-CITE- 10 USC CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS 01/03/2007 -EXPCITE- TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES Subtitle A - General Military Law PART IV - SERVICE, SUPPLY, AND PROCUREMENT CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -HEAD- CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -MISC1- Sec. 2271. Management of space programs: joint program offices and officer management programs. 2272. Space science and technology strategy: coordination. 2273. Policy regarding assured access to space: national security payloads. 2273a. Operationally Responsive Space Program Office. 2274. Space surveillance network: pilot program for provision of satellite tracking support to entities outside United States Government. AMENDMENTS 2006 - Pub. L. 109-364, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(b)(2), Oct. 17, 2006, 120 Stat. 2357, substituted "Operationally Responsive Space Program Office" for "Operationally responsive national security payloads and buses: separate program element required" in item 2273a. 2004 - Pub. L. 108-375, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(a)(2), Oct. 28, 2004, 118 Stat. 2028, added item 2273a. 2003 - Pub. L. 108-136, div. A, title IX, Secs. 911(a)(2), 912(b), 913(b), Nov. 24, 2003, 117 Stat. 1564, 1565, 1567, added items 2272 to 2274. -End- -CITE- 10 USC Sec. 2271 01/03/2007 -EXPCITE- TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES Subtitle A - General Military Law PART IV - SERVICE, SUPPLY, AND PROCUREMENT CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -HEAD- Sec. 2271. Management of space programs: joint program offices and officer management programs -STATUTE- (a) Joint Program Offices. - The Secretary of Defense shall take appropriate actions to ensure, to the maximum extent practicable, that space development and acquisition programs of the Department of Defense are carried out through joint program offices. (b) Officer Management Programs. - (1) The Secretary of Defense shall take appropriate actions to ensure, to the maximum extent practicable, that - (A) Army, Navy, and Marine Corps officers, as well as Air Force officers, are assigned to the space development and acquisition programs of the Department of Defense; and (B) Army, Navy, and Marine Corps officers, as well as Air Force officers, are eligible, on the basis of qualification, to hold leadership positions within the joint program offices referred to in subsection (a). (2) The Secretary of Defense shall designate those positions in the Office of the National Security Space Architect of the Department of Defense (or any successor office) that qualify as joint duty assignment positions for purposes of chapter 38 of this title. -SOURCE- (Added Pub. L. 107-107, div. A, title IX, Sec. 911(a), Dec. 28, 2001, 115 Stat. 1195.) -MISC1- PRIOR PROVISIONS A prior section 2271, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 123, related to competitions for designs of aircraft, aircraft parts, and aeronautical accessories, prior to repeal by Pub. L. 103-160, div. A, title VIII, Sec. 821(a)(1), Nov. 30, 1993, 107 Stat. 1704. SPACE SITUATIONAL AWARENESS STRATEGY AND SPACE CONTROL MISSION REVIEW Pub. L. 109-163, div. A, title IX, Sec. 911, Jan. 6, 2006, 119 Stat. 3405, provided that: "(a) Findings. - The Congress finds that - "(1) the Department of Defense has the responsibility, within the executive branch, for developing the strategy and the systems of the United States for ensuring freedom to operate United States space assets affecting national security; and "(2) the foundation of any credible strategy for ensuring freedom to operate United States space assets is a comprehensive system for space situational awareness. "(b) Space Situational Awareness Strategy. - "(1) Requirement. - The Secretary of Defense shall develop a strategy, to be known as the 'Space Situational Awareness Strategy', for ensuring freedom to operate United States space assets affecting national security. The Secretary shall submit the Space Situational Awareness Strategy to Congress not later than April 15, 2006. The Secretary shall submit to Congress an updated, current version of the strategy not later than April 15 of every odd-numbered year thereafter. "(2) Time periods. - The Space Situational Awareness Strategy shall cover - "(A) the 20-year period from 2006 through 2025; and "(B) three separate successive periods, the first beginning with 2006, designed to align with the next three periods for the Future-Years Defense Plan. "(3) Matters to be included. - The Space Situational Awareness Strategy shall include the following for each period specified in paragraph (2): "(A) A threat assessment describing the perceived threats to United States space assets affecting national security. "(B) A list of the desired effects and required space situational awareness capabilities required for national security. "(C) Details for a coherent and comprehensive strategy for the United States for space situational awareness, together with a description of the systems architecture to implement that strategy in light of the threat assessment and the desired effects and required capabilities identified under subparagraphs (A) and (B). "(D) The space situational awareness capabilities roadmap required by subsection (c). "(c) Space Situational Awareness Capabilities Roadmap. - The Space Situational Awareness Strategy shall include a roadmap, to be known as the 'space situational awareness capabilities roadmap', which shall include the following: "(1) A description of each of the individual program concepts that will make up the systems architecture described pursuant to subsection (b)(3)(C). "(2) For each such program concept, a description of the specific capabilities to be achieved and the threats to be abated. "(d) Space Situational Awareness Implementation Plan. - "(1) Requirement. - The Secretary of the Air Force shall develop a plan, to be known as the 'space situational awareness implementation plan', for the development of the systems architecture described pursuant to subsection (b)(3)(C). "(2) Matters to be included. - The space situational awareness implementation plan shall include a description of the following: "(A) The capabilities of all systems deployed as of mid-2005 or planned for modernization or acquisition from 2006 to 2015. "(B) Recommended solutions for inadequacies in the architecture to address threats and the desired effects and required capabilities identified under subparagraphs (A) and (B) of subsection (b)(3). "(e) Space Control Mission Review and Assessment. - "(1) Requirement. - The Secretary of Defense shall provide for a review and assessment of the requirements of the Department of Defense for the space control mission. The review and assessment shall be conducted by an entity of the Department of Defense outside of the Department of the Air Force. "(2) Matters to be included. - The review and assessment under paragraph (1) shall consider the following: "(A) Whether current activities of the Department of Defense match current requirements of the Department for the current space control mission. "(B) Whether there exists proper allocation of appropriate resources to fulfill the current space control mission. "(C) The plans of the Department of Defense for the future space control mission. "(3) Report. - Not later than 180 days after the date of the enactment of this Act [Jan. 6, 2006], the Secretary of Defense shall submit to the congressional defense committees [Committees on Armed Services and Appropriations of the Senate and the House of Representatives] a report on the results of the review and assessment under paragraph (1). The report shall include the following: "(A) The findings and conclusions of the entity conducting the review and assessment on (A) requirements of the Department of Defense for the space control mission, and (B) the efforts of the Department to meet those requirements. "(B) Recommendations regarding the best means by which the Department may meet those requirements. "(4) Space control mission defined. - In this subsection, the term 'space control mission' means the mission of the Department of Defense involving the following: "(A) Space situational awareness. "(B) Defensive counterspace operations. "(C) Offensive counterspace operations." SPACE PERSONNEL CAREER FIELDS Pub. L. 108-136, div. A, title V, Sec. 547, Nov. 24, 2003, 117 Stat. 1480, as amended by Pub. L. 108-271, Sec. 8(b), July 7, 2004, 118 Stat. 814, provided that: "(a) Strategy Required. - The Secretary of Defense shall develop a strategy for the Department of Defense that will - "(1) promote the development of space personnel career fields within each of the military departments; and "(2) ensure that the space personnel career fields developed by the military departments are integrated with each other to the maximum extent practicable. "(b) Report. - Not later than February 1, 2004, the Secretary shall submit to the Committees on Armed Services of the Senate and the House of Representatives a report on the strategy developed under subsection (a). The report shall include the following: "(1) A statement of the strategy developed under subsection (a), together with an explanation of that strategy. "(2) An assessment of the measures required for the Department of Defense and the military departments to integrate the space personnel career fields of the military departments. "(3) A comprehensive assessment of the adequacy of the actions of the Secretary of Air Force pursuant to section 8084 of title 10, United States Code, to establish for Air Force officers a career field for space. "(c) Government Accountability Office Review and Reports. - (1) The Comptroller General shall review the strategy developed under subsection (a) and the status of efforts by the military departments in developing space personnel career fields. "(2) The Comptroller General shall submit to the committees referred to in subsection (b) two reports on the review under paragraph (1), as follows: "(A) Not later than June 15, 2004, the Comptroller General shall submit a report that assesses how effective that Department of Defense strategy and the efforts by the military departments, when implemented, are likely to be for developing the personnel required by each of the military departments who are expert in development of space doctrine and concepts of space operations, the development of space systems, and operation of space systems. "(B) Not later than March 15, 2005, the Comptroller General shall submit a report that assesses, as of the date of the report - "(i) the effectiveness of that Department of Defense strategy and the efforts by the military departments in developing the personnel required by each of the military departments who are expert in development of space doctrine and concepts of space operations, the development of space systems, and in operation of space systems; and "(ii) progress made in integrating the space career fields of the military departments." COMPTROLLER GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONS OF SPACE COMMISSION Pub. L. 107-107, div. A, title IX, Sec. 914, Dec. 28, 2001, 115 Stat. 1197, directed the Comptroller General to carry out an assessment through Feb. 15, 2003, of the actions taken by the Secretary of Defense in implementing the recommendations in the report of the Space Commission submitted to Congress pursuant to Pub. L. 106-65, Sec. 1623, formerly set out as a note under section 111 of this title, that were applicable to the Department of Defense, and to submit reports to committees of Congress, not later than Feb. 15, 2002, and Feb. 15, 2003, setting forth the results of the assessment. -End- -CITE- 10 USC Sec. 2272 01/03/2007 -EXPCITE- TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES Subtitle A - General Military Law PART IV - SERVICE, SUPPLY, AND PROCUREMENT CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -HEAD- Sec. 2272. Space science and technology strategy: coordination -STATUTE- (a) Space Science and Technology Strategy. - (1) The Secretary of Defense shall develop and implement a space science and technology strategy and shall review and, as appropriate, revise the strategy annually. Functions of the Secretary under this subsection shall be carried out jointly by the Director of Defense Research and Engineering and the official of the Department of Defense designated as the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space. (2) The strategy under paragraph (1) shall, at a minimum, address the following issues: (A) Short-term and long-term goals of the space science and technology programs of the Department of Defense. (B) The process for achieving the goals identified under subparagraph (A), including an implementation plan for achieving those goals. (C) The process for assessing progress made toward achieving those goals. (3) The strategy under paragraph (1) shall be included as part of the annual National Security Space Plan developed pursuant to Department of Defense regulations and shall be provided to Department of Defense components and science and technology entities of the Department of Defense to support the planning, programming, and budgeting processes of the Department. (4) The strategy under paragraph (1) shall be developed in consultation with the directors of research laboratories of the Department of Defense, the directors of the other Department of Defense research components, and the heads of other organizations of the Department of Defense as identified by the Director of Defense Research and Engineering and the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space. (5) The strategy shall be available for review by the congressional defense committees. (b) Required Coordination. - In carrying out the space science and technology strategy developed under subsection (a), the directors of the research laboratories of the Department of Defense, the directors of the other Department of Defense research components, and the heads of all other appropriate organizations identified jointly by the Director of Defense Research and Engineering and the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space shall each - (1) identify research projects in support of that strategy that contribute directly and uniquely to the development of space technology; and (2) inform the Director of Defense Research and Engineering and the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space of the planned budget and planned schedule for executing those projects. (c) Definitions. - In this section: (1) The term "research laboratory of the Department of Defense" means any of the following: (A) The Air Force Research Laboratory. (B) The Naval Research Laboratory. (C) The Office of Naval Research. (D) The Army Research Laboratory. (2) The term "other Department of Defense research component" means either of the following: (A) The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. (B) The National Reconnaissance Office. -SOURCE- (Added Pub. L. 108-136, div. A, title IX, Sec. 911(a)(1), Nov. 24, 2003, 117 Stat. 1563.) -MISC1- PRIOR PROVISIONS A prior section 2272, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 124, related to contracts to obtain designs submitted in design competitions, prior to repeal by Pub. L. 103-160, div. A, title VIII, Sec. 821(a)(1), Nov. 30, 1993, 107 Stat. 1704. -End- -CITE- 10 USC Sec. 2273 01/03/2007 -EXPCITE- TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES Subtitle A - General Military Law PART IV - SERVICE, SUPPLY, AND PROCUREMENT CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -HEAD- Sec. 2273. Policy regarding assured access to space: national security payloads -STATUTE- (a) Policy. - It is the policy of the United States for the President to undertake actions appropriate to ensure, to the maximum extent practicable, that the United States has the capabilities necessary to launch and insert United States national security payloads into space whenever such payloads are needed in space. (b) Included Actions. - The appropriate actions referred to in subsection (a) shall include, at a minimum, providing resources and policy guidance to sustain - (1) the availability of at least two space launch vehicles (or families of space launch vehicles) capable of delivering into space any payload designated by the Secretary of Defense or the Director of Central Intelligence as a national security payload; and (2) a robust space launch infrastructure and industrial base. (c) Coordination. - The Secretary of Defense shall, to the maximum extent practicable, pursue the attainment of the capabilities described in subsection (a) in coordination with the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. -SOURCE- (Added Pub. L. 108-136, div. A, title IX, Sec. 912(a)(1), Nov. 24, 2003, 117 Stat. 1565.) -MISC1- PRIOR PROVISIONS A prior section 2273, acts Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 125; Apr. 2, 1982, Pub. L. 97-164, title I, Sec. 160(a)(4), 96 Stat. 48; Oct. 29, 1992, Pub. L. 102-572, title IX, Sec. 902(b)(1), 106 Stat. 4516, related to right of United States to designs, rights of designers to patents, and rights to sue United States, prior to repeal by Pub. L. 103-160, div. A, title VIII, Sec. 821(a)(1), Nov. 30, 1993, 107 Stat. 1704. -CHANGE- CHANGE OF NAME Reference to the Director of Central Intelligence or the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Director's capacity as the head of the intelligence community deemed to be a reference to the Director of National Intelligence. Reference to the Director of Central Intelligence or the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in the Director's capacity as the head of the Central Intelligence Agency deemed to be a reference to the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. See section 1081(a), (b) of Pub. L. 108-458, set out as a note under section 401 of Title 50, War and National Defense. -End- -CITE- 10 USC Sec. 2273a 01/03/2007 -EXPCITE- TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES Subtitle A - General Military Law PART IV - SERVICE, SUPPLY, AND PROCUREMENT CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -HEAD- Sec. 2273a. Operationally Responsive Space Program Office -STATUTE- (a) Establishment. - The Secretary of Defense shall establish within the Department of Defense an office to be known as the Operationally Responsive Space Program Office (in this section referred to as the "Office"). (b) Head of Office. - The head of the Office shall be - (1) the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space; or (2) the designee of the Secretary of Defense, who shall report to the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space. (c) Mission. - The mission of the Office shall be - (1) to contribute to the development of low-cost, rapid reaction payloads, busses, spacelift, and launch control capabilities in order to fulfill joint military operational requirements for on-demand space support and reconstitution; and (2) to coordinate and execute operationally responsive space efforts across the Department of Defense with respect to planning, acquisition, and operations. (d) Elements. - The Secretary of Defense shall select the elements of the Department of Defense to be included in the Office so as to contribute to the development of capabilities for operationally responsive space and to achieve a balanced representation of the military departments in the Office to ensure proper acknowledgment of joint considerations in the activities of the Office, except that the Office shall include the following: (1) A science and technology element that shall pursue innovative approaches to the development of capabilities for operationally responsive space through basic and applied research focused on (but not limited to) payloads, bus, and launch equipment. (2) An acquisition element that shall undertake the acquisition of systems necessary to integrate, sustain, and launch assets for operationally responsive space. (3) An operations element that shall - (A) sustain and maintain assets for operationally responsive space prior to launch; (B) integrate and launch such assets; and (C) operate such assets in orbit. (4) A combatant command support element that shall serve as the primary intermediary between the military departments and the combatant commands in order to - (A) ascertain the needs of the commanders of the combatant commands; and (B) integrate operationally responsive space capabilities into - (i) operations plans of the combatant commands; (ii) techniques, tactics, and procedures of the military departments; and (iii) military exercises, demonstrations, and war games. (5) Such other elements as the Secretary of Defense may consider necessary. (e) Acquisition Authority. - The acquisition activities of the Office shall be subject to the following: (1) The Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space shall be the senior acquisition executive of the Office. (2) The Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System process shall not apply to acquisitions by the Office for operational experimentation. (3) The commander of the United States Strategic Command, or the designee of the commander, shall - (A) validate all system requirements for systems to be acquired by the Office; and (B) participate in the approval of any acquisition program initiated by the Office. (4) To the maximum extent practicable, the procurement unit cost of a launch vehicle procured by the Office for launch to low earth orbit should not exceed $20,000,000 (in constant dollars). (5) To the maximum extent practicable, the procurement unit cost of an integrated satellite procured by the Office should not exceed $40,000,000 (in constant dollars). (f) Required Program Element. - (1) The Secretary of Defense shall ensure that, within budget program elements for space programs of the Department of Defense, that - (A) there is a separate, dedicated program element for operationally responsive space; (B) to the extent applicable, relevant program elements should be consolidated into the program element required by subparagraph (A); and (C) the Office executes its responsibilities through this program element. (2) The Office shall manage the program element required by paragraph (1)(A). -SOURCE- (Added Pub. L. 108-375, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(a)(1), Oct. 28, 2004, 118 Stat. 2028; amended Pub. L. 109-364, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(b)(1), Oct. 17, 2006, 120 Stat. 2355.) -MISC1- AMENDMENTS 2006 - Pub. L. 109-364 amended section catchline and text generally, substituting provisions relating to establishment, control, mission, elements, and authority of the Operationally Responsive Space Program Office within the Department of Defense for provisions relating to requirement for a separate, dedicated program element for operationally responsive national security payloads and buses within budget program elements for space programs of the Department of Defense. EFFECTIVE DATE Pub. L. 108-375, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(b), Oct. 28, 2004, 118 Stat. 2028, provided that: "Subsection (a) of section 2273a of title 10, United States Code, as added by subsection (a), shall apply with respect to fiscal years after fiscal year 2005." UNITED STATES POLICY ON OPERATIONALLY RESPONSIVE SPACE Pub. L. 109-364, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(a), Oct. 17, 2006, 120 Stat. 2355, provided that: "It is the policy of the United States to demonstrate, acquire, and deploy an effective capability for operationally responsive space to support military users and operations from space, which shall consist of - "(1) responsive satellite payloads and busses built to common technical standards; "(2) low-cost space launch vehicles and supporting range operations that facilitate the timely launch and on-orbit operations of satellites; "(3) responsive command and control capabilities; and "(4) concepts of operations, tactics, techniques, and procedures that permit the use of responsive space assets for combat and military operations other than war." JOINT OPERATIONALLY RESPONSIVE SPACE PAYLOAD TECHNOLOGY ORGANIZATION Pub. L. 109-163, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(a), Jan. 6, 2006, 119 Stat. 3408, which directed the Secretary of Defense to establish or designate an organization in the Department of Defense to coordinate joint operationally responsive space payload technology, was repealed by Pub. L. 109-364, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(d), Oct. 17, 2006, 120 Stat. 2358. -End- -CITE- 10 USC Sec. 2274 01/03/2007 -EXPCITE- TITLE 10 - ARMED FORCES Subtitle A - General Military Law PART IV - SERVICE, SUPPLY, AND PROCUREMENT CHAPTER 135 - SPACE PROGRAMS -HEAD- Sec. 2274. Space surveillance network: pilot program for provision of satellite tracking support to entities outside United States Government -STATUTE- (a) Pilot Program. - The Secretary of Defense may carry out a pilot program to determine the feasibility and desirability of providing to non-United States Government entities space surveillance data support described in subsection (b). (b) Space Surveillance Data Support. - Under such a pilot program, the Secretary may provide to a non-United States Government entity, subject to an agreement described in subsection (d), the following: (1) Satellite tracking services from assets owned or controlled by the Department of Defense, but only if the Secretary determines, in the case of any such agreement, that providing such services to that entity is in the national security interests of the United States. (2) Space surveillance data and the analysis of space surveillance data, but only if the Secretary determines, in the case of any such agreement, that providing such data and analysis to that entity is in the national security interests of the United States. (c) Eligible Entities. - Under the pilot program, the Secretary may provide space surveillance data support to non-United States Government entities including the following: (1) State governments. (2) Governments of political subdivisions of States. (3) United States commercial entities. (4) Governments of foreign countries. (5) Foreign commercial entities. (d) Required Agreement. - The Secretary may not provide space surveillance data support to a non-United States Government entity under the pilot program unless that entity enters into an agreement with the Secretary under which the entity - (1) agrees to pay an amount that may be charged by the Secretary under subsection (e); and (2) agrees not to transfer any data or technical information received under the agreement, including the analysis of tracking data, to any other entity without the express approval of the Secretary. (e) Rule of Construction Concerning Provision of Intelligence Assets or Data. - Nothing in this section shall be considered to authorize the provision of services or information concerning, or derived from, United States intelligence assets or data. (f) Charges. - (1) As a condition of an agreement under subsection (d), the Secretary may (except as provided in paragraph (2)) require the non-United States Government entity entering into the agreement to pay to the Department of Defense such amounts as the Secretary determines to be necessary to reimburse the Department for the costs of the Department of providing space surveillance data support under the agreement. (2) The Secretary may not require the government of a State or of a political subdivision of a State to pay any amount under paragraph (1). (g) Crediting of Funds Received. - Funds received for the provision of space surveillance data support pursuant to an agreement under this section shall be credited to accounts of the Department of Defense that are current when the funds are received and that are available for the same purposes as the accounts originally charged to provide such support. Funds so credited shall merge with and become available for obligation for the same period as the accounts to which they are credited. (h) Procedures. - The Secretary shall establish procedures for the conduct of the pilot program. As part of those procedures, the Secretary may allow space surveillance data and analysis of space surveillance data to be provided through a contractor of the Department of Defense. (i) Duration of Pilot Program. - The pilot program under this section may be conducted through September 30, 2009. -SOURCE- (Added Pub. L. 108-136, div. A, title IX, Sec. 913(a), Nov. 24, 2003, 117 Stat. 1565; amended Pub. L. 109-364, div. A, title IX, Sec. 912, Oct. 17, 2006, 120 Stat. 2355.) -MISC1- PRIOR PROVISIONS Prior sections 2274 to 2279 were repealed by Pub. L. 103-160, div. A, title VIII, Sec. 821(a)(1), Nov. 30, 1993, 107 Stat. 1704. Section 2274, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 126, related to procurement for experimental purposes. Section 2275, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 126, related to award of contracts and review of decisions. Section 2276, acts Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 126; Sept. 7, 1962, Pub. L. 87-651, title I, Sec. 131, 76 Stat. 514, related to inspection and audit of plants and books of contractors and provided criminal penalties for violations. Section 2277, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 127, related to availability of appropriations. Section 2278, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 127, related to purchases of sample aircraft. Section 2279, act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A Stat. 127, related to restrictions on alien employees of contractors as to access to plans and specifications. AMENDMENTS 2006 - Subsec. (i). Pub. L. 109-364 substituted "may be conducted through September 30, 2009" for "shall be conducted during the three-year period beginning on a date specified by the Secretary of Defense, which date shall be not later than 180 days after the date of the enactment of this section". -End-