14 Chapter 4 How States Can Adopt SeismicBuilding Codes California system. State law directs local jurisdictions to adopt a set of uniform codes for enforcement at the local level; the law only allows amendments reflecting special local conditions. State Code Requirements: Statutory vs. Administrative States that mandate building codes describe their powers within either the state's statutes or its administra- tive code. Statutory code. Because a state statute is difficult to amend, requiring a building code in statute form assures a degree of permanence and This chapter describes how to adopt Historic earthquake locations is a statement of the state's long-term FIGURE 4.1 superimposedon map of states with a state seismic code. An alternative commitment to building safety. The mandatonj building codesfor all approach is to encourage the best approach is to enact permanent occupancies. Most states have adoption of seismic codes at the policy statements into a statute and to earthquakes,but not all of them require local level; that topic is taken up in place the details that need periodic building codes. (Sources: earthquake revision into administrative regula- chapter 5. locations,USGS, 1989;states with tions. In order for a building code to mandatory codes,IIPLR now IBHS], become statutory law, a state legisla- Background Information 1996) tor must sponsor a building code bill, maneuver it through the proper Code Practices Vary Among the committees, and obtain a positive States, From Centralized to Local vote, usually from two houses of the All states have a legal right to legislature. Once the bill passes, it can regulate construction, but not all be signed by the governor and states exercise this right. Currently become law. forty states and the District of Administrative code. Where a Columbia mandate building code building code is required in adminis- requirements and ten states do not. trative code, an administrative body, A statewide code assures a mini- usually a commission or board, is mum level of protection throughout invested with rule-making authority. the state. The most common forms Additions or revisions to the adminis- of state building regulation are: trative code do not require legislative Total preemption. A state agency approval. An open, public process is responsible for building regulations required, which is not as involved as develops the regulations for local statutory reform. implementation and enforcement. Creating a New Code vs.Adopting Partial preemption. The state a Model Building Code building regulations are minimum standards, and local jurisdictions States may create their own building may adopt equal or more restrictive code or adopt all or parts of an regulations. existing recognized model building How States Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes Is i_7930 How To Adopt a State-Wide Seismic Code Goals: The model code inuse throughout the state (a) must be up to date and (b)must not delete or modify the seismic provisions Over the past ten years, the U.S. Virgin Islands have dealt with a Does your state have a model building code? number of serious hurricanes. Hurricane Hugo struck the Virgin Islands on September 17- Yeso No 18, 1989.1 This category 4 hurri- cane caused $3 billion in damage 11' in the Virgin Islands and Puerto 'Rico.St. Croix and St. Thomas Is the code up to date? suffered tremendous damage from an unusually prolonged battering of hurricane force Yes winds, with sustained wind No speeds estimated at 127 mph at St. Croix and 98 mph at St. Thomas. T Some areas were completely devastated. At the time, building Does the code include construction was governed by the seismic provisions? 1972 Virgin Islands Building Code, mandatory throughout the territory. The lateral; ind loads in Yes No this code were based on sustained Y wind speeds of 81 mph. Upae your The most damaging hurricane, code to include implementation Marilyn, hit the Virgin Islands on latest seismic and enforcement September 15-16, 1995. The storm Provisions was officially recorded as a se ta category 3 storm with winds of I 110 mph as it passed over St. Congratulations Thomas. The estimated cost of The seismic code your state has adopted will reduce reconstruction, as of October 1995, ----------- -3-- damage and loss of life inthe event of an earthquake. was about $3 billion.2 After Hurricane Marilyn, FEMA worked with the Territorial code. Because of the complexity, Government to assist in the provide inspections. This can increase development of building codes cost, and time of writing an original code compliance wvhile avoiding the incorporating mitigation for all building code, most states choose to need for a large state enforcement types of structures. In October adopt a model building code. By agency. 1995 the Virgin Islands adopted, adopting such a code, the state by statute, the UBC for public building agency can obtain direct Importance of Periodic Updates buildings and other structures as technical assistance from the mod-el Ideally the statute or administrative well as 'Chapters 1-7, 10, and 14-35 building code organization. code pro[vides for the periodic of the 1994 IJ7BC and Chapters 1-9, adoption of the most current building 18, 22, and 2847 of the CABO Enforcement at State or Local code edition. The three model build- One- and Two-Family Dwelling Code Level for all other buildings and other ing codes issue new editions every structures. FENMA has provided With a statewide building code in three years. It is important to note both technical and financial place, the state may delegate the that a government must explicitly assistance to assist in enforce- enforcement to local governments. adopt each new edition of the code. A ment, education, and training Sometimes the state delegates only law cannot state that "the most concerning the neLw codes. 3 to those local governments that can recent" edition of a code is automati- prove that they have adequate cally the operative one. Rather, a law qualified staff to review plans and can state an intent to update or can Chapter 4 16 If Your State Does Not Have mandate that the adopted code must Building Code Requirements "equal or exceed the standards" of - 4* 0 4 - the latest published edition of a If your state lacks a building code code. In any event, the specific Step 1: requirement, you need to take action published edition of the code must Determine your state's current in order to encourage the adoption of explicitly be adopted as such (with building code requirement (if a statewide code. There are several whatever minor revisions the state any) and develop a strategy for ways to establish an appropriate state desires to add). incorporating or initiating building code that contains current current seismic provisions. seismic provisions. The following sections describe a step-by-step strategy to achieve Step 2: A new code can be established statewide seismic provisions. Gather support for the pro- legislatively or administratively. The posed changes. best way to ensure long-term safe Step 1: Determine Your building practices is to establish the Step 3: State's Current Building code by statute, using the legislative Lobby the decision-making body (state legislature or process. At a minimum, the legisla- Code Requirement (IfAny) administrative board or tion should specify local adoption of commission) with information one of the three model codes with The first step in pursuing any explaining why the changes are seismic provisions. It is much easier strategy to incorporate or initiate needed and describing the kind to adopt a model code than it is to seismic provisions is to ascertain of support you have gathered. write an original code. To ensure a what building requirements already minimum level of safety throughout exist. You will need to describe Step 4: the state, the legislation also must deficiencies in the existing code and Continue your involvement specify a procedure for periodic code suggest appropriate actions to through the administrative updates. implementation and enforce- correct those deficiencies. ment stages once the seismic Legislation may be quite detailed It is important to understand the provisions are approved. or may simply mandate an adminis- process followed in your state and trative process of code review and learn how to use that process adoption. For example, the legislation successfully. The process of adopt- may specify the model code to use ing statewide seismic provisions will and the topics to include, or it may vary greatly among states, depend- leave those decisions to the rule- ing on whether your state currently making board. Examples of legisla- mandates a building code. tion are contained in Appendix B; the If your state does have a code, legislative process is described below determine what amendments are in step 3. needed to incorporate current You should realize that any seismic provisions and pursue these legislative enactment of a code amendments. requirement also will entail an If your state does not have a code, administrative rule-making process, consider the possibility of introduc- so you need to understand both ing a state code that contains current processes. The point is this: Where seismic provisions. An alternative is the legislation leaves off, the adminis- to pursue widespread adoption of trative regulations begin. See step 4 seismic provisions in local building below. codes, although this would be a Whether you pursue an adminis- more resource-intensive effort (see trative or legislated code, always chapter 5). remember your two primary goals: To ensure the highest level of The code in use throughout the state statewide seismic safety, you should (a) must be up to date (the latest focus your efforts on the two most published edition of an accepted important points: (a) the code must model building code) and (b) must be up to date and (b) the code must not delete or modify the seismic include the latest seismic provisions. provisions. How States Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes 17 E_(j If Your State Has a Building Code adoption: gather support, lobby the p r a p But Does Not incorporate decision-making body and monitor Seismic Provisions implementationr and enforcement. Is the code statutory or admin- Where a state building code exists Step 2: Gather Support for istrative? but does not contain seismic provi- Adopting Seismic sions, it should be relatively easy to * Is the code designed by a state require seismic design. If the state Provisions agency or by local choice? Is code is based on onre of the three the responsible level of govern- model codes, all of which now First, get the backing of your ment adequately funded to contain seismic requirements, all department and other relevant state implement the code? that may be required is adopting the departments and agencies. Identify * Is the code unique to your state most recent edition of your model interest groups whose support you or a model code? If it's a code. will need and whose arguments you unique state code, does the will have to answer. Seek support There are several ways to incorpo- state office provide technical from a wide range of professional support to local governments rate seismic provisions into a code associations. The wider the range of to implement the code? that is not based on one of the three associations, the stronger support model codes. For example, the If it's a model code, which one will be for your proposed changes. seismic provisions can be established is it? Has your state modified At a minimum you will need the by the state, or the state legislature it? If so, how and to what support of representatives from can simply mandate local adoption extent? Which edition is high-earthquake-risk areas. If they of any of the model seismic codes. currently adopted? Is it the do not support the changes, it will Politically it should be easier to most recent? be nearly impossible to convince amend an existing state code than to others. How,% is the code updated? e enact a new code. How often? By wrhom? By Preparing a sound case for Statutory code. To amend a code what process? seismic provisions will help to established through legislation, you Have all local jurisdictions advance your position and generate e must find a legislator to sponsor an been granted the authority to needed support. Solid arguments in amendment to the state building act adopt and enforce a code? favor of seismic provisions are and then work to create support for presented in Step 2 of Chapter 5 and * Does the code have seismic the proposed changes. Legislative in Appendix C. provisions? Are the model code enactment is preferable to revising seismic provisions modified? If an administrative code, because To gainr support, contact organ- so, how and to what extent? Do statutes are harder to amend or izations that may be affected by the seismic provisions reflect repeal. The legislative process is and are interested in code adoption the latest NVEHRP Provisions? described below in step 3. and enforcement in your state. (The 1992 SBCCI and BOCA Addresses and phone numbers of Administrative code. Amending Supplement model codes are several relevant national-scale an administrative code to incorpo- the first editions of the codes to organizations are included in rate seismic provisions is typically incorporate all the NEHRP Appendix E. You should review Provisions;the 1991 UBC is also less cumbersome than amending a these lists to get ideas useful for consistent with the NEHRP statutory code. You should learn the your situation and to identify Provisions.)All local codes following information about your potential supporting organizations. based on these or subsequent administrative code: Are the regula- editions are consistent with the tions reviewed periodically? When is Municipal leagues. You can IEHIRP Provisions. the next review scheduled? What are communicate with local govern- the opportunities for public com- ments collectively by means of their ment? professional and lobbying organiza- tions. Every state except Hawaii has Whether your state code is a state municipal league. You can established by statute or administra- find out how to locate the league in tive rule, instituting the revised code your state by contacting the Na- wAill be a multistep process. You will tional League of Cities (see App en- need to plan a strategy before you dix E). Most state leagues probably begin. The strategy should involve have a newsletter or magazine, an steps similar to those for code annual conference, and perhaps Chapter 4 Ia State Seismic SafetyAdvisory Committees4 What Are They? * -NW 1- AY_ - 4 Seismic safety advisory committees are voluntary Arkansas formed an Earthquake Advisory Council bodies selected to advise the state on seismic policy in 1984, with representatives from state agencies, matters. Most often, they are selected by and utilities, universities, hospitals, local agencies, and answerable to the governor, but they also may be other interested parties. In the late 1980s, the advisory to the state legislature. Several states now Council adopted seismic code provisions as a high have such bodies, including Arkansas, Kentucky, priority. Missouri, Oregon, Arizona, Utah, as well as the Council members drafted a bill and gave public original one in California. presentations. The bill was introduced in Novem- Advisory committees usually consist of representa- ber 1990 (coincident with the aftermath of the tives from the following interests: relevant state Loma Prieta, California, disaster) and cleared the agencies, universities, utilities, local governments in legislature in March 1991-with no opposition high-risk areas, technical and professional organiza- votes. Act 1100 requires that all "public structures" tions, energy companies, civic organizations, and be designed to resist seismic forces, in accordance sometimes legislators from high-risk areas. Usually with the minimum requirements of the 1993 the governor's office selects the members, for terms revision to the 1991 Standard Building Code or the ranging from one year to indefinite. Members are latest edition with revisions. chosen for both their expertise and their interest in reducing seismic hazards. Committee members take Why Do We Need One? their duties seriously, and most work surprisingly hard for little or no money. A seismic safety advisory committee can help reduce earthquake hazards in many different ways. The What Do They Do? Arkansas Seismic Advisory Committee played a crucial role in drafting and gathering support for the Seismic safety advisory committees typically meet 1991 bill (see Appendix B) that requires all public two to six times per year. In addition, they usually structures to be designed to resist seismic forces. divide up into several subcommittees (e.g., aware- They can encourage better construction practices, ness, mitigation, response, public health). These promote earthquake awareness and professional subcommittees often do the real work of the organi- training, provide advice on siting critical public zation. They usually consist of three to six members, facilities, and help agencies to inventory existing who informally communicate and assign tasks hazards. An active committee can make a real throughout the year. Reports of activities in progress difference in a state's ability to survive the next are presented at the regular committee meetings. earthquake. Seismic safety advisory committees serve several functions: How Do We Form One? * Make knowledge of local experts available to the The easiest way to form a seismic safety advisory legislature and administrative agencies. committee is by an executive order of the governor. * Coordinate the earthquake preparedness activities Typically, the idea would be initiated by the governor of state agencies. or by the director of emergency management or geological survey. The governor would then request * Keep earthquake issues in the public eye. one of these agencies, in consultation with others, to * Serve as advocates for seismic safety. propose a list of members, all of whom have agreed to serve if selected. The governor's office would then * Prepare policy reports and draft legislation. revise and approve the list, and issue the executive * Involve people who are interested in and knowl- order. A seismic safety advisory committee may also edgeable about seismic safety. be established by the state legislature, with the advantage that the organization becomes more * Promote communication between state agencies, permanent (a disadvantage is that it is much more local agencies, professional design organizations, cumbersome to initiate). The legislature must also and the construction industry. consider how to appoint members. 19 How States Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes strengthen codes. Some construction local dinner meetings. Tap into this associations, such as the National network: Association of Home Builders and * Submit an article to their maga- the Associated General Contractors * Professional engineering and zine or newsletter. of America, are members of the architectural organizations. Building Seismic Safety Council * Participate in their conferences. Coordinate with organizations (NAHB, ACCA, and BSSC, see such as the American Society of Organize workshops and invite a Appendix E). Civil Engineers and the them. American institute of Archi- City and county managers. Chief tects. Each group represents a Building officials. Contact the administrators of cities and counties large and influential constitu- nearest model building code organi- belong to the International City/ ency, and they can lend zation (see Appendix D) to identify County Management Association credible support expertise, and nearby jurisdictions -with codes and (ICLMA, see Appendix E). The ICMVA a network of lobbyists. Letters to learn the names of the building has chapters in every state. of support from architecture officials. and engineering associations Chambers of commerce. Many Civil engineers. The American were very helpful in the businesses belong to the Chamber of Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE, see enactment of Arkansas' seismic Commerce. The businesses can be Appendix E) is the largest profes- requirement. valuable supporters if you convince sional organization for civil engi- Building and comnerce them of the business disruptions a neers. The ASCE has sixteen sections associations. Try to gain the that damaging earthquakes can divided into branches that cover support of a building or cause. major metropolitan areas. Many of commerce association. The The media. The media can be these groups have regular meetings. Masonry Institute of Tennessee, very helpful in educating the public ASCE also has tbwenty-one regional for example, has been very council organizations. to the benefits of seismic provisions active in promoting seismic and generating public support for design and construction. Structural engineers. The ASCE the proposed changes. Try to includes structural engineers, and * Local civic organizations. develop a personal relationship with some states have their own profes- Meet with local groups and reporters at major state newspapers sional structural engineers associa- work to gain community and television stations. Offer to tions. You might also make use of support. The League of Women provide background information Voters in western Kentucky the expertise offered by local mem- (see Appendix H for sample press was instrumental in m aking bers of the Earthquake Engineering releases), and be available for earthquakes a public issue in Research Institute (EERI, see Appen- interviews when a newsworthy that state. dix E). earthquake elsewhere generates * Seismic safety advisory interest in your state. Professional engineers. Some committee. If your state or states have associations of profes- Finally do not limit your efforts locality does not have such a sional engineers representing to potential supporters. You must committee, form one. This is a licensed engineers in the state, also identify potential opponents very effective away to keep including civil, structural, mechani- ,and convince them of the value of earthquake issues on the public cal, and others. Contact the National your proposed changes. It is better agenda and can greatly help to Society of Professional Engineers to remove one opponent than to add initiate new programs and (NSPE, see Appendix E) for informa- ten supporters. legislation for seismic safety. tion about your state organization. See page 18. Architects. The American Insti- Step 3: Lobby the tute of Architects (AIA) is the largest Decision-Making Body professional organization of archi- tects. Contact the national office (see The state legislature or some admin- Appendix E) for information on your istrative board or commission has state or local chapter. the authority to amend the existing code or adopt a code. You should Home builders or contractors. lobby this decision-making body Most states and localities have with information explaining why associations of home builders and the changes are needed (i.e., seismic building contractors. You will need provisions) and describing the kind to meet with them to institute or of support you have gathered. Chapter 4 20 20 Chapter 4 legislative staff, their job will be made easier and the process will be facili- tated. The more complete your package, the farther it will go through an overworked legislature. A good strategy is to prepare the bill in advance so that you can move quickly when a window of opportu- nity opens. Such opportunities typically occur when there is a small earthquake in your state or a disas- trous earthquake elsewhere in the world. For example, interest in seismic codes increased in the central and eastern United States following the 1988Armenian and 1989Loma Prieta, California earthquakes. Sometimes fires or building collapses cause renewed interest in building code legislation. The statewide building code requirements in both FIGURE 4.2 Kenhcky has a statewide Implementing changes to the Tennessee and Kentucky (see Appen- building coderequirement(state capitol state code may require legislative dix B, C) were enacted following fatal shown above). (Source: Kentucky action. This process can be some- fires. At the very least, after the next Legislative Research Commission) what involved. The following earthquake scare the state legislature paragraphs describe how to initiate might be willing to pass a statewide changes at the legislative level; seismic design requirement, as many of the suggestions given are Missouri and Arkansas did in 1991 0 _. E = appropriate for dealing with any (see Appendix B, C). I- .C u decision-making body. Testify before committee hear- Find a member of the legislature * Find a member of the legisla- ings. Following its introduction, the to introduce the bill. You must find ture to introduce your pro- bill is assigned to one or more a legislator sympathetic to your posed legislation. committees. Each committee sched- cause-perhaps he or she lives in an ules hearings at which interested * Gain the support of the earthquake-prone part of the state or Governor's office. organizations and lobbyists may has a reputation for promoting present their comments. The hearing * Research and prepare the draft public safety issues. Demonstrate to schedule usually is tight. Thus, legislation. Focus on your two the legislator that you have built testimony must be well organized, main goals: (a) the code must widespread support for the legisla- concise, and effectively presented. be up to date and (b) the code tion. You must be able to convince the must include the latest seismic committee members, in clear and Gain the support of the provisions. Governor'soffice. In the end, you persuasive language, that seismic * Testify before committee will need the Governor to sign the codes are necessary for the welfare hearings. Be clear, concise, legislation into law. The sooner you and economic well-being of the state persuasive, and authoritative can get the Governor's support, the and that voting for the proposed bill in your comments. better. Furthermore, many legisla- will enhance their reputations. tors will look to the Governor's * Lobby the legislature (both Information from this book will help. houses) once the bill is re- office for leadership during the You should address the following ported out of committee. legislative process. questions: * Monitor the bill throughout the Research and prepare the draft What are the chances of a large legislative process, including earthquake happening in your legislation. A legislative research its final stage in the governor's department usually is available to state, and what damage would it office. draft the actual bill. If you are able do? to submit a well-drafted bill or can * Why is legislation needed? provide technical support to the How States 'Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes 21 * How would the legislation affect Again, make sure that the MI_ the state? governor's office is provided with JsllzIjgtIU. complete information about the * What are its benefits? value of the bill, including docu- * What is the evidence for these mentation of the support you have * Organize your support ahead supposed benefits? gathered. If you have done your 'of time. Be prepared to act work well there should be no last- when the proposed rules are What are the costs, and who minute opposition, and the gover- released. pays? nor is likely to sign it into law. * Find out when the review How do the benefits justify the period wilibe so that your costs? Step 4:The Last Mile: supporters can be readyy Administrative * Why does your organization * Obtain a copy of the draft rules support the legislation? Implementation and the day they are released. Enforcement * What other organizations support * Use your supporters to review it? and comment on the rules. Once you have established the Remember that dozens of legisla- necessary rules changes or statutes Submit written comments and ' tive bills are introduced for every and the seismic provisions are public testimony and be sure one that succeeds, and it's possible approved, continue your involve- your supporters submit that your bill will die in committee, ment through the administrative comments. requiring you to begin the process implementation and enforcement * Be clear, concise, persuasive, again. If your experience convinces stages. and authoritative in your you that legislative approval is not comments. An administrative department realistic, consider the alternative will be directed to develop the rules route of encouraging widespread and regulations for implementation adoption of local seismic code and enforcement. An administrator provisions (see chapter 5). NOTES will need to conduct additional Lobby the legislature once the 1 Golden, Joseph H., et al., HurricaneHugo: public hearings to consider the bill is reported out of committee. Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and proposed rules. You should stay Once the committee recommends South Carolina,prepared for the Commnt- informed of the date(s) of hearings the bill to the legislature as a whole, tee on Natural Disasters, National and look for opportunities to present make sure that all the legislators in Research Council, National Academy of written comments and public both houses are provided with Sciences (Washington, DC), 1994. testimony. complete information about the 2 lMlorro-w, B.H., and Ragsdale, A.K, Early Draft rules tIpically will be value of the bill, including docu- Response to HurricaneMarilyn in the U.S. published for a fixed period of mentation of the support you have Vigin islands,University of Colorado, public reviews You must stay in gathered. Natural Hazards Center, Quick Response touch with the administrator to Monitor the bill throughout the Report#82, 1996. ensure that you are notified -ofthe legislative process. To succeed, the review period as soon as it is known 3 Information provided by the Virgin bill must pass both houses, and the and that you receive the draft rules Islands Department of Planning and governor must sign it into law. as soon as they are available. There Natural Resources, Division of Permits. Lacking a positive vote in either will then be adequate time for you house, the bill wlill die. Once the bill 4 Condensed from Gishansky, R., Reducing and other supporters to review the is passed by one house, it moves to Earthquake Hznards in the Central United proposed rules and provide in- the other house, where the process is States: State Seismic Safety Advisory formed analysis and comments. As repeated. Because there may be Coin'nittees, prepared by the Department with the legislative process, the attempts to amend the bill along the of Urban and Regional Planning, Univer- more persuasive your comments way or in a conference cormmittee of sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and the more authoritative the both houses, you must keep moni- and distributed by the Central U.S. commentators, the better your toring the bill throughout the entire Earthquake Consortium, 1992; also see chances for success. process and maintain support for Seismic Safety Comnmission of California, For ongoing enforcement issues the bill. Creatfing a Seisic Safety Advisory Bocard, see chapter 6, 'ihnproving Code FEMA #266, August 1995. if the bill passes the legislature, Enforcement." the governor may sign or veto it. 22 Chapter 5 How Cities and Counties Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes This chapter takes up the issues and the state level. In most cases, locali- processes involved in adopting seis- ties can take effective action regard- less of state requirements. mic provisions at the city and county level-a viable, albeit time-consum- ing, alternative to adopting a state Step 1: Determine Local seismic code, described in chapter 4. Code Practices and Options How To Improve Local Code Requirements Current regulation at the state level will govern options for action at the State seismic managers and local local level. If your state regulates all officials may find it easiest to adopt local construction, there is little for seismic provisions through local you to do, although you should governmental bodies rather than on satisfy yourself that enforcement is adequate. If your state mandates local adoption of a specified code, How To Adopt a City or County Seismic Code check to ensure that the community has complied. Besure your locality (a) adopts the most recent version of a model building code, (b) establishes a process for updating the code, and (c) does not delete or modify the seismic provisions If your state does not currently { regulate, or if it allows for stricter Isyour locality covered by a state, city, or county code? local regulations, there are numer- ous options at the local level. The municipality or county can develop No Yes its own original code, modify the existing code of a neighboring municipality, or adopt a model Isthe code up to date? |rsppor building code. If the jurisdiction lacks an adequate code, it is up to atthestate local and leve oradopt!ng the state seismic program manager No Yes and local officials to convince the comnmunity to initiate a building code. Statewide inventory of local Does the code include Persadet loca practices. State seisnmic program se ismic provisions?gnovernmentimprove toadopt code or managers should collect information on local practices, to determine which localities within a state are Yes No enforcement deficient in code adoption and enforcement. At a minimum, communities in the most seismically hazardous parts of the state should be targeted. This information can help identify communities most in need of assistance. Key questions to Congratulations ask include the following: The seismic code your locality has adopted will reduce * Has a local code been adopted? damage and loss of life in the event of an earthquake * If so, when was it adopted and by what means? How Cities and Counties Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes 23 E a Is it the latest version? Model codes are usually the best option. It is highly unlikely that a erj-iF~rw~r~a)('llEI-flraEEIf s Are building permits required? municipality would have the exper- * How many architects and engi- tise, budget, or time to develop an The general steps involved in neers are on staff? original document. Most localities, a opting seismic provisions at the therefore, identify a model building local level are the same as for the What is the name and phone code in order to make code adoption state level, with some modifica- number of the building -official? easy. tions. What method is used to update the If the municipality adopts one of Step 1: code? the model building codes, drafting Determine local code practices * How frequently is it updated? and detailed legal review are not and what state regulations (if any) govern options for action necessary. In addition, each model * What type(s) of construction are at the local level. building code organization supplies a regulated? sample ordinance in its code book. Step 2: * Are seismic requirements part of These sample ordinances have been Gather support at the state and the current code? used successfully by other munici- local levels. palities. The state of Illinois gathered this Step 3: kind of information from 300 jurisdic- The model building code organiza- Persuade the local government tions in the southern part of the state. tions also provide administrative and to adopt code or improve code See their survey instrument in technical assistance to the municipal- enforcement that includes Appendix C. ity during adoption, in addition to seismic provisions. other support, such as code provision State seismic managers also can Step 4: interpretation, continuing education, use the information on local code Provide technical assistance and inspector testing and certification deficiencies to help make an argu- throughout the adoption, (see detailed information in Appen- ment to the state for a statewide code implementation, and enforce- dix D). The adoption of a model ment stages. (see chapter 4). Documenting the building code is more than the number of communities, or the referencing of a document: It involves number of people in communities, becoming a member of a professional without building codes can be a organization. persuasive argument, especially if they are in a seismically vulnerable The model building code organiza- part of the state. tions do not require adoption of codes in their entirety. Specific code Authority to adopt a local code. sections may be revised to reflect The authority to adopt a local code is local conditions. The organizations usually granted by the state legisla- can provide direct assistance in some ture under its police powers, which cases. However, municipalities allow the municipality or county to adopt a building code to promote the should be careful that revisions of public health, safety, and welfare. You one section do not adversely affect need to be sure you have this author- another section. Remember that through the seismic hazard map the ity to adopt a code. seismic provisions already account Building code regulations are for local conditions. enacted through local ordinances. Use of a model code means that Municipalities and counties must the public debate over the code's formally adopt a building code technical details has already been ordinance via a local legislative conducted at the national level. Local process. Typically the building code opponents questioning technical ordinance is drafted, reviewed for aspects of the code or the seismic legality, proposed, debated through zone maps for your state can be told public hearings, and voted on by the that the code represents a national city council or county board. Once consensus of hundreds of engineers the ordinance is approved, the and building officials. The maps and municipality or county becomes the the seismic force calculations are enforcement agent. Chapter 5 24 Good rapport with the local based on the best current knowl- media can help your case. Find a edge, are designed by national receptive reporter and explain the experts in the field, and are re- hazards the community faces. viewed by committees of engineers * If your state regulates all local Personal relationships work best, as construction, satisfy yourself and geologists throughout the you will need the media's trust if the that enforcement is adequate. country. The codes also recognize battle over code adoption gets hot. the realities of local enforcement: * If your state mandates local Even if you do not connect with a The voting members of the model adoption of a specified code, particular reporter, there are actions code organizations include the local ensure that communities have you can take. Send out press releases building officials of your state and complied. following earthquakes, to accom- region. pany local presentations, or to * If your state does not currently Key points. To ensure that a regulate, or if it allows for accompany announcements of state locality has the most current widely stricter local regulations, gather initiatives. Sample press releases are accepted standards of seismic information on local code included in Appendix H. Try to be design, be sure that it: (a) adopts one practices and explore your interviewed on a local news or talk of the three model codes, (b) adopts options at the local level. program. Send an editorial to the the most recent version of the code, local newspaper. Use material from * Options may include develop- (c) establishes a process for periodic this book to help make your case! ing an original code, modifying updating of the code, and (d) does the existing code of a neighbor- Opposition typically comes from not delete or modify the seismic ing municipality, or adopting a business and development interests provisions. model building code. who are afraid that any change in local regulations will scare away * If a jurisdiction lacks an Step 2: Gather Support at new business. A local economy is adequate code, convince the the State and Local Levels community to initiate a often somewhat fragile-business building code. people may worry that if their Wide public support is needed to community is perceived as being * Model codes are usually the enact a new community building uncooperative with new business, best option, because of the code. Information gathered in step 1 then economic development will go technical support provided by can help to obtain state support for elsewhere. the code organization. changing or introducing the local code. It is also important to have the To avoid eruption of unexpected active support of local chapters of controversy during the code- adoption process, you should meet professional associations of engi- neers and architects, such as the beforehand with the professional, business, and labor organizations National Society of Professional Engineers, American Society of Civil likely to be affected. These meetings Engineers, and American Institute of will be mutually educational. Most Architects. Form partnerships with of these groups will be surprised to know that the earthquake risk is these organizations (see Appendix real, and that seismic codes are E). widely accepted as a cost-effective Civic groups and local service technique to reduce hazards. clubs, such as the League of Women Conversely, you will find that their Voters and Rotary Clubs, can concerns are genuine and that you provide valuable support. As you may need to design your code pursue contacts in the community, implementation process to account you should also seek support and for some of their concerns. Try to acceptance by business and con- integrate the concerns of each group struction organizations, such as local into your proposal. businesses, economic development associations, and the Chamber of Past experience has shown that Commerce. Arrange to give presen- initial opponents find that they can live with building codes because tations to these groups. Materials for codes do not drive business from sample workshop presentations are communities. Businesses have many included in Appendix G. more important factors than codes 25 How Cities and Counties Can Adopt Seismic Building Codes How Cities and Counties Can Adopt Seismic BuildingCodes 25 to consider in their location deci- *L .': *: :. L.A.7 - A sions. In the words of one building official, "I've never heard of an industry not coming to town In early 1989 the city of Jonesboro, structural engineering firm because of seismic requirements." Arkansas, adopted the 1988 designing the facility was design- ing it to the 1988 SBC and had Standard Butilding Code (SBC), It is true that local officials tend to the first edition of this code with never intended to do otherwise. respond to short-term concerns and, seismic requirements. The same The plant was, in fact, already furthermore, prefer results that are year representatives of a proposed consistent with the 1988 SBC and visible and immediate. Still, many industrial facility were negotiat- built with the seismic provisions localities can be persuaded to accept ing with city officials, attempting in the code. Jonesboro has the model building codes. Anticipat- to win as many concessions from continued to grow, with the code ing some common objections, you the city as possible. The state was in place. might try the arguments given very eager to have the facility. The below. development representatives asked Jonesboro to revoke the For elected officials: A damaging seismic provisions. The city earthquake can occur during your council agreed to do it on October term of office. The levels of ground- 16, the day before the Loma shaking represented on the code's Prieta, California earthquake. In seismic hazard map have a 0.8 the words of a city official, this percent chance of occurring i any was "bad timing." Because of four-year period at each point on the subsequent public pressure the map (such as the community in seismic provisions were restored question), and about a 2 percent to the code. chance of occurring in any eight- It turns out that the entire year period. But these are the design FIGURE 5.1 New constriction controversy was unnecessary. events (see page 10). What about a continues toflouirish in Jonesboro. What the development represen- lesser earthquake? An earthquake (Source:City of Jonesboro) tatives did not know was that the half as big as the design event could cause severe damage to many structures not meeting the code and little damage to structures built studies have shown that community according to seismic code. Such an leaders greatly underestimate the event has about a 4 percent chance public's concerns about earthquakes, of occurring in any four-year period mistakenly believing public concern to be less than their own.2 and about an 8 percent chance in an eight-year period. In a 1994 telephone survey of For elected officials: Citizens residents in six hurricane-prone support seismic codes. Studies in areas, 91 percent of respondents California and the central United indicated that builders should be States have shown that most citizens required to follow new, stricter support seismic building codes, and building codes even though it might add 5 percent to the cost of a home.3 that elected officials underestimate this support. For example, in 1984 Codes will not hurt business. Arizona State University surveyed Building codes have not hurt the residents and officialsin the high economies of the forty-one states that seismic risk area surrounding the have them, nor have they hurt the 95 New Madrid fault zone.' The survey percent of all U.S. cities and towns found that 62 percent of residents that have codes. Seismic design adds believed that seismic building codes only approximately 1 to 1.5 percent to for new structures are "very impor- the cost of a building, according to a tant, " and most supported codes 1985 BSSC study. 4 even if substantial costs would be involved. In contrast, support by Is there a chance that local build- community leaders was much lower ings will be shaken by an earthquake at 37 percent. Furthermore, other at some point? An earthquake can Chapter 5 Chapter 5 26 ter. All communities need a seismic devastate the small businesses in a code regardless of hazard. Seismic community. Following the 1994 . . . - ' codes supplied by the building code Northridge, California, earthquake, organizations account for the unique thousands of small businesses had to Address the concerns of potential level of hazard in each community. relocate or temporarily shut down. opponents by emphasizing these If a community's hazard is low, the Some never opened again. Such key points: code will reflect that. The seismic interruptions can be fatal to small * For elected officials: A damag- hazard zone map is based on the businesses. Simply the loss of ing earthquake can occur latest national scientific evaluation business activity can affect neighbor- during your term of office. of earthquake risk, representing the ing businesses that are fortunate to consensus of a number of scientific survive the earthquake ground- * For elected officials: Citizens and professional organizations. The shaking. support seismic codes. code requirements for each commu- A seismic code will improve * Codes will not hurt business. nity reflect that estimate of hazard. successful survival of the next * A seismic code will improve earthquake. People will live and Step 3: Persuade Local successful survival of lives, work in these buildings. Codes properties, and businesses in Government to Adopt work. Look at the evidence of the next earthquake. Code or Improve Code relatively low loss of life in the * Everyone else is doing it. earthquakes in California in 1989 Enforcement and 1994. Either a community is * It's easy. designed to survive the next earth- As part of gaining approval of your * It's good for the community. quake, or it is not. proposed changes, consider educa- tional programs or incentive pro- Everyone else is doing it. The grams that will appeal to local federal government has set an governmental officials: example with Executive Order 12699. Seismic codes are becoming * Sponsor workshops on how to more prevalent at all levels of ~9-1 adopt and enforce the codes. 4 government, which means two Sample workshop materials are things: (a) a community will not be provided in Appendix G. These at an economic disadvantage for can be supplemented with area Consider educational programs or attracting new business and (b) if maps and with examples of the incentive programs that will other communities adopt seismic model codes. appeal to local governmental provisions, those that do not have officials: * Buy the code books and distrib- this safeguard in place invite liabil- ute them yourself. You can * Sponsor workshops on how to ity. purchase the codes and other use the codes. It's easy. It doesn't take much to materials directly from the model * Buy the code books and start. Call up a code organization, code organizations. If local distribute them yourself. buy the code, develop a fee structure officials can see the quality of (to pay for administration), and materials and support provided * Take local officials on an contract with the county or another by the model code organizations, earthquake field trip. nearby agency for initial staffing. they may be less reluctant. * Consider ways of subsidizing It's good for the community. * Take local officials on an earth- the cost of joining the model With a seismic code, residents will quake field trip. For the cost of a building code organizations. know that the community is on its bus rental and several lunches, * Provide relevant information to way to seismic safety. The code will you can show local officials the decision-making commit- reduce long-term liability costs. A nearby earthquake faults, evi- tee. good code may ultimately improve dence of past earthquakes, areas the community's insurance rating * Monitor the process from susceptible to seismic ground beginning to end. (see chapter 6). A seismic code is not failure, and seismically unsafe an admission of community weak- buildings. ness, but rather a sign of community * Consider ways of subsidizing the strength. It says that the community cost of joining the model building values safety, takes itself seriously, code organizations. In some and wants to survive natural disas- How Cities and Counties CanAdopt Seismic Building Codes 27 cases, state agencies may be Step 4:Assist Local W_ willing to subsidize the cost of Governments Throughout local code adoption and enforce- theAdoption, ment. Implementation, and · Provide information about Previous experience has shown Enforcement Stages seismic hazards in the state, the that it helps to cultivate an inside function and effectiveness of advocate. Find one or more council The state seismic program manager seismic codes, elements of code members sympathetic to your cause and local advocates should be enforcement, and services and help them to craft persuasive prepared to provide technical provided by the model code arguments. Inside advocates might assistance throughout the code- organizations. be people who have experienced an adoption process, including the earthquake or other disaster, have a * Keep informed of implementa- implementation and enforcement professional interest in the subject, tion milestones. stages. Assistance may include or are particularly concerned about * Meet periodically with the information on: public safety issues. building official(s). * Seismic hazard in the state Once the proposed ordinance is Verify that adequate proce- * Function and effectiveness of prepared a nd introduced, it usually dures have been introduced for is assigned to a standing committee seismic codes plan review , inspection, and or subcommittee, which conducts a staff training. · Elements of code enforcement public hearing. You will need to Inform the building officials of work with the committee, provide * Services provided by the model any problems. relevant information, and stay code organization informed regarding its scheduled Government officials interested in meetings. Proponents must make initiating a new code, or improving their presentations clear, concise, their -code enforcement may find it and professional. They should NOTES useful to obtain a copy of this entire provide factual and persuasive book. Il ushkatel, AH., and Nigg, J.M, responses to the concerns of interest "Opinion Congruence and the Formna- groups in the jurisdiction. Some of Implementation and enforcement tion of Seismic Safety Policies," Policy the information presented elsewhere will follow once the code is adopted Studies Review, Vol. 6, No. 4, May 1987. in this book can help in preparing and the ordinance is assigned to an presentations (see step 3 in chapter agency or department, such as the 2 E.g., Wyner, AlJ., and Mann, D.E., 4). building or engineering department. Preparingfor Californias'Earfthquakes: In many cases, the new code will L ocal Goverrnment and Seismic Safety, If the committee recommends initiate a building department that Institute of Governmental Studies, that the ordinance be passed, the had not previously existed. Uiniversity of California at Berkeley, governing body usually will call the 1986. The building officials then need ordinance up for debate. A strong positive vote by the committee will to revise existing procedures, such 3 Insurance Institute for Property Loss lessen the possibility of a long as plan review, permit issuance, and Reduction (nowv IBlHS), Public Opinion debate by the governing body. inspection. Personnel training must Concerning Various Issues Relating to also be updated as required. Staff Home Builders, Building Codes and You should monitor the approval members should take courses and Danmage A'fitigation, UPLR (Boston, process carefully from beginning to receive training materials offered by M4A), 1995. end, and be prepared to testify and the appropriate model building code provide additional information as 4 Building Seismic Safety Council, Societal organization (see Appendix ID). needed to ensure approval. Implications: Selected Readings, IFEMLA It will take some time before the #84, June 1985. department becomes effective at implementing the ordinance. Professional organizations in the community can help this process by monitoring it and informing the building officials of any problems. (See chapter 6, "Improving Code Enforcement.) } 28 Chapter 6 Improving Code Enforcement:A Critical Link Administration concluded that a " 4!" substantial portion of the storm's , 5, .1; damage was attributable to lack of ;.-1 A ; enforcement of the South Florida Building Code. According to the Insurance Services Office, Inc., at least one-fourth of the record $15.5 billion in insured losses caused by Andrew were because of construc- tion that failed to meet Dade County's code. Thus, even in communities with adequate codes, significant damage can be attributed to poor compliance and enforce- ment. In a 1993 study, G.G. Schierle of the University of Southern Califor- nia found significant problems in FIGURE 6.1 A substantialportion of the A building code is just a book. quality control of seismic-resistant Enforcement and effective adminis- damage fom Hurricane Anidrew in 1992 construction in California. By means was fron lack of enforcement of the Souith tration of a good code are the keys of a survey of design professionals FloridaBuilding Code.' (Source:FEMA to achieving the goal of building and site inspection of 143 projects, 1993) safer buildings. The information in the researchers found that key items this chapter applies to any level of to resist seismic load are frequently government implementing the code, (13 to 72 percent of surveyed units) be it state, county, or municipal. missing or flawed. Reasons include "inadequate communication, little or Poor Code Enforcement Results no construction observation by in Deficient Buildings design professionals, ignorance, greed, shortsighted false economy, Recent studies following Hurricanes and lack of scrutiny by building Hugo and Andrew have shown inspectors." 4 weaknesses in code enforcement. In 1991State Farm Insurance Company Clearly, much effort needs to be contracted with SBCCIto evaluate spent on improving code enforce- code compliance in twelve ran- ment. The weaknesses become domly selected coastal communities. apparent only at the moment when They found that inspectors and resistance is most needed-when reviewers had little or no training in the disaster strikes. wind-resistant construction and that there was a general lack of enforce- Insurers Recognize the Critical ment of adequate connections of Importance of Code Enforcement windows, doors, and mechanical The code enforcement problems equipment to the building frame. discovered in the wake of Hurricane About half of the communities were Andrew have prompted the insur- not enforcing their own code ance industry to initiate a Building standards for wind resistance: Code-Effectiveness Grading Following Hurricane Andrew, Schedule, in order to identify reports by a Dade County grand communities with good enforce- jury and by the Federal Insurance ment practices. It is planned that Improving Code EnforcemnentA Critical Link 29' property owners in communities memberships in appropriate trade k~fl= . Cr _ with such practices will be rewarded and professional organizations. with lowered insurance premiums (see box on page 30). This new Element 3: Have a Qualified A recent study by the Earthquake system, phased in over a five-year Reviewer Review Plans Engineering Research Institute period beginning in 1995, should examined why poor construction Plan review is one of the two points gain the attention of local officials practices remain a key cause of at which the local government can and property owners and improve earthquake damages. It found that affect the details of building con- the political environment for local a key problem is deficient training struction. At a minimum, plan support of code enforcement. for those who construct and review verifies that the design inspect buildings. complies with the building code. Elements of Code Specific findings were: (a) seismic This is the most cost-effective Enforcement resistance is not currently a moment to catch mistakes, before priority topic for building offi- any money is spent on construction. Code enforcement and administra- cials, inspectors, or the trades, (b) Some jurisdictions may also review tion consist of five sequential there is a lack of conceptual structural calculations. elements. The most important understanding of building Plan reviewers must be fully aspects of enforcement are plan performance in an earthquake, (c) knowledgeable about code require- revie-wA and construction inspection, there is inadequate communica- ments. The code organizations offer tion among education providers, but effective code administration certification programs to recognize (d) training materials are inad- must consider the entire sequence. the capabilities of plan reviewers. equate in content and delivery So-me jurisdictions use licensed methods are inefficient (e) there is Element 1: Keep the Code a lack of certification and continu- architects and engineers wvho can go Provisions Up To Date ing education programs, and (f) beyond code compliance review and Simply adopting a code is not there is a need for improved on- verify calculations and overall enough. A code is an active docu- the-job training. building safety. An applicant for a ment, evolving to reflect newA building permit must submit plans The message is clear: We must do knowledge and new standards of for reviews and approval. The a better job of training those practice. Once a Jurisdiction makes a building department can approve, individuals wNThose work is commitment to use a building code, require revisions, or reject the plans. directly linked to the performance it must be prepared to update its Construction cannot begin until the of buildings during earthquakes. 5 local code on a regular basis. building department confirms that the plans conform to the building Element 2: Ensure That Builders code. Apply for Permits Construction of buildings larger Obviously, if builders try to avoid than one- or twt0o-family dwellings the code-application process, then usually requires architectural and the code cannot do its job. A jurisdic- engineering designs. Architects and tion must have inspectors out in the engineers must be certified or field who know the community. The licensed in order to practice in a inspector needs to be alert to new state. State statutes require that the construction in his or her jurisdic- licensed professional engineer and/ tion and must be aware of current or architect place his or her seal and active permits. signature on the designs. The seal and signature signify that the design In addition, public relations is an is at the accepted professional important aspect of code enforce- standard, which is typically the most ment. The building department recent version of a model building must cultivate and maintain cordial code or technical document. An relations with the building and added incentive for conformity is design communuity. This can be done the legal liability the engineers and by arrangoing informal meetings, architects assume when the seal and sending written materials to local signature are placed on the docu- organizations, speaking to commu- ment. nity groups, and maintaining Chapter 6 30 affect the details of building con- ~ . - . 4 ' - M - 0-91= struction. Inspection verifies whether construction is proceeding according Insurers and lenders have begun to realize that adoption and enforcement to the approved plans and the of building codes in general, and seismic codes in particular, are in their conditions of the permit. Inspection long-term interest. Accordingly, in 1995 the Insurance Services Office, is typically required at several key Commercial Risk Services (ISO/CRS) began to phase in a new Building stages in the construction process. Code-Effectiveness Grading Schedule. By the end of the decade, this The inspector has a powerful en- schedule will rate the code-enforcement capabilities of every municipality forcement tool called a stop work in the United States. order. A stop work order is issued to The insurance industry is developing this new grading schedule to the construction firm if the inspector reward communities for promoting property and life safety protection finds a code violation that must be through the use and enforcement of modern codes. The system will be used corrected before any further con- by property insurers to set differential rates among communities based on struction is performed. At final code-enforcement practices. Property owners in communities with good inspection, the building can be code enforcement will pay lower insurance premiums-and owners in approved for occupancy. communities with poor enforcement will pay more. Depending on the jurisdiction, The grading schedule measures resources and support available to inspectors may be municipal em- building code enforcement efforts. It assesses each municipality's support ployees or contracted tradespeople. for code enforcement, plan review, and field inspection. The grading In either case, building inspectors process includes interviews with municipal officials, examination of must be well qualified. They must documents, review of training requirements and work schedules, staffing know how to read building plans levels, and certification of staff members. and must be familiar with the code. The new system is comparable to the fire protection grading system and More importantly, they must be the community rating system for flood insurance already used by ISO/CRS. familiar with building practices so These two systems use a rating scale of one to ten, with one representing the they can recognize potential prob- best protection and ten indicating no protection. lems. Model code organizations offer For more information, contact the coordinating body, the Institute for certification programs to recognize Business and Home Safety (formerly lIPLR; address in Appendix E). the capabilities of inspectors. How to Establish an Element 4: Ensure That Construction Proceeds According Effective Building Code to Approved Plans Enforcement Program An owner receives a building permit This section outlines the six steps to construct according to the ap- toward establishing an effective proved plans, and it is the legal building code program. In addition, responsibility of the owner to do so. detailed case studies of six cities and The builder uses the plans to order counties are contained in Appendix C. materials and construct the building. The owner may hire inspectors or Step l:Adopt a Model Code the engineers and architects to oversee key aspects of the construc- The first step in establishing a tion in order to help verify compli- program is to review and adopt a ance with the plans. To some extent, model building code and join the all government inspection systems appropriate code organization. depend on the owner's obligation to Numerous publications and tele- construct according to the approved phone-assistance services will then plans, which is inherent in the be available to help the new program issuance of a permit. get started. The information pro- vided includes organization charts, Element 5: Have a Qualified descriptions of staff duties, fee Inspector Inspect the structures, suggested procedures, Construction and so on. New members may want to take seminars in plan review and Inspection is the second point at which the local government can Improving Code EnforcementiA Critical Link 31 inspection before officially initiating plumbing, and so forth, for an MO-M- - S the code. additional 25 percent each. New members can request the Element 1: Fee schedules suggested by the model code staff to visit and assist in Keep the code provisions up to three model building code organiza- date. establishing their program (see tions are provided in Appendix D. information in Appendix D). If Element 2- extensive help is requited, the code Step 3: Institute a Systematic Ensure that builders apply for organization may be hired to pro- Plan Review System permits. vide the needed assistance. It is easy A reviewe process must serve the Element 3: to get started, because the code needs of the commuuity and the Havre a qualified reviewer organizations are set up to effec- public agencies. Reviews must be rendew plans. tively and efficiently provide all the done as quickly as possible so as not support you need. Element 4: to unduly disrupt the construction Ensure that construction industry. Clearly, smaller projects Step 2: Establish Fee Structures proceeds according to ap- should be expected to take less time proved plans. for Permits and Plan Review than larger projects. Applicants Building departments collect fees to Element 5: should be informed up-front of the Havte a qualified inspector pay for the costs of review, inspec- time required for review so they can inspect the construction. tion, and associated administrative plan their design and construction services. The community sets the fee schedule accordingly. Some depart- structure based on its needs. Some ments promise turnaround for small communities require the building projects within a specified number E=_uR department to be completely self- of days. Some jurisdictions offer supporting; others use the fees to fast-track reviews for an additional offset only a portion of their true fee. 4Wm 1 costs. Communities with significant A twvo-day training course has Plans usually must be circulated experience in code administration been developed for building to several additional departments can set fees based on previous officials in Standard Building for review, such as the planning, budgets. Communities just starting Code states that must now enforce public works, and fire departments. out may prefer to use the fee struc- the seismic provisions in the latest It is best to have one department tures suggested by the code organi- SBC (NC, SC, MSS, TN, AR). The designated as the lead and to zations. purposes of the course, developed require multiple plan copies from by CUSEC, SBCCI, FEMA, BSSC, Plan review fees typically are the applicant so as to facilitate and IBHS, are to (a) raise the level based on estimated construction multi-department reviews. of awareness and understanding value, which depends on building Applicants should be kept well of the seismic provisions of the floor area, type of construction, and informed right from the start. SBC and (b) increase understand- proposed use. For example, under ing and support of building code Handouts and checklists are very the BOCA NBC, the suggested adoption and enforcement. important so that they know what building plan review fee for $1 Building officials in these states materials to submit and how the million construction value is $1,250. can request the course from their plan will be judged. Review for mechanical work, state emergency management plumbing, energy conservation, or agency Instruction is provided Step 4:Adopt an Inspection electrical work is an additional 25 jointly by the state earthquake Schedule percent each (i.e., each of these program manager and an SBCCI additional reviews, if required, costs Each code has a recommended instructor. $312). inspection schedule based on construction milestones. For ex- Once plans are reviewed, a permit ample, the BOCA NTBC suggests the is issued. Typically the building following inspections for residential permit requires an additional fee to buildings: footing forms and pay for inspection costs. As with trenches, basement and foundation plan review, the fee is based on the wall forms, footing drains and estimated construction value. Under damp proofing, framing, wallboard, the BOCA NBC, additional permits and final. Similar schedules exist for are suggested for mechanical work, Chapter 6 Chapter 6 32 32 Step 6: Be Persistent But Patient I * II. I- II - Mr You need to realize that a new code The Massachusetts State Legislature has passed a law requiring that all will not be implemented in one day. building inspectors be certified. Inspectors of Buildings or Building Com- Adequate enforcement takes many missioners must complete the CABO exam as well as the BOCA National years of experience and learning Code Exam. In addition to these requirements, they must also possess five from mistakes. Procedures evolve years of experience in building inspection and construction. The require- over time. Building officials, plan ments certify adequate education and training to ensure quality construc- reviewers, and inspectors must tion and compliance with building codes. receive technical training and continuing education, which cannot Recently state building inspectors took the ATC-20 course, enabling them be done overnight. to assess damage after an earthquake occurs. This training paid off when these inspectors were called upon to estimate damage after a tornado Still, once you adopt a code, the occurred in the state. code organizations and other A serious fire in Quincy destroyed a retail warehouse and caused an professional organizations offer estimated $7 million in damage. In response to this fire, the state initiated numerous services to teach you new codes covering the use and occupancy of large retail warehouses. what they have learned over the years. The effort is worth it, as These initiatives demonstrate the importance of updating enforcement seismic codes afford communities a and inspection high degree of improved building safety, which will save lives. electrical and mechanical work and NOTES plumbing. I~~u1=gcVJ1effigw 1 Federal Insurance Administration, Typically, the builder or owner Building Performance:HurricaneAndrew will call for inspection when each in Florida,FIA-22, December 1992. Step 1: specified milestone is reached. In Adopt a model code. addition, inspectors occasionally 2 Southern Building Code Congress International, Coastal Building Depart- make unannounced inspections Step 2: based on their judgment of the work ment Survey, National Committee on Establish fee structures for Property Insurance (now IBHS, in progress and the quality of the permits and plan review. Boston), 1992. contractor. Step 3: 3 Federal Insurance Administration, Institute a systematic plan Step 5: Maintain a Trained, Building Performance:HurricaneAndrew review system. Qualified Staff in Florida,FIA-22, December 1992. Step 4: Qualified staff members are a must. Adopt an inspection schedule. 4 Schierle, G.G., Quality Control in Seismic Ideally some staff members would Resistant Construction, report to the Step 5: be licensed engineers and architects, National Science Foundation, School of Maintain a trained, qualified but most departments are too small Architecture, University of Southern staff. to justify this cost. At a minimum, California, 1993. reviewers and inspectors must have Step 6: experience in construction, be able 5 Earthquake Engineering Research Be persistent but patient. to read plans, and be familiar with Institute. ConstructionQuality, the code. Training in engineering or Education, and Seismic Safety. EERI Endowment Fund White Paper, architecture is a plus. Oakland, California, April 1996. Each of the model building code organizations offers certification in a number of categories for inspectors and plan reviewers. More and more building departments are requiring or rewarding certification in order tc recognize staff quality. AppendixA: History and Principlesof Seismic Design 34 Appendix A History and Principlesof Seismic Design Long Beach experienced either collapse or extensive damage, rendering the buildings useless. Seventy-five percent of schools were heavily damaged. Soon after this earthquake California enacted the Field Act, which specified seismic design forces for school buildings, and the Riley Act, which mandated seismic design for most public buildings throughout the state. By the 1950s some California municipalities had ad opted addi- tional seismic-resistant design and material specifications. UBC was the first model building code to incorpo- rate comprehensive seismic design requirements, though they remained FIGURE A.1 This 8-storiy reinforced History of Seismic in the appendix for many years. The concrete building was one of scores that Standards 1949 edition of the UBC contained collapsed during the 1923 Tokyo (Kanto) the first national seismic hazard earthquake. The disasterupromnpteda limit The first quantitative seismic code map. on building heights (Sonce: Carl V was developed by an Italian com- Steinbrugge Collection,Earthquake In 1957the Structural Engineers mission following the 1908Messina- Engineering Reseat ch Center) Association of California (SEAOC) Reggio earthquake, which killed began to develop seismic standards 160,000people. Following the 1923 for use throughout the state. SEAOC earthquake in Kanto, Japan, which in 1959 published the first edition of killed 140,000people, the Home Reconmended Lateral ForceRequire- Office of Japan adopted a seismic ments and Commnientary, commonly coefficient and a limit on building called the Blue Book. The Blue Book heights.' reflected the latest knowledge of seismic design and was used First U.S. Seismic Codes: UBC and throughout California. The seismic SEAOC in California design provisions remained in an The earliest seismic design provi- appendix to the UBC until the sions in the United States were International Conference of Building introduced in the appendix to the Officials (ICBO) adopted the Blue 1927Uniform Building Code (UBC), Bookprovisions into the main code as a result of the 1925 Santa Barbara in 1961. The seismic requirements of earthquake. The 1930edition the UBC remained largely un- included strict specifications for changed, except for some map mortar and workmanship on revisions, until after the 1971San masonry (brick) buildings. However, Fernando earthquake. Revisions damage from the Long Beach were made to the 1973UBC, and earthquake of 1933(Richter magni- new requirements, based on the tude 6.8) proved that unreinforced work of SEAOC, were introduced in mortar is unstable in earthquakes. the 1976 edition. Eighty-six percent of unreinforced masonry buildings in the city of 35 History and Principles of Seismic Design the lead federal agency for coordi- Federal Involvement Expands: nating NCERP. The ATC Project The Building Seismic Safety Early in the 1970s the National Council (BSSC) was established in Science Foundation (NSF) funded a 1979 as an independent voluntary project, under the guidance of the body under the auspices of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, National Institute of Building now the National Institute of Science (NIBS). The purpose of the Standards and Technology ),to BSSC is to provide a national forum evaluate existing earthquake- to foster seismic safety The concept resistant design provisions. In 1974 of the BSSC was develop ed by the the NBS contracted the project to the ATC, SEAOC, NIBS, NSF, National Applied Technology Council (ATC). Bureau of Standards (now the The ATC is a nonprofit corp oration National Institute of Science and established in 1971 to assist the Technology), FEMA, and American design practitioner in structural Society of Civll Engineers (ASCE). engineering. It is guided by a Board Currently members of BSSC come of Directors with representatives from more than fifty organizations, from various structural and civil engineering organizations. ATC also such as the American Consulting Engineers Council, Masonry Insti- identifies and encourages research tute of America, and American lion and develops consensus opinions on and Steel Institute, all having structural engineering issues. interest in seismic-related issues. Over three years ATC published several drafts, which received Under a contract with FEvIA, extensive peer review. In 1978 ATC BSSC revised ATC 3-06 through a published the final report titled consensus process of its members. Tentative Provisionsfor tim Develop- After balloting BSSC members twice ment of Seismnic Regulationsfor and receiving approval, FEMA Buildings (ATC 3-06). The SEAOC released the recommendations in and UJBC used the ATC 3-06 report 1985 under the title INEHRP Recoin- to revise their recommendations and :nended Provisionsforthe Developmient building code. of Seismic Regulationsfor New Build- ings, commonly called the NVEHRP The NBS in the late 1970s pub- Provisions.The BSSC, with FEMVIA lished a Planfor the Assessment anid funding, continues to update the Implementation of Seismic Design seismic recommendations using a Provisionsfor Buildimgs. This plan consensus process. The most current analyzed ATC 3-06 and facilitated its edition was published by FEMA in development into design standards 1994, and the 1997 edition ;vill be and building codes. published in early 1998. FurtherFederal Involvement: Federal Buildings: EO 12699 NEHRP and the BSSC & EO 12941 In the late 1970s the U.S. Congress The federal government, under passed the Earthquake Hazards presidential Executive Order 12699 Reduction Act of 1977 &PL 95-124), (January 5, 1990), now requires establishing the National Earth- seismic design for its new buildings. quake Hazards Reduction Program According to the executive order, (NEI{RP), a multi-agency program titled Seismic Safetj of Federal and to fund research and improve FederallyAssisted-or Regulated Newo practice in reducing earthquake Building Construction,federal hazards. Since 1977 NERIP has agencies must by February 1993 been the primary source of funding require appropriate seismic design for earthquake research. In 1979 the and construction standards for new Federal Emergency Management federal and federally assisted, Agency (FEIMIA) was established as AppendixA AppendiA x 36 36 BOCA NationalBuildingCode,and the 1992 Amendments to the SBCCI StandardBuilding Code. In a May 17, 1995, Recommenda- tion, the Interagency Committee on SeismicSafety and Construction updated this finding. They found that the 1994 UBC, 1993 BNBC, and 1994 SBC provide a level of seismic safety substantially equivalent to that of the 1991 NEHRP Provisions. In addition, they found that the National Consensus Standard ASCE 7-93 also provides an acceptable level of seismic safety Any locality that enforces the current seismic requirements of one of the model codes meets this condition. The American Society of Civil leased, and regulated buildings. EO FIGURE A.2 All new federal buildings, Engineers' Minimum DesignLoadsfor such as thisfederal courthousein Urbana, 12699 is significant for state and Buildingsand Other Structures (ASCE Illinois, must be built with seismic design local governments, because it makes 7-95; see Appendix E for address of appropriate to the region. (Photo: R. seismic design more prevalent ASCE), which supersedes the Walker) throughout the nation and increases American National Standards the number of experienced seismic Institute A58.1 standards and designers and contractors. subsequent maps adopted for Executive Order 12699 is far- federal use in accord with the order, reaching, because all new buildings may be used to determine the that are owned, leased, or receive seismic hazards in various parts of federal assistance now must have the country. ASCE 7-95includes seismic-resistant design. Also specifications for calculating forces covered are federally regulated or that the building must support, such assisted buildings, including single- as earthquake, wind, snow, and family homes with Federal Housing building material forces. Administration or Veterans Admin- Because of EO 12699, it is in the istration mortgages.3 best interests of local governments Under Executive Order 12699,the to adopt seismic codes. To best seismic design provisions used may facilitate the possibility of federal be those of the municipality or state financial assistance for new build- in which the building is built, so ings, local governments would be long as the responsible agency or well advised to adopt one of the the Interagency Committee on model codes that have been found Seismic Safety in Construction to be seismically adequate. For (ICSSC)finds that they provide example, the federal agencies adequately for seismic safety.4 providing financial assistance for Accordingly, the ICSSC in 1992 housing construction (VA,FHA, recommended the use of standards HUD) all now require adequate and practices that are substantially seismic design and construction. equivalent to the seismic safety EO 12941,by adopting the levels in the 1988NEHRP Provisions. Standardsof SeismicSafetyfor Existing Each of the following model codes has been found to provide a level of Federally Owned or Leased Buildings, by the Interagency Committee on seismic safety substantially equiva- Seismic Safety and Construction lent to the 1988NEIIRP Provisions: (ICSSC), promulgates a set of the 1991 ICBO Uniform Building seismic standards for federally Code, the 1992 Supplement to the 37 History and Principles of Seismic Design History and Principles of SeismicDesign 37 owned or leased buildings. It also establishes five triggers for evalua- tion and possible mitigation of risks in a building. For example, when there is a change of building func- tion, a building is significantly altered, or it has to be rebuilt following a disaster, the building must be evaluated according to the ICSSC standards. 5 Federal Agency Practices Prior to EO 12699: Some Examples Prior to EO 12699, many agencies of the federal government had promul- gated their own building regula- tions for federally owned and funded projects. Because of the influence of the federal agencies' FIGURE A.3 Followingthe collapseof the operation, maintenance, and regula- standards, increasing numbers of Veteran'sAdministration hospitalin the tion of dams. structures throughout the United San Fernando earthquake of 1971, the VA States have been built to seismic- The 1971 San Fernando, Califor- has requiredseismic designfor all its resistant standards. nia, earthquake caused a Veterans facilities. The hospitalbuilding shown in Administration hospital to collapse. this photo was constructed in 1925 with The recognized authorities for Since then the VAhas required its floors, and concreteframesand concrete highway bridge earthquake-resis- facilities to be designed with earth- hollow-tile walls. This type of building is tant design are the American quake-resistant provisions, in known to be hazardous in the event of a Association of State Highway and accordance with a seismic design strong earthquake.(Source:Engineering Transportation Officials (AASHTO) manual published by the VAOffice Featuresof the San FernandoEarthquake, and the Federal Highway Adminis- of Facilities. CaliforniaInstitute of Technology, EERL, tration (FHWA). AASHTO has 1971) published The Standard Specifications Principles of Seismic for Highway Bridges since 1931 (see Design 6 Appendix E for address of AASHTO). AASHTO's expressed purpose for publishing these The Goals of Seismic Design specifications is to guide the prepa- Seismic design provisions are ration of state specifications. The intended to protect the safety of a latest edition was published in 1995, building's occupants during and and supplements are released immediately following an earth- yearly. Although seismic design quake. Building codes are primarily standards were not incorporated designed to save lives and reduce into AASHTO's specifications until injuries, not to eliminate property 1991,they had been adopted as loss. Their purpose is to allow for guidelines since 1983. States must safe evacuation of a building. use AASHTO specifications in order Seismic provisions attempt to to receive federal highway funds. prevent general failures (total The federal government, through collapse), but allow for local damage the Interagency Committee on Dam (damage to noncritical sections). Safety, has published Federal Guide- Therefore, a building in compliance linesfor Earthquake Analysis and with the code probably will not Design of Dams. These guidelines collapse, but it may be rendered were created to develop consistency unfit for continued use. According among federal agencies involved in to the Structural Engineers Associa- the planning, design, construction, tion of California, structures built AppendixA 38 The model reflects the building's according to a seismic code should behavior, conceptually similar to a resist minor earthquakes undam- vibrating string. The dynamic aged, resist moderate earthquakes analysis is more accurate than the without significant structural simple or "static" analysis but is damage even though incurring more time-consuming and costly; nonstructural damage, and resist therefore it is only used for large- severe earthquakes without collapse. scale structures in which many Building codes are only minimum people could be hurt. design standards. The Council of American Build- Lateral Earthquake Forces ing Officials (CABO) has incorpo- rated construction specifications that Today's seismic provisions specify increase earthquake resistance for how to calculate the unique earth- one- and two-family dwellings. The quake-induced lateralforce. These are CABO One- and Two-Family Dwelling horizontal forces generated by the Code contains specific requirements ground's side-to-side movement in for reinforcing chimneys and an earthquake. fireplaces, tying the building frame The purpose of earthquake to the foundation, and providing engineering and earthquake- walls more resistant to earthquake resistant design is to construct motion (shear walls). These provi- buildings that can resist horizontal sions help to prevent chimneys from forces. This notion is central to falling and homes from shifting off seismic building design. All build- their foundation. ings are designed to stand under the vertical forces of gravity, an obvious Ductility constraint because it is always Another aspect of seismic design is present. Less apparent is the need to called ductility, the flexibility of design for the occasional occurrence buildings. In simple terms, buildings of horizontal forces. Many cities are designed to bend rather than have learned the hard way, after it is break under earthquake forces. too late, that their brick or adobe Ductility is the ability of a material buildings (or concrete and steel to deform without fracturing. For buildings not seismically designed) example, ductility is an inherent cannot withstand earthquake property of steel. Steel will bend ground-shaking. significantly before it ultimately In designing a building, a struc- fails, which is called ductile failure. tural engineer combines the earth- Designing an entire structure to be quake-induced lateral force with ductile allows for the parts of a other code-specified forces, such as building to deflect in an earthquake wind or snow load, to obtain the before they fail. maximum probable force. The In contrast to ductile failure, structure is designed based on the brittlefailure occurs without prior maximum combination. The calcu- visual indication. Unreinforced lated earthquake forces may be less masonry and unreinforced concrete than the wind or snow force. structures are inherently brittle Buildings that are tall or have materials. Steel reinforcement unusual shapes require more transforms concrete's behavior from extensive design analysis. When a brittle to ductile. The American building has a complex shape the Concrete Institute (ACI) through its designer must employ a dynamic Building Code Requirementsfor structural response analysis, a Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-89) computer analysis that simulates the provides specific criteria for struc- building's swaying (side-to-side tural design of reinforced concrete movement) during an earthquake. structures. One provision is the 39 History and Principles of Seismic Design specification of a minimum amount of reinforcing steel to provide for ductile behavior. Drift The codes also try to limit the sway of buildings. This is to prevent IM7 OF 1 sts s --------- - yet/ nonstructural damage and equip- -4 .7F;P~iE: ment and inventory damage. Although the structural frame can resist stresses and strains created by dr ft, or horizontal movement of one Wi1 to %-' 2- floor relative to the other, items that are attached to the frame or wdithin its interior may not The John Hancock Building in Boston in the 1970s had problems caused by _ S'It- He- excessive drift. Windowvs crashed to the ground as the building swayed in the wind, until the building was states. The original map was created FIGURE A.4 The 1948 seismic hazard retrofitted to reduce the amount of map. (Source: U.S. Coast and Geodetic by plotting historical earthquake sway. Damage occurred in Mexico Survey) occurrences and was based only on City's 1985 earthquake when the recorded maximum earthquake swaying buildings pounded into intensities. Because of this, portions each other. Pounding ivas a signifi- of the northeast United States were cant factor in 40 p ercent of the assig ned the same hazard and collapsed buildings? The drift was design requirements as areas in due to inadequate stiffness in California. This map was the basis building frames and the small for the zoning map in the 1970 UBC, distances separating buildings. which divided the United States into four zones numbered 0 through 3. A Seismic HazardMaps zone 4 was added to California in the 1976 UBC. All the model codes include a seismic hazard map that indicates 1976, Map: Probabilities of likely levels of earthquake gound- (iro und-Shaking shaking and, therefore, potential In 1976 Algermissen and coworkers structural damage in every part of refined the map to incorporate the the United States. The hazard map is probable frequency of various based on the probability that a earthquake intensities. Thus, areas specified earthquake intensity will with more frequent earthquakes occur during a defined time period. would be subject to stricter stan- dards of design. They mapped the FirstSeismic Hazard Map Was peak ground acceleration, a measure Based on Maximum Historic of the maximum force of earthquake Earthquakes' ground-shaking, according to The first seismic hazard map was different earthquake intensities published in 1948 by the U.S. Coast expected across the United States. and Geodetic Survey and was The 1976 map by Algermissen and adopted in the 1949 edition of the others depicts the peak ground UBC, as well as subsequent editions acceleration that has a 10 percent until 1970. In 1969 S.T. Algernmissen probability of being exceeded every of the U.S. Geological Survey fifty years. The fifty-year period is (USGS) published a seismic hazard typically used as a structure's design map for the contiguous forty-eight lifespan, and 10 percent is consid- Appendix A 40 40 Appendix A State State Code Name Basis* Edition Alabama Alabama State Code SBC 1994 Alaska Alaska State Code UBC 1994 Arizona None Arkansas Arkansas Fire Prevention Code SBC 1991 California California Building Code UBC 1994 Colorado UBC UBC 1991 Connecticut Connecticut State Building Code BNBC 1992 Delaware None (done at county level) Dist. of Columbia DC Building Code Supplement BNBC 1990 Florida SBC, EPCOT, So. Florida Bldg. Code 1994 Georgia Georgia State Minimum Std. Bldg. Code SBC 1994 Hawaii None (done at county level) Idaho UBC UBC 1994 Illinois State (plumbing only) State 1993 Indiana Indiana Building Code UBC 1991 Iowa Iowa State Building Code UBC 1991 Kansas None (uses UBC) UBC 1991 Kentucky Kentucky Building Code BNBC 1993 Louisiana State Uniform Construction Code SBC 1991 Maine None Maryland Model Performance Code BNBC 1993 Massachusetts Massachusetts State Building Code BNBC 1987 Michigan Building Code Rules BNBC 1993 Minnesota Minnesota State Building Code UBC 1994 Mississippi None Missouri None Montana Admin. Rules of Montana, Ch. 70 UBC 1994 Nebraska State Fire Marshall Act UBC 1979 Nevada Nevada State Fire Marshall Regulation UBC 1991 New Hampshire State Statute BNBC 1990 New Jersey State Uniform Construction Code BNBC 1993 New Mexico New Mexico Building Code UBC 1991 New York Uniform Fire Prevention &Bldg. Code State 1995 North Carolina State Building Code SBC 1994 North Dakota Century Code UBC 1994 Ohio Ohio Basic Building Code BNBC 1993 Oklahoma Title 61, Oklahoma Statutes BNBC 1993 Oregon Oregon Structural Specialty Code UBC 1991 Pennsylvania None Rhode Island State Building Code BNBC 1990 South Carolina SBC SBC 1991 South Dakota Fire Safety Standards UBC 1991 Tennessee SBC SBC 1994 Texas None Utah Utah Uniform Building Standards Act UBC 1994 Vermont Vermont Fire Prevention & Bldg. Code BNBC 1987 Virginia Virginia Uniform Statewide Bldg. Code BNBC 1993 Washington State Building Code UBC 1994 West Virginia State Building Code BNBC 1990 Wisconsin Bldg., Heating, Ventilation & A/C Code State Wyoming State Code, Ch. 9, Fire Prevention UBC 1994 Guam UBC UBC Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Building Code Virgin Islands UBC UBC 1994 *Model code on which state code is based. Sources: Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction (now IBHS), April 1996; information on territories was collected by the authors from FEMA and NCSBCS. I 41 History and Principles of Seismic Design ever, in making the map more user- ered to be a large enough probability friendly, it lost accuracy. The effec- to warrant concern. tive peak acceleration maps depict It is important to appreciate the peak ground acceleration that has a probabilistic nature of the 5 to 20 percent probability of occur- Algermissen map. WAe cannot justify ring in a fifty-year period. the expense of designing for large From effective peak acceleration, but highly improbable events. So we select an -event (called the design ATC also developed an effective peak velocity map. Effective peak event) that, although large and rare, velocity measures the sustained has a reasonable chance (10 percent) ground movement during an of being exceeded during a earthquake and is more suitable for building's lifetime (fifty years). The building code application to taller probability selected reflects society's buildings. En addition, the ATC attitude tow ard risk. This risk maps were revised to followthe acceptance may vary for different boundaries of political jurisdictions uses. Nuclear power plants, for to clarify the zones for local building example, are built to much more code administration. These maps in stringent seismic standards. ATC 3-06 were used as the basis for It is also important to realize that the zone map in the NTEHRP Provi- there is always a chance that an sions. A more refined map by the event will exceed the design event- U.S. Geologic Survey appeared in indeed, there is a 10 percent chance the 1988 NEHRP Provisions and has of an earthquake that exceeds the since been adopted by BOCA and design standard. Seismic design SBCCI The current UBC model standards represent society's building uses similar information balancing of the risks and the costs for its seismic zone map. The map of designing to withstand that risk. divides the United States into six earthquake risk zones: 0, 1, 2a, 2b, 3, Finally, one must realize that the zone boundaries themselves are and 4. based on probability. There is nothing sacred about the lines on the Current Efforts by USGS map; a structure on one side of a The U.S. Geological Survey has zone line is not markedly safer than recently developed a new genera- a structure immediately on the other tion of seismic hazard maps. These side. But these maps do represent a maps are based on the more com- consensus of informed scientific plete spectrum of ground response opinion of the likelihood of earth- to seismic waves, rather than the quake ground-shaking and its traditional acceleration and velocity effects. By using these maps as maps. They also use shaking guides to design, we reduce the exceedance probabilities of 2 percent overall chances of damage to and 5 percent in 50 years, in addi- buildings in a region. tion to the probability of 10 percent in 50 years that has traditionally ATC Adaptation of the formed the basis of seismic hazard Probabilistic 1976 Map maps.9 The maps currently being balloted for inclusion in the NEHRP The ATC revised the 1976 Provisionsare based on the 2 percent Algermissen map by converting the in 50 year USGS map, with some peak ground acceleration values to changes in high-seismic near-fault effective peak acceleration (EPA) areas. The maps will be published values, another way of describing with the 1997 edition of the NEHRP earthquake ground-shaking. There Provisionsand wl ultimately be is no single perfect measure. How- used in the 2000 International Building Code. AppendixA 42 ber 1995. Also see EERI Ad Hoc NOTES Committee on Seismic Performance, 1 Building Seismic Safety Council, Expected Seismic Performance of Buildings, Improving the Seismic Safety of New Earthquake Engineering Research Buildings: A Community Handbook of Institute, February 1994; and Lagorio, Societal Implications, FEMA #83, July Henry J., Earthquakes, An Architect's 1986 edition. Guide to Nonstructural Seismic Hazards, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1990. 2 This history of seismic codes comes from a number of sources, most 7 Geis, Donald A., et al., "Architectural notably: Beavers, James E., 'Perspec- and Urban Design Lessons from the tives on Seismic Risk Maps and the 1985 Mexico City Earthquake," Lessons Building Code Process," in A Review of Learnedfrom the 1985 Mexico Earthquake, Earthquake Research Applications in the Earthquake Engineering Research National EarthquakeHazards Reduction Institute, 1989, 226-230. Program: 1977-1987, Walter Hays, ed., 8 The information on seismic hazard U.S. Geological Survey Open-File maps comes from a number of sources, Report 88-13-A, 1988, 407-432; most notably: Beavers, James E., Whitman, R.V., and Algermissen, S.T., "Perspectives on Seismic Risk Maps "Seismic Zonation in Eastern United and the Building Code Process," in A States," Proceedings,Fourth International Review of Earthquake ResearchApplica- Conference on Seismic Zonation, Vol. I, tions in the National Earthquake Hazards Earthquake Engineering Research Reduction Program: 1977-1987, Walter Institute, 1991, 845-869; Martin, H.W., Hays, ed., U.S. Geological Survey "Recent Changes to Seismic Codes and Open-File Report 88-13-A, 1988, 407- Standards: Are They Coordinated or 432; Whitman, R.V., and Algermissen, Random Events?" Proceedings, 1993 S.T., "Seismic Zonation in Eastern National Earthquake Conference, Vol. II, United States," Proceedings, Fourth Central U.S. Earthquake Consortium, InternationalConference on Seismic 1993, 367-376. Zonation, Vol. I, Earthquake Engineer- 3 National Institute of Standards and ing Research Institute, 1991, 845-869; Technology, Guidelines and Proceduresfor U.S. Department of the Interior, Implementation of the Executive Order on Geological Survey, USGS Spectral Seismic Safety of New Building Construc- Response Maps and Their Relationship tion, ICSSC RP2.1A, NISTIR 4852, June with Seismic Design Forces in Building 1992. Codes, Open-File Report 95-595, 1995; and Leyendecker, Edgar V., 4 Ibid. Algermissen, S.T., and Frankel, Arthur, 5 Todd, Diana, ed., Standardsof Seismic Use of Spectral Response Maps and Safetyfor Existing Federally Owned or Uniform Hazard Response Spectra in Leased Buildings, National Institute of Building Codes, Fifth National Confer- Standards and Technology Report NISTIR ence on Earthquake Engineering, July 5382, Interagency Committee of Seismic 1994. Safety and Construction Recommended 9 Leyendecker, E.V., et al., USGS Spectral Practice 4 (ICSSC RP 4), February 1994. Response Maps and Their Relationship with 6 This summary of seismic design comes Seismic Design Forces in Building Codes, from a number of sources, most notably U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report from the Building Seismic Safety 95-596, 1995. The most recent versions Council: Improving the Seismic Safety of are available at http://gldage.cr.usgs. New Buildings: A Community Handbook of gov/eg/ Societal Implications, FEMA #83, July 1986 edition; Seismic Considerationsfor Communities at Risk, FEMA #83, September 1995 edition; and Nontechni- cal Explanation of the NEHRP Recom- mended Provisions,FEMA #99, Septem-