A Country Study: China

• China
• Foreword
• Acknowledgments
• Table A. Chronology of Chinese Dynasties
• Country Profile - Visit new updated Profile (PDF)
  • Country
  • Geography
  • Society
  • Economy
  • Transportation and Communications
  • Government and Politics
  • National Security
• Introduction

• Chapter 1 - Historical Setting (Rinn-Sup Shinn and Robert L. Worden)
  • The Ancient Dynasties
    • The Dawn of History
    • The Zhou Period
    • The Hundred Schools of Thought
  • The Imperial EraI
    • The First Imperial Period
    • Era of Disunity
    • Restoration of Empire
    • Mongolian Interlude
    • The Chinese Regain Power
    • The Rise of the Manchus
  • Emergence of Modern China
    • The Western Powers Arrive
    • The Opium War, 1839-42
    • The Taiping Rebellion, 1851-64
    • The Self-Strengthening Movement
    • The Hundred Days' Reform and the Aftermath
    • The Republican Revolution of 1911
  • Republican China
    • Nationalism and Communism
      • Opposing the Warlords
      • Consolidation under the Guomindang
      • Rise of the Communists
    • Anti-Japanese War
    • Return to Civil War
  • The People's Republic of China
    • The Transition to Socialism, 1953-57
    • The Great Leap Forward, 1958-60
    • Readjustment and Recovery, 1961-65
    • The Cultural Revolution Decade, 1966-76
      • The Militant Phase, 1966-68
      • The Ninth National Party Congress to the Demise of Lin Biao, 1969-71
      • End of the Era of Mao Zedong, 1972-76
    • The Post-Mao Period, 1976-78
    • China and the Four Modernizations, 1979-82

• Chapter 2 - Physical Environment and Population (Michael L. Waddle)
  • Physical Environment
    • Boundaries
    • Terrain and Drainage
    • Climate
    • Wildlife
  • Population
    • The Data Base
    • Mortality and Fertility
    • Population Control Programs
    • Density and Distribution
    • Migration
      • Internal
      • Urbanization
      • Emigration and Immigration
    • Minority Nationalities
      • Demographic Overview
      • Policy
    • Labor Force
    • Health Care

• Chapter 3 - The Social System (Donald R. DeGlopper)
  • Ethnic Boundaries
  • Han Diversity and Unity
  • Traditional Society and Culture
    • Diffusion of Values
    • The Confucian Legacy
    • Traditional Social Structure
    • The Examination System
    • Social Stratification
    • Stratification and Families
    • Social Mobility
  • Social Change
  • Differentiation
    • The Work Place
    • Communist Party Membership
    • Urban-Rural Distinctions
    • Regional Distinctions
  • Common Patterns
    • Work Units
    • Wages and Benefits
    • Informal Mechanisms of Exchange
  • Rural Society
    • Collectivization and Class Status
    • Decollectivization
    • The Role of the Household
    • Consequences of Rural Reform
    • Regulations and Favors
    • Family and Household
    • Marriage
    • Community Structure
  • Urban Society
    • Distinctive Features
    • Housing
    • Families and Marriage
    • Providing for the Next Generation
    • Opportunities and Competition
    • Examinations, Hereditary Transmission of Jobs, and Connections
  • Women
  • Religion
  • Trends and Tensions

• Chapter 4 - Education and Culture (Andrea Matles Savada and Ronald E. Dolan)
  • Education Policy
  • The Education System
    • New Directions
    • Compulsory Education Law
    • Key Schools
  • Primary Education
    • Primary Schools
    • Preschool Education
    • Special Education
  • Secondary Education
    • Middle Schools
    • Vocational and Technical Schools
  • Higher Education
    • Background
    • Modernization Goals in the 1980s
      • Entrance Examinations and Admission Criteria
      • Changes in Enrollment and Assignment Policies
      • Scholarship and Loan System
      • Study Abroad
    • Educational Investment
  • Teachers
  • Adult Education
    • Role in Modernization
    • Alternative Forms
    • Literacy and Language Reform
  • Policy Toward Intellectuals
    • Background
    • Post-Mao Development
  • Culture and the Arts
    • Traditional Literature
      • Classics
      • Early Prose
      • Early Poetry
      • Later Prose
      • Modern Prose
    • Literature in the Post-Mao Period
    • Traditional Arts
      • Drama
      • Music
      • Painting and Calligraphy
    • Contemporary Performing Arts
      • Motion Pictures
      • Radio and Television
      • Folk and Variety Arts
    • Publishing
      • Background
      • Newspapers
    • Libraries and Archives

• Chapter 5 - Economic Context (Thomas R. Gottschang)
  • General Nature of the Economy
  • Economic Policies, 1949-80
    • Recovery from War, 1949-52
    • The First Five-Year Plan, 1953-57
    • The Great Leap Forward, 1958-60
    • Readjustment and Recovery: "Agriculture First," 1961-65
    • Events During the Cultural Revolution Decade, 1966-76
      • High Tide of the Cultural Revolution, 1966-68
      • Resumption of Systematic Growth, 1970-74
      • The Gang of Four, 1974-76
    • The Post-Mao Interlude, 1976-78
    • Reform of the Economic System, Beginning in 1979
      • The Period of Readjustment, 1979-81
      • Reform and Opening, Beginning in 1982
  • Structure and Operation of the Economy
    • Roles of the Government and the Party
    • The Two Major Sectors: Agriculture and Industry
      • Agriculture
      • Industry
    • Other Important Sectors
    • Planning
    • The Budget
    • The Banking System
    • Prices
      • Determination of Prices
      • The Role of Prices
      • Problems in Price Policy
      • Inflation
  • Living Standards
    • Progress since 1949
      • Food
      • Clothing
      • Consumer Goods
      • Housing
    • Income Distribution
  • Potential for Achieving National Goals

• Chapter 6 - Agriculture (Frederick W. Crook)
  • Resources Endowment
  • Agricultural Policies
    • The 1950s
    • Importance of Agriculture Recognized
    • Recovery
    • Post-Mao Policies
  • Planning and Organization
  • Operational Methods and Inputs
    • Cropping Patterns
    • Fertilizer
    • Mechanization
    • Water Conservancy
    • Pest Control
    • Seed Varieties
    • Agricultural Science
  • Production
    • Crops
    • Animal Husbandry
    • Forestry
    • Fishery
    • Sideline Production
  • Agricultural Trade

• Chapter 7 - Industry (Michael L. Waddle)
  • Trends in Industrial Production
  • Organization
  • Geographic Distribution of Industry
  • Level of Technology
  • Supplies of Industrial Resources
    • Capital
    • Labor
    • Raw Materials
    • Energy
  • Manufacturing
    • Iron and Steel
    • Machine Building
      • Machine Tools
      • Electric Power Equipment
      • Transportation Equipment
      • Metallurgical Equipment
      • Electronics
    • Chemicals
    • Building Materials
    • Paper
    • Textiles
    • Food Processing
    • Other Consumer Goods
  • Construction
    • Housing Construction
    • Capital Construction
  • Mining
    • Coal
    • Iron Ore
    • Other Minerals and Metals
  • Energy
    • Oil and Natural Gas
    • Electric and Nuclear Power
  • Rural Industry
  • Defense Industry

• Chapter 8 - Trade and Transportation (Roxane D.V. Sismanidis and Ernestine H. Wang)
  • Internal Trade and Distribution
    • Agriculture
    • Industry
    • Lateral Economic Cooperation
    • Retail Sales
  • Foreign Trade
    • History of Chinese Foreign Trade
    • Trade Policy in the 1980s
    • Organization of Foreign Trade
      • Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade
      • Foreign Trade Corporations and Enterprises
      • Financial Transactions and Investment
      • Other Organizations Involved in Trade
    • Composition of Foreign Trade
    • Trading Partners
    • Tourism
  • Transportation
    • Railroads
    • Subways
    • Highways and Roads
    • Bridges
    • Inland Waterways
    • Maritime Shipping
    • Civil Aviation
  • Postal Services
  • Telecommunications
    • Historical Development
    • Telecommunications Services

• Chapter 9 - Science and Technology (Donald D. DeGlopper)
  • Historical Development of Science and Technology Policy
    • Pre-1949 Patterns
      • Foreign Learning and Chinese Learning
    • Soviet Influence in the 1950s
    • "Reds" Versus "Experts" in the 1950s and 1960s
    • Rehabilitation and Rethinking, 1977-84
  • Science and Technology in the 1980's
    • The Supply of Skilled Manpower
    • Research Institutes
    • National Organization and Administration
      • Chinese Academy of Sciences
      • State Science and Technology Commission
      • National Defense Science, Technology, and Industry Commission
      • Research in Colleges, Universities, and Enterprises
      • Planning Scientific Research
    • Integration of Administrative Systems
      • Leading Group for Science and Technology
      • China Association of Science and Technology
    • International Ties
  • The Reform Program
    • Shortcomings of the Science and Technology System
    • The Program
      • The Relation with Economic Reform
      • Technology Markets and Joint Ventures
      • Personnel and Job Mobility
  • Technology Transfer
    • Policy
    • Modes of Transfer
    • Linking Technology and Economics

• Chapter 10 - Party and Government (Marcia R. Ristaino)
  • Chinese Communist Party
    • Party Constitution
    • National Party Congresses
    • Central Committee and Political Bureau
    • Secretariat
    • Central Military Commission
    • Other Party Organs
    • Membership
    • Mass Organizations
      • Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
      • Democratic Parties
      • Trade Unions
      • Communist Youth League
      • Women, Artists, Students, and Others
  • The Government
    • Constitutional Framework
    • The National People's Congress
    • The State Council
    • The Judiciary
    • Local Administration
    • The Cadre System
  • The Media

• Chapter 11 - The Political Process (Marcia R. Ristaino)
  • Political Realignments at the Party Center
    • Deng Xiaoping Consolidates Power
    • Institutionalizing Collective Leadership
    • A Successor Generation
  • The First Wave of Reform, 1979-84
    • The Opening Up Policy and Reform in the Countryside
    • Rectification and Reform
  • The Second Wave of Reform, 1984-86
    • The Repercussions of Urban Reform
    • The Decentralization of Power
  • The Third Wave of Reform, Beginning in 1986
    • Political Reform
    • Resistance and the Campaign Against Bourgeois Liberalization
  • The Politics of Modernization
    • The Components of Reform
    • Competing Bureaucratic Interests
    • Deng Xiaoping's Seminal Role
  • Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong "Thought Be Thought"
    • The Role of Ideology
    • Ideology and the Socialist Man
    • Ideology and Social Change

• Chapter 12 - Foreign Relations (Elizabeth E. Green)
  • Evolution of Foreign Policy
    • Historical Legacy and Worldview
    • Nationalism
    • The Influence of Ideology
    • Decision Making and Implementation
      • Government and Party Organizations
      • Ministry of Foreign Affairs
      • Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade
      • Ministry of National Defense
      • "People-to-People" Diplomacy
      • The Decision-Making Process
  • An Overview of China's Foreign Relations
    • Sino-Soviet Relations
    • Sino-American Relations
    • Relations with the Third World
    • Relations with the Developed World
      • Japan
      • Europe
    • China's Role in International Organizations

• Chapter 13 - Criminal Justice and Public Security (Ronald E. Dolan)
  • The Legal System
    • The Imperial Era
    • Republican China
    • Developments after 1949
      • Early Years of the People's Republic, 1949-53
      • The Legal System under the 1954 State Constitution
      • The Legal System under the 1975 State Constitution
    • Return to Socialist Legality
      • Legal Reforms in the 1982 State Constitution
  • Court Structure and Process
  • Law Enforcement
    • Historical Background
    • Public Security Forces
      • The People's Armed Police Force
      • State Security
    • Grass-Roots Organizations
  • The Penal System

• Chapter 14 - National Defense (Roxane D.V. Sismanidis)
  • Historical Development, 1927-79
    • From the Founding of the People's Liberation Army to the Korean War
    • Military Modernization in the 1950s and 1960s
    • The People's Liberation Army in the Cultural Revolution
    • Military Modernization in the 1970s
  • Military Modernization
    • Civil-Military Relations
      • Political Role of the People's Liberation Army
      • Party Control
      • Popular Attitudes Toward the People's Liberation Army
    • Military Organization
      • State and Party Central Military Commissions
      • Ministry of National Defense and National Defense Science, Technology, and Industry Commission
      • Operational Control
      • General Staff Department
      • General Political Department
      • General Logistics Department
      • Streamlining and Reduction in Force
    • Doctrine, Strategy, and Tactics
    • Education and Training
      • Revitalization of the Military Academy System
      • Training Reforms
    • Personnel
      • Recruitment
      • Conditions of Service
      • Promotion
      • Ranks, Uniforms, and Insignia
    • Defense Industry and the Economic Role of the People's Liberation Army
      • Military Expenditures
      • Military Research and Development and the National Defense Science, Technology, and Industry Commission
      • Defense Industry
      • Weapons Production
      • The Role of Foreign Military Technology
      • Arms Sales
      • Civilian Production
      • Economic Roles of the People's Liberation Army
  • Perception of Threat
    • The Soviet Union
    • Vietnam
    • India
    • South China Sea
    • Taiwan
  • Foreign Military Cooperation
  • Force Structure
    • Ground Forces
    • Air Force
    • Navy
    • Nuclear Forces
    • Paramilitary Forces
      • Militia
      • Reserve Service System
      • Production and Construction Corps
      • People's Armed Police Force
  • Accomplishments and Prospects

• Appendices
  • Appendix B. Chronology and Lists
  • Appendix C. The People's Libertion Army at a Glance
• Bibliography
• Glossary