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Contents 1 Essentials of Geography 0 The Science of Geography 0 Geographic Analysis 0 The Geographic Continuum 0 Earth Systems Concepts 0 Systems Theory 00 Open System Closed System System Example System Feedback System Equilibrium Mount Pinatubo?Global System Impact Systems in Geosystems Models of Systems Earth?s Four ?Spheres? 00 Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere A Spherical Planet 00 Earth as A Geoid Measuring Earth in 247 b.c. 00 Location and Time on Earth 00 Latitude 00 Latitudinal Geographic Zones Longitude 00 Determination of Latitude and Longitude Great Circles and Small Circles 00 Prime Meridian and Standard Time 00 International Date Line Coordinated Universal Time Daylight Saving Time Maps, Scales, and Projections 00 The Scale of Maps 00 Map Projections 00 Properties of Projections The Nature and Classes of Projections Remote Sensing and GIS 00 Remote Sensing 00 Active Remote Sensing Passive Remote Sensing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 00 Summary and Review 00 Career Link 1.1: Thomas D. Jones, Ph.D, Astronaut, Earth Observer, and Geographer 00 High Latitude Connection 1.1: Meltponds as positive feedback Focus Study 1.1: The Scientific Method 00 Focus Study 1.2: The Timely Search for Longitude 00 News Report 1.1: GPS: A Personal Locator 00 News Report 1.2: Careers in GIS 00 PART 1 ? The Energy?Atmosphere System 00 2 Solar Energy to Earth and the Seasons 00 The Solar System, Sun, and Earth 00 Solar System Formation and Structure 00 Dimensions and Distances Earth?s Orbit Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth 00 Solar Activity and Solar Wind 00 Solar Wind Effects Weather Effects Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy 00 Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere 00 Solar Constant Uneven Distribution of Insolation Global Net Radiation The Seasons 00 Seasonality 00 Reasons for Seasons 00 Revolution Rotation Tilt of Earth?s Axis Axial Parallelism Sphericity Annual March of the Seasons 00 Dawn and Twilight Seasonal Observations Summary and Review 00 News Report 2-1: The Nature of Order is Chaos 00 News Report 2-2: Monitoring Earth Radiation Budget 00 3 Earth?s Modern Atmosphere 00 Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, and Function 00 Atmospheric Profile 00 Atmospheric Composition Criterion 00 Heterosphere Homosphere Atmospheric Temperature Criterion 00 Thermosphere Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere Atmospheric Function Criterion 00 Ionosphere Ozonosphere Variable Atmospheric Components 00 Natural Sources 00 Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution 00 Winds Local and Regional Landscapes Temperature Inversion Anthropogenic Pollution 00 Carbon Monoxide Pollution Photochemical Smog Pollution Industrial Smog and Sulfur Oxides Particulates Benefits of the Clean Air Act 00 Summary and Review 00 News Report 3-1: Falling Through the Atmosphere?The Highest Sky Dive 00 News Report 3-2: 1995 Nobel Chemistry Prize for Ozone Depletion Researchers 00 Focus Study 3-1: Stratospheric Ozone Losses: A Worldwide Health Hazard 00 Focus Study 3-2: Acid Deposition: A Blight on the Landscape 00 4 Atmosphere and Surface Energy Balances 00 Energy Essentials 00 Energy Pathways and Principles 00 Insolation Input Scattering Refraction Albedo and Reflection Clouds, Aerosols, and the Atmosphere?s Albedo Absorption Conduction, Convection, and Advection Energy Balance in the Troposphere 00 The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming Clouds and Earth?s ?Greenhouse? Earth?Atmosphere Radiation Balance Energy Balance at Earth?s Surface 00 Daily Radiation Patterns 00 Simplified Surface Energy Balance 00 Net Radiation Sample Stations The Urban Environment 00 Summary and Review 00 Focus Study 4.1: Solar Energy Collection and Concentration 00 News Report 4.1: Earthshine Studies?Possible Energy Budget Diagnostic 5 Global Temperatures 000 Temperature Concepts and Measurement 000 Temperature Scales 000 Measuring Temperature 000 Principal Temperature Controls 000 Latitude 000 Altitude 000 Cloud Cover 000 Land?Water Heating Differences 000 Evaporation Transparency Specific Heat Movement Ocean Currents and Sea-Surface Temperatures Summary of Marine vs. Continental Effects Earth?s Temperature Patterns 000 January Temperature Maps 000 July Temperature Maps 000 Annual Temperature Range Map 000 Record Temperatures Suggest a Greenhouse Warming Summary and Review 000 High Latitude Connection 5.1: Overview of Trends in the Polar Regions 000 Focus Study 5.1: Air Temperature and the Human Body 000 6 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations Wind Essentials 000 Air Pressure and Its Measurement 000 Wind: Description and Measurement 000 Global Winds 000 Driving Forces Within the Atmosphere 000 Pressure Gradient Force 000 Coriolis Force 000 Friction Force 000 Atmospheric Patterns of Motion 000 Primary High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Areas 000 Equatorial Low-Pressure Trough?ITCZ: Clouds and Rain Subtropical High-Pressure Cells: Hot, Dry, Desert Air Subpolar Low-Pressure Cells: Cool and Moist Air Polar High-Pressure Cells: Frigid, Dry Deserts Upper Atmospheric Circulation 000 Rossby Waves Jet Streams Multiyear Oscillations North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Arctic Oscillation (AO) Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) Local Winds 000 Monsoonal Winds 000 Oceanic Currents 000 Surface Currents 000 Equatorial Currents Upwelling and Downwelling Flows Thermohaline Circulation?the Deep Currents 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 6.1: Coriolis, a Forceful Effect on Drains? 000 News Report 6.2: Jet Streams Affect Flight Times 000 News Report 6.3: A Message in a Bottle and Rubber Duckies 000 Focus Study 6.1: Wind Power: An Energy Resource for the Present and Future 000 PART 2 ? The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems 000 7 Water and Atmospheric Moisture 000 Water on Earth 000 Worldwide Equilibrium 000 Distribution of Earth?s Water Today 000 Unique Properties of Water 000 Heat Properties 000 Ice, the Solid Phase Water, the Liquid Phase Water Vapor, the Gas Phase Heat Properties of Water in Nature 000 Humidity 000 Relative Humidity 000 Saturation Daily and Seasonal Relative Humidity Patterns Expressions of Relative Humidity 000 Vapor Pressure Specific Humidity Instruments for Measuring Humidity Atmospheric Stability 000 Adiabatic Processes 000 Dry Adiabatic Rate Moist Adiabatic Rate Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions 000 Clouds and Fog 000 Cloud Formation Processes 000 Cloud Types and Identification 000 Fog 000 Advection Fog Radiation Fog Summary and Review 000 News Report 7-1: Breaking Roads and Pipes and Sinking Ships 000 News Report 7-2: Harvesting Fog 000 8 Weather Weather Essentials 000 Air Masses 000 Air Masses Affecting North America 000 Air Mass Modification 000 Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms 000 Convergent Lifting 000 Convectional Lifting 000 Orographic Lifting 000 Frontal Lifting (Cold and Warm Fronts) 000 Cold Front Warm Front Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems 000 Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 000 Cyclogenesis Open Stage Occluded Stage Dissolving Stage Storm Tracks Analysis of Daily Weather Maps?Forecasting 000 Violent Weather 000 Thunderstorms 000 Atmospheric Turbulence Lightning and Thunder Hail Derechos Tornadoes 000 Tornado Measurement and Science Recent Tornado Records Tropical Cyclones 000 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones Physical Strcuture Hurricane Andrew?1992 Summary and Review 000 News Report 8-1: Mountains Set Precipitation Records 000 News Report 8.2: May 2003 Tornado Outbreak in Tornado Alley 000 Focus Study 8-1: Forecasting Atlantic Hurricanes 000 Career Link 8-1: Tracy Smith, Research Meteorologist 000 9 Water Resources 000 The Hydrologic Cycle 000 A Hydrologic Cycle Model 000 Surface Water 000 Soil-Water-Budget Concept 000 The Soil-Water Balance Equation 000 Precipitation (PRECIP) Input Actual Evapotranspiration (ACTET) Potential Evapotranspiration (POTET) Determining POTET Deficit (DEFIC) Surplus (SURPL) Soil Moisture Storage (( STRGE) Drought 000 Sample Water Budgets 000 Water Budget and Water Resources 000 Groundwater Resources 000 Groundwater Profile and Movement 000 Aquifers, Wells, and Springs 000 Confined and Unconfined Aquifers Wells, Springs, and Streamflows Overuse of Groundwater 000 Overpumping Collapsing Aquifers Saltwater Encroachment Pollution of Groundwater 000 Our Water Supply 000 Water Supply in the United States 000 Instream, Nonconsumptive, and Consumptive Uses 000 Desalination 000 Future Considerations 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 9.1: Middle East Water Crisis: Running on Empty 000 News Report 9.2: Personal Water Use 000 Focus Study 9.1: Hurricane Camille, 1969: Water-Balance Analysis Points to Moisture Benefits 000 Focus Study 9.2: High Plains Aquifer Overdraft 000 10 Global Climate Systems 000 Earth?s Climate System and Its Classification 000 Climate Components: Insolation, Temperature, Pressure, Air Masses, and Precipitation 000 Classification of Climatic Regions 000 Classification Categories Global Climate Patterns Tropical Climates (equatorial and tropical latitudes) 000 Tropical Rain Forest Climates 000 Tropical Monsoon Climates 000 Tropical Savanna Climates 000 Mesothermal Climates (midlatitudes, mild winters) 000 Humid Subtropical Climates 000 Marine West Coast Climates 000 Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates 000 Microthermal Climates (mid- and high-latitudes, cold winters) 000 Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates 000 Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates 000 Subarctic Climates 000 Polar and Highland Climates 000 Tundra Climate 000 Ice Cap and Ice Sheet Climate 000 Polar Marine Climate Arid and Semiarid Climates (permanent moisture deficits) 000 Desert Characteristics 000 Low-Latitude Hot Desert Climates 000 Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates 000 Low-Latitude Hot Steppe Climates 000 Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates (BSk) 000 Global Climate Change 000 Global Warming 000 Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming Methane and Global Warming Other Greenhouse Gases Climate Models and Future Temperatures 000 Consequences of Global Warming 000 Effects on World Food Supply and the Biosphere Melting Glaciers and Ice Sheets Changes in Sea Level Political Action to Slow Global Warming 000 Mitigation Actions with ?No Regrets? Summary and Review 000 News Report 10.1: What?s in a Boundary? 000 News Report 10.2: Coordinating Global Climate Change Research 000 News Report 10.3: The IPCC Process High Latitude Connection 10.1: Climate Change in the Polar Regions Focus Study 10.1: The El Niño Phenomenon?Record Intensity, Global Linkages000 Part 3 The Earth?Atmosphere Interface 000 11 The Dynamic Planet 000 The Pace of Change 000 Earth?s Structure and Internal Energy 000 Earth?s Core and Magnetism 000 Earth?s Mantle 000 Earth?s Lithosphere and Crust 000 The Geologic Cycle 000 The Rock Cycle 000 Minerals and Rocks 000 Igneous Processes 000 Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks Classifying Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Processes 000 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Processes 000 Plate Tectonics 000 A Brief History 000 Sea-Floor Spreading and Production of New Crust 000 Subduction of the Lithosphere 000 The Formation and Breakup of Pangaea 000 Plate Boundaries 000 Earthquake and Volcanic Activity 000 Hot Spots 000 Summary and Review 000 High Latitude Connection 11.1: Isostatic Rebound in Alaska 000 News Report 11.1: Radioactivity: Earth?s Time Clock 000 News Report 11.2: Drilling the Crust to Record Depths 000 Focus Study 11.1: Heat from Earth?Geothermal Energy and Power 12 Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism 000 Earth?s Surface Relief Features 000 Crustal Orders of Relief 000 First Order of Relief Second Order of Relief Third Order of Relief Hypsometry Earth?s Topographic Regions 000 Crustal Formation Processes 000 Continental Shields 000 Building Continental Crust and Terranes 000 Crustal Deformation Processes 000 Folding and Broad Warping 000 Faulting 000 Normal Fault Reverse (Thrust) Fault Strike-Slip Fault Faults in Concert Orogenesis (Mountain Building) 000 Types of Orogenies 000 The Grand Tetons and the Sierra Nevada 000 The Appalachian Mountains 000 World Structural Regions 000 Earthquakes 000 Expected Quakes and Those of Deadly Surprise 000 Focus, Epicenter, Foreshock, and Aftershock 000 Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 000 Moment Magnitude Scale Revises the Richter Scale The Nature of Faulting 000 Earthquakes and the San Andreas Fault 000 Los Angeles Region 000 Earthquake Forecasting and Planning 000 Volcanism 000 Volcanic Features 000 Location and Types of Volcanic Activity 000 Effusive Eruptions 000 Explosive Eruptions 000 Volcano Forecasting and Planning 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 12.1: Mount Everest at New Heights 000 News Report 12.2: A Tragedy in Kobe, Japan?the Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake 000 News Report 12.3: Seismic Gaps, Nervous Animals, Dilitancy, and Radon Gas 000 News Report 12.4: Is the Long Valley Caldera Next? 000 Focus Study 12.1: The 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens 000 Career Link 12.1: Travis Heggie, Geographer/Park Ranger/Ph.D. Candidate 13 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement 000 Landmass Denudation 000 Geomorphic Models of Landform Development 000 Dynamic Equilibrium View of Landforms 000 Slopes Weathering Processes 000 Factors Influencing Weathering Processes 000 Physical Weathering Processes 000 Frost Action Crystallization Pressure-Release Jointing Chemical Weathering Processes 000 Hydration and Hydrolysis Oxidation Carbonation and Solution Karst Topography and Landscapes 000 Formation of Karst 000 Lands Covered with Sinkholes 000 Caves and Caverns 000 Mass Movement Processes 000 Mass Movement Mechanics 000 The Role of Slopes Madison River Canyon Landslide Classes of Mass Movements 000 Falls and Avalanches Landslides Flows Creep Human-Induced Mass Movements (Scarification) 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 13.1: Amateurs Make Cave Discoveries 000 Focus Study 13.1: Vaiont Reservoir Landslide Disaster 000 Career Link: Gregory A. Pope, Geography Professor 000 14 River Systems and Landforms 000 Fluvial Processes and Landscapes 000 Base Level of Streams 000 Drainage Basins 000 Drainage Divides and Basins Drainage Basins As Open Systems Delaware River Basin Internal Drainage Drainage Density and Patterns 000 Common Drainage Patterns Streamflow Characteristics 000 Exotic Streams 000 Stream Erosion 000 Stream Transport 000 Flow and Channel Characteristics 000 Stream Gradient 000 Nickpoints Stream Gradient and Landscape Forms Stream Deposition 000 Floodplains Stream Terraces River Deltas Mississippi River Delta Rivers Without Deltas Floods and River Management 000 Rating Floodplain Risk 000 Streamflow Measurement 000 Hydrographs Summary and Review 000 News Report 14.1: Scouring the Grand Canyon for New Beaches and Habitats 000 News Report 14.2: Rivers Make Poor Political Boundaries 000 News Report 14.3: The 1993 Midwest Floods 000 News Report 14.4: The Nile Delta Is Disappearing 000 News Report 14.5: What once was Bayou Lafourche?Analysis of a Photo. Focus Study 14.1: Floodplain Strategies 000 Career Link: Julie Dian-Reed, Senior Service Hydrologist and Weather Forecaster 000 15 Eolian Processes and Arid Landscapes 000 The Work of Wind 000 Eolian Erosion 000 Deflation Abrasion Eolian Transportation 000 Eolian Depositional Landforms 000 Loess Deposits 000 Overview of Desert Landscapes 000 Desert Climates 000 Desert Fluvial Processes 000 Desert Landscapes 000 Basin and Range Province 000 Desertification 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 15-1: The Dust Bowl 000 Focus Study 15-1: The Colorado River: A System Out of Balance 000 16 The Oceans, Coastal Processes and Landforms 000 Global Oceans and Seas 000 Chemical Composition of Seawater 000 Ocean Chemistry Average Salinity: 35? Physical Structure of the Ocean 000 Coastal System Components 000 Inputs to the Coastal System 000 The Coastal Environment and Sea Level 000 Coastal System Actions 000 Tides 000 Causes of Tides Spring and Neap Tides Tidal Power Waves 000 Wave Refraction Tsunami, or Seismic Sea Wave Coastal System Outputs 000 Erosional Coastal Processes and Landforms 000 Depositional Coastal Processes and Landforms 000 Beaches Maintaining Beaches Barrier Formations Barrier Island Origin and Hazards Biological Processes: Coral Formations 000 Coral Reefs Coral Bleaching Wetlands, Salt Marshes, and Mangrove Swamps 000 Coastal Wetlands Marco Island Human Impact on Coastal Environments 000 Summary and Review 000 High Latitude Connection 16.1: A Rebounding Shoreline and Coastal Features 000 News Report 16.1: Sea Level Variations and the Present MSL Increase 000 News Report 16.2: Engineers Nourish a Beach 000 Focus Study 16.1: An Environmental Approach to Shoreline Planning 000 17 Glacial and Periglacial Processes and Landforms Rivers of Ice 000 Alpine Glaciers 000 Continental Glacier 000 Glacial Processes 000 Formation of Glacial Ice 000 Glacial Mass Balance 000 Glacial Movement 000 Glacial Surges Glacial Erosion Glacial Landforms 000 Erosional Landforms Created by Alpine Glaciation 000 Depositional Landforms Created by Alpine Glaciation 000 Glacial Drift Moraines Erosional and Depositional Landforms Created by Continental Glaciation 000 Periglacial Landscapes 000 Geography of Permafrost 000 Continuous and Discontinuous Zones Behavior of Permafrost Ground Ice and Frozen Ground Phenomena 000 Frost Action Processes Frost Action Landforms Hillslope Processes: Gelifluction and Solifluction Thermokarst Landscapes Humans and Periglacial Landscapes 000 The Pleistocene Ice Age Epoch 000 Changes in the Landscape 000 Lowered Sea Levels and Temperatures 000 Paleolakes 000 Deciphering Past Climates: Paleoclimatology 000 Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age 000 Mechanisms of Climate Fluctuation 000 Climate and Celestial Relations Climate and Solar Variability Climate and Tectonics Climate and Atmospheric Factors Climate and Oceanic Circulation Arctic and Antarctic Regions 000 Changes are Underway in the Polar Regions Summary and Review 000 News Report 17.1: South Cascade and Alaskan Glaciers Lose Mass 000 News Report 17.2: An Arctic Ice Sheet? 000 News Report 17.3: Increase in Meltponds?Changing Surface Energy Budgets Focus Study 17.1: GRIP, GISP-2, and Dome C: Boring Ice for Exciting History 000 High Latitude Connection 17.1: Climate Change Impacts Arctic Ice Shelf Career Link 17-1: Karl Birkeland, Avalanche Scientist, Forest Service National Avalanche Center 000 Part 4 Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes 000 18 The Geography of Soils 000 Soil Characteristics 000 Soil Profiles 000 Soil Horizons 000 Soil Properties 000 Soil Color 000 Soil Texture 000 Soil Structure 000 Soil Consistence 000 Soil Porosity 000 Soil Moisture 000 Soil Chemistry 000 Soil Acidity and Alkalinity 000 Soil Formation Factors and Management 000 Natural Factors 000 The Human Factor 000 Soil Classification 000 Soil Taxonomy 000 Pedogenic Regimes Diagnostic Soil Horizons 000 The 12 Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy 000 Oxisols Aridisols Mollisols Alfisols Ultisols Spodosols Entisols Inceptisols Gelisols Andisols Vertisols Histosols Summary and Review 000 News Report 18-1: Soil Is Slipping Through Our Fingers 000 News Report 18-2: Drainage Tiles, But Where to Go? 000 Focus Study 18-1: Selenium Concentration in Western Soils 000 19 Ecosystem Essentials 000 Ecosystem Components and Cycles 000 Communities 000 Plants: The Essential Biotic Component 000 Photosynthesis and Respiration 000 Net Primary Productivity Abiotic Ecosystem Components 000 Light, Temperature, Water, and Climate Life Zones Other Factors Elemental Cycles 000 Oxygen and Carbon Cycles Nitrogen Cycle Limiting Factors 000 Biotic Ecosystem Operations 000 Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers 000 Examples of Complex Food Webs 000 Efficiency in a Food Web 000 Ecological Relations 000 Concentration of Pollution in Food Chains 000 Ecosystems, Evolution, and Succession 000 Biological Evolution Delivers Biodiversity Ecosystem Stability and Diversity 000 Agricultural Ecosystems Climate Change Ecological Succession 000 Terrestrial Succession 000 Succession Through the Ice Age Wildfire and Fire Ecology Aquatic Succession 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 19.1: Earth?s Magnetic Field?An Abiotic Factor 000 News Report 19.2: The Dead Zone 000 News Report 19.3: Chinstrap Penguins and Their Short, Busy Summer. News Report 19.4: Experimental Prairies Confirm the Importance of Biodiversity 000 Focus Study 19.1: The Great Lakes 000 20 Terrestrial Biomes Biogeographic Realms 000 Transition Zones 000 Terrestrial Ecosystems 000 Earth?s Major Terrestrial Biomes 000 Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest 000 Deforestation of the Tropics 000 Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub 000 Tropical Savanna 000 Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest 000 Needleleaf Forest and Montane Forest 000 Temperate Rain Forest 000 Mediterranean Shrubland 000 Midlatitude Grasslands 000 Deserts 000 Arctic and Alpine Tundra 000 Summary and Review 000 News Report 20.1: Aquatic Ecosystems and the LME Concept 000 News Report 20.2: Alien Invaders of Exotic Species 000 News Report 20.3: ANWR Faces Threats 000 Focus Study 20.1: Biodiversity and Biosphere Reserves 000 21 Earth and the Human Denominator 000 The Human Count and the Future 000 An Oily Bird 000 The Need for International Cooperation 000 Twelve Paradigms for the 21st Century 000 Who Speaks for Earth? 000 News Report 21-1: Gaia Hypothesis Triggers Debate 000 High Latitude Connection 21.1: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, November 2004 000 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Glossary Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Physical geography.