5. Our sun and ~'weatlier". Pp. 94537-
Guillaume, Ch. Ed. Atmospheric pressure and chronometry. P.
___ New .;chenie for the advancement o f meteorological knowledgo.
Pp 61-Cd.
Bates, D. C. Meteorological averages and extremes at Wellington,
New Zealand. P. 64.
Okuda, T. Discussion of the earth temperature observations made
P. 311.
Atmohpheric electricity on the sea.
Pp. 539-X33.
Scientific Amet-iccm Siippletnent. New 1-ork. 1-01. 69.
24535.
84635.
S j n ~o w ' n Xeteorological Magazine. London. Yol. 40.
Journcrl of' the Meteorological Society qf Jcipan. Tokio. Mrrrch, 1905.
at Osaka Meteorological Observatory. Pp. 5-13.