1
1 | UNITED STATES FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION
|
2 | and
|
3 | UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
|
4 |
|
5 |
|
6 |
|
7 | SHERMAN ACT SECTION 2 JOINT HEARINGS
|
8 | UNDERSTANDING SINGLE-FIRM BEHAVIOR:
|
9 | REMEDIES
|
10 | THURSDAY, MARCH 29, 2007
|
11 |
|
12 |
|
13 |
|
14 |
|
15 | HELD AT:
|
16 | UNITED STATES FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION
|
17 | 6TH & PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE, N.W.
|
18 | WASHINGTON, D.C.
|
19 |
|
20 |
|
21 |
|
22 |
|
23 |
|
24 |
|
25 | |
2
1 | A P P E A R A N C E S
|
2 |
|
3 |
|
4 |
|
5 | REMEDY IN THE FACE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
|
6 |
|
7 |
|
8 | MODERATORS:
|
9 | Douglas Hilleboe, Federal Trade Commission
|
10 | Ed Eliasberg, U.S. Department of Justice
|
11 |
|
12 |
|
13 | PANELISTS:
|
14 | Michael Cunningham, Red Hat, Inc.
|
15 | Renata B. Hesse, Wilson Sonsini
|
16 | Marina Lao, Seton Hall Law School
|
17 | William H. Page, University of Florida
|
18 | Howard A. Shelanski, UC Berkeley
|
19 |
|
20 |
|
21 |
|
22 |
|
23 |
|
24 |
|
25 | |
3
1 | P R O C E E D I N G S
|
2 | - - - - -
|
3 | MR. HILLEBOE: Good morning, everyone, thank you
|
4 | for coming. I'm Doug Hilleboe, attorney with the
|
5 | Federal Trade Commission, Office of the General Counsel,
|
6 | I'm going to be one of the moderators here today for
|
7 | this third session on remedies. My co-moderator is Ed
|
8 | Eliasberg, he's an attorney with the U.S. Department of
|
9 | Justice, Legal Policy Section of the Antitrust Division.
|
10 | Before we start, I need to go over a few
|
11 | housekeeping matters. As a courtesy to our speakers,
|
12 | please turn off your cell phones, Blackberries and other
|
13 | devices that make a noise, and I'll ask the speakers to
|
14 | do the same, they actually interfere with the
|
15 | microphones and we had a little problem with that.
|
16 | Second, the restrooms are located down the hall,
|
17 | through the double doors that you came through. Third,
|
18 | in the unlikely event that the building alarms go off,
|
19 | please proceed calmly and quickly, as instructed. If we
|
20 | must leave the building, take the stairway which is to
|
21 | the right, on Pennsylvania -- on the Pennsylvania side,
|
22 | and after leaving the building, follow the stream of FTC
|
23 | people and meet at the sculpture garden, which is across
|
24 | from the intersection of Constitution Avenue and 7th
|
25 | Street. |
4
1 | Also, we must enforce our rule that there's no
|
2 | questions or comments that come from the audience during
|
3 | the session. Thank you.
|
4 | We're honored today to have assembled a
|
5 | distinguished group of panelists that have agreed to
|
6 | offer their testimony in connection with this hearing on
|
7 | remedies in the face of technology change.
|
8 | Howard Shelanski is an associate dean and
|
9 | professor of law at the University of California,
|
10 | Berkeley, and the director of the Berkeley Center For
|
11 | Law and Technology.
|
12 | Renata Hesse is a partner at Wilson Sonsini
|
13 | Goodrich and Rosati, and formerly was a chief of the
|
14 | Networks and Technology Enforcement Section At the
|
15 | Antitrust Division.
|
16 | Michael Cunningham is general counsel at Red
|
17 | Hat, Inc.
|
18 | William Page is a Marshall M. Criser eminent
|
19 | scholar at the University of Florida's Levin College of
|
20 | Law.
|
21 | And Marina Lao is a professor of law at Seton
|
22 | Hall Law School.
|
23 | We plan to hear from each of the speakers for
|
24 | about 15 minutes each and then take a ten-minute break
|
25 | and then we'll hear from the remaining speakers. We |
5
1 | will then have the speakers comment upon what they've
|
2 | heard, and then have a moderated discussion among the
|
3 | speakers with Ed and I leading the discussion.
|
4 | Before starting, I would just like to state by
|
5 | way of introduction that many of the product markets in
|
6 | which the United States enjoys a comparative advantage,
|
7 | vis-a-vis the rest of the world, are fast-changing
|
8 | dynamic markets, including high technology markets.
|
9 | Some critics of the antitrust laws have claimed that the
|
10 | laws, including Section 2, are not nimble enough for
|
11 | effective use in these types of markets. Others
|
12 | disagree. We will explore this issue and others in this
|
13 | session.
|
14 | Some commentators have suggested that the
|
15 | potential for error in antitrust enforcement may be
|
16 | greater in these dynamic markets; however, other
|
17 | commentators have suggested that due to network effects
|
18 | and other possible factors, these markets may tend
|
19 | towards monopolization to a greater agree and therefore
|
20 | perhaps deserve particular antitrust scrutiny.
|
21 | We are interested to learn what these panelists
|
22 | believe about these and other issues, and their
|
23 | implications for antitrust enforcement in Section 2
|
24 | cases.
|
25 | Before beginning with the speakers, my |
6
1 | co-moderator, Ed Eliasberg has some words about the
|
2 | hearing.
|
3 | MR. ELIASBERG: Thank you, Doug. I very briefly
|
4 | on behalf of the Antitrust Division plan to welcome our
|
5 | panelists, thank you for coming and we look -- we're
|
6 | very much looking forward to hearing what you have to
|
7 | say.
|
8 | So, with that, Ed, let me turn back to you.
|
9 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you, Doug. Howard
|
10 | Shelanski is the Associate Dean and Professor of Law,
|
11 | Boalt Hall, University of California, Berkeley and the
|
12 | Director of the Berkeley Center for Law and Technology.
|
13 | From 1999 to 2000, he served as chief economist of the
|
14 | Federal Trade Commission -- Federal Communications
|
15 | Commission, excuse me, and from 1998 to 1999, he served
|
16 | as senior economist for the President's Council of
|
17 | Economic Advisors At the White House.
|
18 | Howard?
|
19 | MR. SHELANSKI: Thanks, Doug, and I appreciate
|
20 | the promotion. Well, I have a few main points that I
|
21 | want to make and the points that I am going to make I
|
22 | hope connect to what my co-panelists are going to say.
|
23 | We had a call a week ago and I just want to set
|
24 | up a few ideas here about the implications of the
|
25 | implementation of remedies for monopolization in a |
7
1 | high-tech or technologically dynamic markets. And I
|
2 | think my main point, my overall point would be this:
|
3 | Remedies are hard in the best of circumstances, and I
|
4 | think they become more complicated in technologically
|
5 | dynamic settings, but I also think that innovation and
|
6 | the presence of ongoing innovation in a market may
|
7 | affect remedies in somewhat unpredictable ways, and may
|
8 | create opportunities along with the challenges.
|
9 | In particular, I think while innovation makes
|
10 | structural remedies more difficult, it may in some cases
|
11 | make conduct remedies particularly valuable. So, I
|
12 | think while innovative markets are cause for agencies
|
13 | and courts to be more cautious about remedies, I think
|
14 | innovation is not cause for systematic retreat from
|
15 | enforcement or from behavioral injunctions.
|
16 | So, let me explain a little bit why I think this
|
17 | is the case. You'll hear, and I think one often hears
|
18 | that structural remedies are preferable to conduct
|
19 | remedies or behavioral remedies in monopolization cases.
|
20 | But, there are some caveats to this. First I would say
|
21 | that structural remedies are not always available.
|
22 | Where a firm is so integrated that there are not obvious
|
23 | divisions, it's very hard to know how to implement a
|
24 | structural remedy. Just as a classic example, the
|
25 | District Court's second opinion in the United Shoe |
8
1 | machinery case would be an example.
|
2 | The second caveat I would have is that
|
3 | structural remedies are not always easier than conduct
|
4 | or behavioral remedies, and in fact must often include
|
5 | some supporting behavioral remedies, and as an example,
|
6 | I would talk about the AT&T vertical divestiture that
|
7 | had to be implemented by open access regulations
|
8 | enforced by the FCC and overseen by the District Court.
|
9 | And then, finally, I would say as a general
|
10 | caveat, the effectiveness of structural remedies in
|
11 | Section 2 cases is not assured and there's certainly
|
12 | quite a bit of debate of effectiveness historically over
|
13 | structural remedies. I'll give you a couple of
|
14 | examples. One early quotation, "In administering the
|
15 | antitrust acts, a number of great and powerful defenses
|
16 | against them have been dissolved. So far as is possible
|
17 | to judge the consuming public has not yet greatly
|
18 | profited by their dissolution." That's Judge Rose in
|
19 | United States against American Can in 1916.
|
20 | Okay, now, we haven't had a lot of experience in
|
21 | enforcing Section 2 by 1916, so maybe things have
|
22 | changed, at least some people disagree. Bob Crandell in
|
23 | 2003 writes, divestitures are "costly exercises in
|
24 | futility," but I would point you to the excellent work
|
25 | of John Baker and Greg Werden in 2003 providing some |
9
1 | counter arguments. Just a way of saying effective
|
2 | remedies structurally offer no guarantee of success.
|
3 | Now, I think the structural remedies may
|
4 | actually be even harder in technologically dynamic
|
5 | markets, and let me offer a couple of reasons. First,
|
6 | where a firm or industry is driven by R&D, it may do no
|
7 | good to divest a given division or to leave a company in
|
8 | two without sending the R&D operations with the divested
|
9 | portions of the entity, but R&D operations are often,
|
10 | perhaps even likely, to be more integrated and
|
11 | inter-dependent within the firm and not susceptible to
|
12 | clean lines of separation.
|
13 | The second reason why I think the presence of
|
14 | ongoing technological change may make structural
|
15 | remedies difficult is that even if divestiture is
|
16 | possible, high-tech firms may require more monitoring of
|
17 | conduct during after the divestiture, because key assets
|
18 | in such divestiture are likely to be intellectual
|
19 | property, IP that in some cases may provide joint uses,
|
20 | uses across the lines of the new or divested entities,
|
21 | disputes are likely to be offered over what items to
|
22 | transfer and whether all IP has been disclosed to the
|
23 | new entity.
|
24 | Moreover, because of the cooperative nature of
|
25 | research and development, and in production, in markets |
10
1 | where product life cycles are short, some post
|
2 | divestiture monitoring of relationships between newly
|
3 | distinct entities may be needed because there may be a
|
4 | natural incentive to favor each other as business
|
5 | partners, and that was something that came up in the
|
6 | wake of the AT&T divestiture, for example.
|
7 | The third reason I think that fast technological
|
8 | change renders structural remedies more challenging is
|
9 | that firm and market structure may be less of an issue,
|
10 | in some technologically dynamic markets. To the extent
|
11 | that the so-called Schumpeterian School is correct, that
|
12 | dynamic markets often display competition that occurs
|
13 | sequentially, through periodic waves of creative
|
14 | destruction, rather than concurrently, through
|
15 | simultaneous production, divestitures may be less
|
16 | effective or necessary such markets, although this is
|
17 | probably more true for horizontal than for vertical
|
18 | divestitures.
|
19 | Okay, and my final reason that structural
|
20 | remedies are tough in technologically dynamic markets,
|
21 | is that where network effects are at issue, structural
|
22 | issues might harm consumers by dissipating positive
|
23 | network externalities. The fact that it might have been
|
24 | better not to have monopoly in the first place does not
|
25 | always mean it is better to break up the monopoly later, |
11
1 | and if such divestitures are to preserve network
|
2 | externalities, they may have to be accompanied by
|
3 | conduct remedies related to interconnection and
|
4 | interoperability, doing away with those clean properties
|
5 | of structural remedies.
|
6 | Okay, let me turn now to conduct remedies, talk
|
7 | a little bit about how they might work in high-tech
|
8 | markets. As a general matter, we often hear that
|
9 | conduct remedies are difficult, but there are some
|
10 | caveats here as well. Not all conduct remedies are
|
11 | created equal, and as many people have pointed out,
|
12 | negative prohibitions, thou shalt not have exclusive
|
13 | deals, for example, are probably easier to implement
|
14 | than affirmative obligations, thou shall deal with your
|
15 | rivals. In part because the negative prohibitions
|
16 | entail less involvement of courts or agencies in
|
17 | regulating terms of trade.
|
18 | The second caveat that I would add is that
|
19 | conduct remedies can have beneficial prospective impact,
|
20 | even if they cannot roll back illegally accumulated or
|
21 | prolonged market power. Some people say, look, conduct
|
22 | remedies are closing the barn doors after the cows are
|
23 | out, but if there are still some cows inside the barn,
|
24 | it's not a bad idea to shut the door.
|
25 | Third, even if a conduct remedy is ineffective |
12
1 | or weak in a given case, I think conduct remedies can
|
2 | have important deterrent effects on others contemplating
|
3 | the illegal behavior, and it's -- in a point that's
|
4 | often made, some people say, if you can't be sure that
|
5 | your conduct remedy is going to be effective, why bring
|
6 | the case? Another reason to bring the case beyond
|
7 | deterrence is I think as we get more experience with
|
8 | different kinds of conduct, it can become clearer what
|
9 | is good and what is bad, and it enables agencies to move
|
10 | more quickly in subsequent cases, and perhaps get a
|
11 | remedy implemented while the harm is still able to be --
|
12 | to be nipped in the bud, so I would not let lack of a
|
13 | clearly successful conduct remedy -- I think one needs
|
14 | to be clearly articulable at the start of a case, but if
|
15 | you can't be sure it will be implemented in time or it
|
16 | will be successful in remedying the market power, there
|
17 | may be some reasons to go ahead with the case anyway in
|
18 | terms of establishing precedent and creating deterrence
|
19 | effects.
|
20 | And finally, just an observation, I think that
|
21 | the effectiveness of conduct remedies are likely to --
|
22 | the effectiveness is likely to be tied to the precision
|
23 | with which one can define the cause of anticompetitive
|
24 | harm, and in some cases, this can be done quite clearly,
|
25 | and in those cases, I think behavioral injunctions can |
13
1 | be quite effective.
|
2 | So, the overall lesson about conduct remedies, I
|
3 | think that it is right to be weary of behavioral
|
4 | remedies, particularly those in which the enjoined
|
5 | conduct has ambiguous welfare effects, or in which
|
6 | courts or agencies will have to become involved that
|
7 | were doing terms of trade, but in the right context,
|
8 | conduct remedies can work and can send valuable
|
9 | deterrent signals.
|
10 | I would just say that inability to articulate a
|
11 | structural remedy therefore should not be decisive in
|
12 | whether or not to prosecute an argument that is
|
13 | sometimes heard.
|
14 | Okay. Well, I think that technologically
|
15 | dynamic markets create both challenges and opportunities
|
16 | for implementing conduct remedies. The first challenge
|
17 | is this: If one accepts that remedies may deter
|
18 | marginal innovation, and I'll assume for the moment that
|
19 | all innovation is good, because private returns are less
|
20 | than social returns to innovation. Let's just take that
|
21 | as a working assumption, it need not be true in all
|
22 | cases, but if one accepts that, and one accepts that
|
23 | remedies can marginally deter innovation, then the
|
24 | deterrence risk and the costs of such deterrence may be
|
25 | much greater in dynamic markets. It needn't be the |
14
1 | case, but I think innovation deterrence becomes a more
|
2 | salient issue and a more salient concern in
|
3 | technologically dynamic markets.
|
4 | The second challenge is that in fast-changing
|
5 | markets, it is more likely than it is in more static
|
6 | settings that the conduct at issue in the case will be
|
7 | moot by the time antitrust liability is established.
|
8 | And in such cases, neither conduct nor structural
|
9 | remedies are likely to be effective, and perhaps
|
10 | something else like disgorgement might be called for if
|
11 | such a remedy can be created.
|
12 | But there are also opportunities in high
|
13 | technology settings, I think, for conduct remedies to be
|
14 | particularly effective. In some cases, technological
|
15 | dynamics can render conduct remedies effective where
|
16 | they would not be in more static markets.
|
17 | In some cases, monopoly once obtain may not be
|
18 | easily eroded, even if exclusionary or predatory conduct
|
19 | that contributed to that monopoly is stopped. Whether
|
20 | because of brand recognition, economies of scale, or
|
21 | customer switching costs, new entrants will be slow to
|
22 | appear or succeed, even when other barriers to entry,
|
23 | such as the exclusionary or predatory conduct at issue
|
24 | in the case, even when those barriers are eliminated,
|
25 | you might not see competition arising. |
15
1 | But I think where competition is more innovation
|
2 | based and where product life cycles are short, an
|
3 | injunction against the behavior that led to the
|
4 | establishment or maintenance of monopoly power may prove
|
5 | very effective, as it is the latter set of barriers,
|
6 | rather than any brand or economic advantage, that might
|
7 | have kept the incumbent dominant.
|
8 | As new waves of innovation come forward, how did
|
9 | they stop someone else from being the innovator who came
|
10 | in with the new product? Well, through the exclusionary
|
11 | or predatory conduct, and branded here and switching
|
12 | costs, other things like that, may be very, very
|
13 | different in the high-tech environment. So, merely
|
14 | eliminating the harmful conduct may open the door for
|
15 | new entry and the conduct or remedy, particularly
|
16 | negative injunctions, I think, can be very successful
|
17 | and very helpful.
|
18 | I would like to just raise an additional point
|
19 | about the overall question of whether or not the cycles
|
20 | of innovation move so quickly and the innovation process
|
21 | moves in such different a way from the standard
|
22 | competitive process that we should step back generally
|
23 | from antitrust enforcement, and this is an argument that
|
24 | one hears quite often.
|
25 | I think when one looks at the kinds of behavior |
16
1 | that limit innovation, and that stop people -- that stop
|
2 | competitors from innovating, it's very unclear to me
|
3 | whether or not monopoly has anything particular to
|
4 | recognize it, nor is it clear to me that new waves of
|
5 | innovation are always going to be sufficiently powerful
|
6 | to overcome artificial barriers to entry like
|
7 | exclusionary -- exclusionary kinds of behavior like
|
8 | exclusive deals when it is a monopolist that has that
|
9 | exclusive deal, contractual terms that bar competitors'
|
10 | products from ever being used, tying that prevents
|
11 | consumers from ever having access to products.
|
12 | It's unclear to me no innovation will always be
|
13 | so great that it can overcome those barriers, those
|
14 | barriers can lead to slower product life cycles, and
|
15 | greatly harm consumers, and I think that there's a lot
|
16 | of evidence of benefits from antitrust enforcement in
|
17 | high-tech areas. And when one looks at the studies that
|
18 | have said there are no benefits to Section 2
|
19 | enforcement, or in a more nuance way, no benefits to
|
20 | Section 2 enforcement in technologically dynamic
|
21 | markets, there's a counterfactual, all of these papers
|
22 | acknowledge the counterfactual, and we can't tell what
|
23 | would have happened absent the antitrust enforcement, we
|
24 | can't tell what would have happened in other markets had
|
25 | there been antitrust enforcement, and then those |
17
1 | arguments are sort of dismissed, tucked under the
|
2 | carpet.
|
3 | I wouldn't dismiss them so easily. And, so, my
|
4 | overall argument would be, be very cautious, be very
|
5 | case-by-case in the application of Section 2 remedies in
|
6 | high-tech markets, I think structural remedies are
|
7 | likely to be harder to implement, but there may be good
|
8 | opportunities for conduct remedies to be very effective.
|
9 | Thanks.
|
10 | (Applause.)
|
11 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you very much, Howard. Our
|
12 | next speaker, excuse me, is Renata Hesse, who is a
|
13 | partner at Wilson Sonsini Goodrich and Rosati. Prior to
|
14 | joining Wilson Sonsini, Renata served as the chief of
|
15 | the Networks and Technology Enforcement Section at the
|
16 | Antitrust Division and oversaw much of the division's
|
17 | technology litigation, including the Oracle/Peoplesoft
|
18 | and First Data/Concord matters. In addition, Renata
|
19 | worked extensively on both the American Airlines and the
|
20 | Microsoft case.
|
21 | Renata?
|
22 | MS. HESSE: Getting myself around is a little
|
23 | harder these days.
|
24 | So, Howard covered a lot of ground which I think
|
25 | fundamentally I agree with almost everything he said. |
18
1 | In fact, I think I probably agree with everything he
|
2 | said, but wanted to pick up where he was leaving off,
|
3 | which was I think in talking about the notion that you
|
4 | shouldn't back away from Section 2 enforcement in high
|
5 | technology markets, and the main reason why I think
|
6 | that's true is that despite all of the innovation and
|
7 | the fast pace of change in those markets, there is an
|
8 | opportunity for durable market power to exist in them,
|
9 | and you do want to make sure that you're not overlooking
|
10 | that possibility and potentially addressing it.
|
11 | So, I wanted to start with just a few basic
|
12 | points about Section 2 remedies that I think are
|
13 | important, and some of these overlap with some of the
|
14 | things that Howard said and I'm sure that will happen as
|
15 | we go along down the line of speakers, but the first
|
16 | thing that I wanted to talk about is the importance of
|
17 | focusing on remedy early, and the main reason -- there
|
18 | are several reasons for that, but the biggest reason is
|
19 | that it helps you try to figure out what your goal is.
|
20 | What's the violation that you're really thinking about,
|
21 | what do you think has really happened that's harmful,
|
22 | and how can you address it? That isn't to say that if
|
23 | you can't come up with a perfect solution to the problem
|
24 | that you shouldn't go ahead and try and do something
|
25 | about it. |
19
1 | I think Howard is right that there's a good
|
2 | deterrent effect in enforcing the law, even if you're
|
3 | not 100 percent sure that the way that you think you can
|
4 | fix it will be successful, but I do think it will -- it
|
5 | helps you focus your investigation, and here again, I'm
|
6 | speaking as if I were a government lawyer, but focus
|
7 | your investigation and theories so that you can really
|
8 | figure out whether or not you've got a case that is
|
9 | worth allocating resources to, and pursuing.
|
10 | And I just think it gives you a much better
|
11 | sense of the definition of the harm that you're trying
|
12 | to alleviate.
|
13 | The second point is that I think when you start
|
14 | with thinking about remedy, or at least you think about
|
15 | remedy relatively early in the process, you can get a
|
16 | better sense for whether or not you actually can come up
|
17 | with a remedy that is really going to leave the
|
18 | marketplace in a better place than it was when you
|
19 | started.
|
20 | And I would sort of call this the first do no
|
21 | harm rule, and it is one of these things which you
|
22 | always need to bear in mind, which is that you don't
|
23 | always want to make things worse, you don't want to
|
24 | deter innovation or take an action in the marketplace
|
25 | which stifles productivity, and I think in technology |
20
1 | markets, that's something that you really need to keep
|
2 | in mind.
|
3 | But if you were stepping back and thinking about
|
4 | that early, you can think about whether or not there are
|
5 | ways to achieve the goal that you want to achieve
|
6 | without having at least a large countervailing harmful
|
7 | effect.
|
8 | The third point is related to the resource
|
9 | allocation point that I made. I think fundamentally
|
10 | it's just a basic responsibility that particularly
|
11 | government enforcers have to think about how you're
|
12 | going to fix the problem, and whether or not the problem
|
13 | is subject to a fix that's worth the investment of
|
14 | resources in not only the investigation and prosecution
|
15 | of the matter, but also the compliance and enforcement
|
16 | activities that will happen post judgment, and those
|
17 | are, I think, much more complicated when you're talking
|
18 | about conduct remedies and structural remedies, but,
|
19 | again, Howard correctly notes that when you do a
|
20 | structural remedy in these markets, very often there are
|
21 | going to be conduct remedies associated with it in any
|
22 | event.
|
23 | But I think you really do want to have in your
|
24 | mind whether or not the consumption of the resource is
|
25 | likely to result in some improvement to the competitive |
21
1 | conditions in the marketplace.
|
2 | And then there's a fourth point which is that
|
3 | sort of the question of if you have a good idea of what
|
4 | you think the remedy that you want to put into place is,
|
5 | then I think you'll have a better idea of whether or not
|
6 | the -- again, the pursuit of the investigation or
|
7 | prosecution is worth while, and by that I mean that
|
8 | there are some kinds of Section 2 violations that are
|
9 | easier to remedy than others.
|
10 | So, one example might be you can think of
|
11 | exclusive dealing or vertical foreclosure, for example,
|
12 | where you have fairly easily identifiable concrete types
|
13 | of conduct that you can undo. I think monopoly
|
14 | maintenance, to a certain degree, monopoly acquisition
|
15 | cases are much harder.
|
16 | So, if you're in the situation where you're
|
17 | balancing these things out, and you've got a choice
|
18 | between two matters that you want to devote your
|
19 | resources to and one of them has a reasonably good
|
20 | likelihood of being able to be fixed, and the other is a
|
21 | little tougher, then you've got to figure out how to
|
22 | allocate your resources, then you might want to think
|
23 | about going towards the one that actually has a solution
|
24 | that you can identify and that you think will be likely
|
25 | to result in an improvement in the competitive |
22
1 | conditions.
|
2 | And this just goes back to something that I
|
3 | think people often think about in the context of -- of
|
4 | the -- when you're trying to come up with a remedy, what
|
5 | is it that you're trying to achieve, are you looking at
|
6 | a monopoly that you believe has been illegally created
|
7 | and are you trying to undo that, or are you looking at
|
8 | conduct that has maintained a monopoly and are you
|
9 | trying to restore the conditions of the competitive
|
10 | marketplace to the pre-exclusionary conduct state? And
|
11 | depending on which of those two things you're looking
|
12 | at, you're going to have a pretty different, I think,
|
13 | idea about what's the right way to go about recommending
|
14 | the harm.
|
15 | The second thing I wanted to talk about was just
|
16 | the point that Howard started with, which is structural
|
17 | remedies and the general point that generally I think
|
18 | structural remedies should be preferred. I think it's
|
19 | clearly true that they are not always possible, and
|
20 | that's certainly more true in Section 2 cases than in
|
21 | other kinds of cases, but I wouldn't advise sort of
|
22 | ignoring them as possible ways of recommending harm,
|
23 | because I think they do have a number of benefits.
|
24 | One of the benefits is that developing a
|
25 | functional set of conduct restrictions that are likely |
23
1 | to have a beneficial effect, without having this sort of
|
2 | countervailing, potentially negative effect on the
|
3 | marketplace is an extremely complicated and resource
|
4 | intensive process. It took a really long time to come
|
5 | up with the conduct restrictions that we developed in
|
6 | the Microsoft case, and I think, you know, you can --
|
7 | it's open for debate whether or not those were worked
|
8 | well or not well, but it took a long time to figure them
|
9 | out, and to just evaluate all the different
|
10 | possibilities and try to develop language that's
|
11 | concrete enough and understandable enough in a legal
|
12 | document for people to actually then be able to
|
13 | implement it and understand it and understand what the
|
14 | rules of the road are. It's just an inherently
|
15 | difficult process to do, and I think that isn't just
|
16 | Microsoft, that's any time when you're trying to come up
|
17 | with a set of conduct restrictions where you're dealing
|
18 | with complex technology.
|
19 | It's also hard to judge their success, I think,
|
20 | and that's also true in structural remedies, in some
|
21 | situations, but it's very hard to know when conduct
|
22 | restrictions have succeeded. I think you can know when
|
23 | they've failed, but I don't think you can know as easily
|
24 | when they've succeeded. How do you measure success with
|
25 | conduct restrictions? |
24
1 | I think structural remedies generally eliminate,
|
2 | although not entirely, the need for ongoing enforcement
|
3 | in compliance activity, which also can be an extremely
|
4 | time consuming and resource intensive process. It can
|
5 | require, and this is something else I can talk about a
|
6 | little bit later, but it can require a lot of assistance
|
7 | from people who know more about technology and business
|
8 | and licensing and all these things that come up in
|
9 | technology markets work, and structural remedies tend to
|
10 | need a lot less of that.
|
11 | I think structural remedies are generally less
|
12 | easy to evade. It's pretty clear what you're supposed
|
13 | to do, and you've either done it or you haven't done it.
|
14 | You've either divested the plant or the asset or
|
15 | whatever it is, or you haven't. You know, there are
|
16 | issues associated with those kinds of things, whether or
|
17 | not you found an adequate buyer and all of those other
|
18 | sorts of issues, but at least there's a very clear line
|
19 | about what you are supposed to have done.
|
20 | I think they have a potentially greater
|
21 | deterrent effect, because they have the capability at
|
22 | least of really restructuring a business in a way that
|
23 | most businesses don't want to have happen. So, that can
|
24 | discourage people from engaging in conduct that folks
|
25 | think violates Section 2. |
25
1 | And I think generally, again with some of the
|
2 | caveats that Howard laid out, they're more likely to
|
3 | work. The lines are clearer, and if you've actually
|
4 | proven a violation where you can support imposition of a
|
5 | structural remedy, I think the likelihood of that
|
6 | structural remedy having an effect is probably higher.
|
7 | So, those are some kind of basic points. A few
|
8 | points that are more directly connected, just to sort of
|
9 | the technology markets, and the first is, you know,
|
10 | everybody always talks about technology markets are fast
|
11 | changing and innovation changes everything, and as
|
12 | Howard said, sometimes people say, maybe you don't need
|
13 | to worry about them because they're just going to be
|
14 | self correcting. I tend not to agree with that latter
|
15 | viewpoint, for the reason that I started with, which is
|
16 | that it's clear that there's a possibility for the
|
17 | existence of durable market power in these markets, so I
|
18 | think just leaving them alone and hoping that the
|
19 | exclusionary conduct somehow magically stops and things
|
20 | correct themselves is not likely to lead to a lot of
|
21 | success.
|
22 | I do think that the fact that they can sometimes
|
23 | be slow and that the antitrust enforcement process can
|
24 | sometimes be slow is a down side in these markets, a
|
25 | greater down side in these markets than in other |
26
1 | markets, because sometimes you feel like you get to the
|
2 | end and you're addressing the problem when it's actually
|
3 | a little bit too late.
|
4 | As a consequence, I think you need, when you're
|
5 | thinking about conduct remedies in technology markets,
|
6 | to be a little bit more flexible about how you think
|
7 | about them. And to address categories or types of
|
8 | conduct relating to types or categories of products or
|
9 | services as opposed to saying, well, this -- you did
|
10 | this particular thing with this particular kind of
|
11 | product, and you should do that -- you shouldn't do that
|
12 | anymore. This is the negative prohibition point versus
|
13 | an affirmative obligation point.
|
14 | If the conduct remedy is too narrowly focused,
|
15 | it runs the risk of being ineffective, and I think in
|
16 | most cases is likely to be ineffective, particularly,
|
17 | again, if you're talking about undoing some sort of harm
|
18 | that has occurred.
|
19 | You know, Microsoft is a simple example of this,
|
20 | the consent decree doesn't just talk about browsers,
|
21 | which was the primary focus of the case, but it talks
|
22 | about other products which were potential platform
|
23 | threats and has some construct restrictions in it that
|
24 | are designed to try to go after those particular -- or
|
25 | not go after them, but to try and make sure that the |
27
1 | conduct relating to those other kind of potential
|
2 | platform threats were restrained.
|
3 | There's a possibility in technology markets that
|
4 | they should be of shorter duration. Again, Microsoft is
|
5 | another example, it was a five-year consent decree, it's
|
6 | now been extended in some pieces for longer than that,
|
7 | but I think there's a reasonable basis for at least
|
8 | looking at the question of whether or not you really
|
9 | need something to last ten, 20, some decrees in the past
|
10 | have lasted for hundreds of years, some of them very
|
11 | perpetual, and whether or not that makes sense
|
12 | particularly in the context of technology markets is I
|
13 | think something that people -- it's worth looking at.
|
14 | I also think if you're going to think about
|
15 | decrees of shorter durations, or remedies of shorter
|
16 | durations, that including some mechanism for revisiting
|
17 | that question before the term of the decree expires is a
|
18 | good idea. I think it's just these markets are
|
19 | inherently unpredictable, and given the complication of
|
20 | structuring conduct provisions in them, that giving
|
21 | yourself an opportunity to take a second look and having
|
22 | a standard for how you would be able to convince a court
|
23 | that you need to extend a decree in these kinds of
|
24 | markets is something that should be given some
|
25 | consideration. |
28
1 | And the final point on this area is that I think
|
2 | conduct remedies in Section 2, Section 2 remedies in
|
3 | technology markets may need to be more forward looking,
|
4 | and this is a little slightly basically the same thing
|
5 | with a slightly different pitch on it, but you do have
|
6 | to think about what it is that you can predict about the
|
7 | marketplace and changes in the marketplace going forward
|
8 | and whether or not what you've devised in the context of
|
9 | the conduct remedy is adequate to address the changing
|
10 | technology in the marketplace.
|
11 | The last piece about technology markets that I
|
12 | think makes them different is that they're hard, and
|
13 | it's hard to understand them, and they're particularly
|
14 | hard for people who are not educated in technology.
|
15 | And, so, compliance monitoring enforcement can be a
|
16 | difficult thing to do.
|
17 | As a consequence, I think if you're looking at
|
18 | these markets and you're looking at behavioral
|
19 | restrictions, particularly ones that relate to licensing
|
20 | of intellectual property or access to technology or
|
21 | just, you know, you're requiring a company to stop doing
|
22 | a particular activity with a particular type of
|
23 | technology, that you really need to anticipate getting
|
24 | some technical help, and when I think of technical help
|
25 | in this context, I don't think just of software |
29
1 | engineers or hardware engineers, but I also think of
|
2 | licensing expertise, business expertise, you know,
|
3 | trying to figure out whether a royalty ran is a
|
4 | difficult problem, and it's not a problem that most
|
5 | antitrust lawyers deal with on a day-to-day basis.
|
6 | And having the ability to have access to people
|
7 | who actually do that kind of work for a living, who know
|
8 | what particular types of technologies, what kinds of
|
9 | royalties particular types of technologies command is, I
|
10 | think, critical to the ability to actually do an
|
11 | adequate job of monitoring and enforcing compliance.
|
12 | Again, I started with sort of a more broad
|
13 | definition of technical assistance, but a narrow
|
14 | definition of technical assistance, which is just
|
15 | actually having somebody who knows how software code is
|
16 | written, and what to look for and how to evaluate
|
17 | whether or not something has been done in the code is
|
18 | very important. I think one of the really unusual and
|
19 | innovative things that was in the Microsoft decree was
|
20 | the technical committee provision, which allowed the
|
21 | Department of Justice and the states to have access to
|
22 | basically a full-time group of technical consultants who
|
23 | were hired to work for those people and the cost of
|
24 | which was borne and continues to be borne by Microsoft.
|
25 | I think it was an unusual idea, but it really |
30
1 | has become, I think, a key component to the United
|
2 | States enforcement and monitoring, compliance monitoring
|
3 | efforts of the Microsoft decree, and it was essentially
|
4 | copied by the European Commission in the work that
|
5 | they're doing in Microsoft as well.
|
6 | And it had not been done before. There were
|
7 | lots of times where in complicated markets people had
|
8 | used monitoring trustees, I shouldn't say there were
|
9 | lots of times, but there were examples of monitoring
|
10 | trustees being used, usually they were in things like
|
11 | prison condition litigation, where there was some pretty
|
12 | complicated oversight that was needed, but hiring
|
13 | technical experts to help out was an innovative thing to
|
14 | do and I think has proven to be a pretty successful
|
15 | component of the Microsoft decree.
|
16 | Now, you also may need technical assistance when
|
17 | you're trying to figure out whether or not somebody has
|
18 | violated the decree and you actually want to go after
|
19 | them for contempt. I think the Microsoft model doesn't
|
20 | quite fit so well in that context, because it's a little
|
21 | hard to see how you can justify the party who you're
|
22 | going to be pursuing in contempt actually paying for the
|
23 | expert that you're going to be using, to go after them
|
24 | in contempt, but it's something that people -- you want
|
25 | to think about, and at least have the resources and |
31
1 | capability to get that kind of help on board.
|
2 | So, I have probably 30 seconds at this point
|
3 | left. The last thing I would say is that licensing
|
4 | remedies are incredibly common in technology markets.
|
5 | They can be useful, and I think can work well, but I
|
6 | think they work particularly well in the context where
|
7 | you know or have a very good idea of what the
|
8 | intellectual property is or what the asset is that needs
|
9 | to be licensed, are there particular patents who needs
|
10 | them, and again, if you go back at the very beginning,
|
11 | to those are things that you can think about early on
|
12 | and figure out and they'll help you determine whether or
|
13 | not a licensing remedy is likely to be successful.
|
14 | And of course when you're doing that, you need
|
15 | to think about the policy issues that are associated
|
16 | with compulsory licensing of intellectual property,
|
17 | which is a hot topic these days.
|
18 | (Applause.)
|
19 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you so much, Renata, for
|
20 | those comments.
|
21 | Michael Cunningham is general counsel at Red
|
22 | Hat, Inc. Prior to joining Red Hat, he served as
|
23 | associate general counsel at IBM, where he had legal
|
24 | advisory responsibilities for the Business Consulting
|
25 | Services Division for Europe, the Middle East and |
32
1 | Africa. He was also a partner and associate general
|
2 | counsel at PricewaterhouseCoopers.
|
3 | Michael?
|
4 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: Thank you, and good morning.
|
5 | I'm pleased to have the opportunity to participate in
|
6 | this important consideration of Section 2 remedies, to
|
7 | do so before distinguished representatives of the
|
8 | government, as well as with this particularly
|
9 | knowledgeable panel.
|
10 | I'm the general counsel of Red Hat. I'm going
|
11 | to make a little disclaimer, I'm a technology lawyer,
|
12 | I'm not principally an antitrust lawyer. I hope that I
|
13 | can offer some comments, however, as an executive of a
|
14 | technology company that are relevant to these inquiries.
|
15 | With your indulgence, I would like to describe a
|
16 | bit about our business that I think is relevant
|
17 | innovation, given the debate about antitrust remedies
|
18 | stifling innovation, I think it's particularly
|
19 | appropriate this morning.
|
20 | The software solutions that Red Hat offers, and
|
21 | for which we provide services, are developed by very
|
22 | broad horizontal communities that are without
|
23 | geographic, organizational or political boundaries. The
|
24 | community of innovators that unleash the value of open
|
25 | source are not contained within Red Hat. Some of its |
33
1 | contributors are, but it's not.
|
2 | The contributors include the customers and
|
3 | vendors of hardware and software. It includes
|
4 | academics, it includes many, many motivated individuals
|
5 | that we call hackers, it includes persons from every
|
6 | continent and from multiple political subdivisions.
|
7 | The development environment is also not
|
8 | controlled by any single individual company or political
|
9 | entity, it is instead a free, meritocratic marketplace
|
10 | of ideas. Individuals take these ideas and they place
|
11 | these ideas with their individual name and reputation
|
12 | into the marketplace in a particular software
|
13 | development project to which their idea is relevant.
|
14 | There are literally thousands of these projects
|
15 | out there. In one of our offerings, Red Hat Enterprise
|
16 | Linux, hundreds of projects are represented. These
|
17 | ideas are then reviewed by that development community,
|
18 | for that project, and only those ideas that can handle
|
19 | the open scrutiny of this open source community are then
|
20 | adopted.
|
21 | In this way, the best ideas and the bets bits of
|
22 | ideas bubble up. Moreover, if there happen to be a
|
23 | serendipitous discovery that is made in one of those
|
24 | projects that's relevant to another project or might be
|
25 | an entirely new approach, the contributor or any other |
34
1 | person is free to contribute it to that project or
|
2 | indeed to go out and start a new project to take the
|
3 | technology in a new direction.
|
4 | This model has produced and continues to produce
|
5 | copious innovation. It also accelerates and multiplies
|
6 | innovation, I would argue, by providing tools of
|
7 | innovation, such as information ideas to a broader and
|
8 | more diverse community than development within any one
|
9 | firm is possible could provide.
|
10 | The open exchange of information and ideas is an
|
11 | innovation force multiplier. For example, sophisticated
|
12 | business and other users of software frequently take the
|
13 | modular pieces of well crafted software that's developed
|
14 | in the open source community, cobble bits and pieces of
|
15 | it together, modify it, append to it and create
|
16 | solutions for problems that heretofore were not solved,
|
17 | or new problems that arise in their business.
|
18 | Similarly, the creative juices of the lone
|
19 | teenager in North Dakota in some remote location can
|
20 | contribute to that process, so can a Cal Tech physicist
|
21 | who is wondering why there hasn't been a software
|
22 | development that would help in his or her research. And
|
23 | so are many, many others unleashed in the creative
|
24 | process through this open development and collaboration
|
25 | model. |
35
1 | The modular and open nature of open source
|
2 | software has fueled much innovation, but it is by no
|
3 | means limited to software. It is not a software-only
|
4 | phenomena. No, I would submit to you that the relative
|
5 | ubiquity and low cost of the Internet, and collaboration
|
6 | tools like email and dedicated web sites portends for
|
7 | joint collaboration that is unleashing all sorts of
|
8 | innovation across the world.
|
9 | If you've read the best selling book by Tom
|
10 | Friedman, The World is Flat, you will get a very good
|
11 | sense of some of these trends, I think. I would also be
|
12 | happy to comment on some other areas where that
|
13 | innovation is being unleashed in the questioning, if
|
14 | that's helpful.
|
15 | With that bit of an introduction, maybe I should
|
16 | turn my attention now more directly to remedies. First,
|
17 | I believe that in the software space at least, the
|
18 | relevance of the antitrust law hangs on the issue of
|
19 | remedies. I can think of no way as a practitioner and
|
20 | an executive in a company in the industry to more
|
21 | starkly illustrate that point than to disclose my actual
|
22 | advice to my client in pursuing whether to participate
|
23 | in or pursue any monopoly-related case, whether that be
|
24 | in a government-related case or in private litigation.
|
25 | I would tell my client, it's too expensive for |
36
1 | you to fully embrace and do that. You cannot do it.
|
2 | You don't have enough money to pursue it, it's certainly
|
3 | over $10 million, it will be a long time, and it is
|
4 | likely, I would submit to you, at least this would be my
|
5 | advice, it is likely and substantially likely that the
|
6 | remedy that will result will be of limited utility. So,
|
7 | therefore, those sorts of expenditures would not be
|
8 | justified.
|
9 | And guess what? Those that the government
|
10 | representatives seek to regulate know this, and they
|
11 | know it well. By way of illustration, a high-ranking
|
12 | representative, indeed a very high-ranking
|
13 | representative of a party found to have market power by
|
14 | multiple international competitive authorities has
|
15 | aggressively and indeed smugly advised Red Hat that
|
16 | there is no competition authority in the world that this
|
17 | firm will not outspend, outlast, and seek to thwart.
|
18 | In short, the system seems broken in terms of
|
19 | speed, cost, and effectiveness of remedies, at least
|
20 | from my little corner of the world. You know, why is
|
21 | this the case? Well, as others have said, technological
|
22 | change is very rapid and litigation is not. The rate of
|
23 | change at least in information technology is in very
|
24 | short cycles, three to five years, maybe six to eight
|
25 | years, certainly not longer than that in many, many |
37
1 | areas of information technology.
|
2 | Remedies that only address a particular market
|
3 | complained of, and established at great expense, will
|
4 | often be too late to provide meaningful relief. A
|
5 | remedy focused on future conduct would address some of
|
6 | those limitations and in many instances I think is
|
7 | necessary.
|
8 | I also am intrigued by the idea of smaller
|
9 | simpler cases with speedier trial times that would focus
|
10 | on future contact to make the law more relevant.
|
11 | Clearly cost and delay undermine the perceived and
|
12 | actual effectiveness of the antitrust laws in our
|
13 | competitive zone.
|
14 | In that way, some of Professor's Lao's writing
|
15 | on the role of the intent in finding liability seem a
|
16 | fruitful avenue for further inquiry to me.
|
17 | Second, technology can be manipulated. The
|
18 | speed with which information technology moves and can be
|
19 | molded provides real opportunity for conscious
|
20 | manipulation by the monopolist away from the market
|
21 | complained of. The government enforcement actions
|
22 | against Microsoft are an example of the timing
|
23 | challenges, I'm thinking now about the European Union,
|
24 | even the most aggressive threats by the EC are mired in
|
25 | delay, seemingly extended without limit. |
38
1 | According to the most recent statistics we've
|
2 | seen, Microsoft continues to gain in the operating
|
3 | system worker group server market, meanwhile the market
|
4 | continues its very rapid evolution, probably reducing
|
5 | the relevance of any remedy that may eventually be
|
6 | enforced and/or issued.
|
7 | I guess I should also point out that private
|
8 | enforcement actions have not solved the problem either,
|
9 | this won't be a surprise from my earlier comment. The
|
10 | antitrust law, like the Ritz Carlton, is open to the
|
11 | rich and poor alike. The most entrepreneurial and the
|
12 | most innovative firms, the small fledgling ones are
|
13 | without means to mount private antitrust cases.
|
14 | Let me turn my attention for a few moments to
|
15 | innovation. Protecting competition does not mean
|
16 | stifling innovation, I don't believe. While there is an
|
17 | inevitable tension between the intellectual property law
|
18 | and the antitrust law, competition law cannot achieve
|
19 | its purpose if regulators and courts are preoccupied
|
20 | with a concern that remedies affecting some intellectual
|
21 | property rights will necessarily stifle innovation.
|
22 | That focus on IP, that is intellectual property,
|
23 | a legal concept, is misguided. The focus should be on
|
24 | true innovation, not patents and copyrights, public
|
25 | grants of a monopoly. |
39
1 | Why is that the case? Well, first I think
|
2 | equating innovation to the accumulation of intellectual
|
3 | property is suspect, at least in the software world.
|
4 | The software patent approach in the United States is
|
5 | being broadly questioned, and that's the case for at
|
6 | least two or three different reasons.
|
7 | First of all, the software industry in
|
8 | particular survived for almost 20 years with very
|
9 | limited forms of software patents, not the broad range
|
10 | that we now see following State Street and other court
|
11 | decisions.
|
12 | Second, I would submit to you the relationship
|
13 | of software patents to innovation is suspect. I
|
14 | regularly review the academic literature in this area
|
15 | and I am aware of no convincing argument that software
|
16 | patents have unleashed -- and no empirical study --
|
17 | that they have unleashed and spurred additional
|
18 | innovation.
|
19 | Third, the news is regularly filled with stories
|
20 | of highly suspect software patents, patents that are not
|
21 | new and innovative, ones that are anticipated by prior
|
22 | art and ones that common sense tell us lack sufficient
|
23 | novelty to warrant 20 years of protection.
|
24 | Of course that shouldn't be surprising, there
|
25 | are well publicized challenges in the Patent & Trademark |
40
1 | Office, there's no effective and searchable database on
|
2 | prior art for software. There's also serious challenges
|
3 | in retracting and retaining the kinds of experts that
|
4 | Renata talked about to actually evaluate what is seeking
|
5 | to be patented.
|
6 | I say that just to suggest that the innovation
|
7 | reflected in software patents is questionable at times.
|
8 | Therefore, giving, you know, complete deference to
|
9 | intellectual property in that context seems misguided.
|
10 | Even more important to this debate, as my
|
11 | opening remarks sought to illustrate, there are broad
|
12 | communities of collaboration that are massively
|
13 | innovative. Please note that their style of
|
14 | collaboration is not readily or naturally susceptible to
|
15 | patent protection, given the open and collaborative
|
16 | nature of their exchanges.
|
17 | Thus, innovation of the firm is not the only or
|
18 | even the most effective form of innovation to be
|
19 | considered or protected when facing the market
|
20 | disruptive effects of monopolists. Powerful new
|
21 | innovation paradigms are upon us now and they're growing
|
22 | and they need to be considered and measured in balance.
|
23 | But even if we were to assume that the firm is
|
24 | the epicenter of innovation, the smallest and perhaps
|
25 | most innovative are without the means to challenge the |
41
1 | innovation of the monopolist that is purported to be
|
2 | reflected in intellectual property. The combination of
|
3 | suspect software patent quality and the disparity of the
|
4 | cost to acquire a patent versus the cost to defend
|
5 | against it skew IP protection in favor of larger
|
6 | enterprises with market power.
|
7 | Cost of acquiring a patent, let's say, is
|
8 | $25,000 to $35,000. It absolutely pales in contrast to
|
9 | the cost of a proper infringement defense. That is
|
10 | variously $3 to $5 to $7 million, and by all accounts is
|
11 | growing at present.
|
12 | Moreover, the monopolist can disrupt the
|
13 | business of smaller competitors merely by suggesting to
|
14 | consumers that its IP is infringed, without any proof
|
15 | whatsoever. If you consider Steven Bommer's recent
|
16 | statements that the users of Linux have an undisclosed
|
17 | off balance sheet liability to Microsoft, which were
|
18 | offered without any substantiation whatsoever. And the
|
19 | SCO litigation that is ongoing I think offers some
|
20 | interesting and vicarious variance on the same theme,
|
21 | which I would also be happy to comment on in the
|
22 | question and answer period.
|
23 | Keeping on the intellectual property theme, an
|
24 | effective remedy needs to prevent the extension of
|
25 | market power. A company who has acquired market power |
42
1 | through anticompetitive conduct shall not be permitted
|
2 | to be able to hide behind intellectual property
|
3 | protection to reinforce and extend its market power. I
|
4 | think there is an interesting lesson in history on this
|
5 | that deals with data formats.
|
6 | In particular, I would like to contrast how
|
7 | Microsoft came to compete in word processing, versus how
|
8 | it now competes. The background is as follows:
|
9 | Software products manipulate and ultimately store
|
10 | customer data after that manipulation. To the extent
|
11 | this data is then placed into storage formats, that are
|
12 | claimed as either proprietary or protected by
|
13 | intellectual property of the software vendor, then the
|
14 | ability of a competing product to make effective use of
|
15 | the stored customer data and break into and compete in
|
16 | that market, which is likely reinforced by very strong
|
17 | network effects, can be precluded.
|
18 | Take, for example, Microsoft's word processor
|
19 | competition against the then-important market position
|
20 | of the WordPerfect product in the 1980s. Because the
|
21 | data format's inability to represent the data with
|
22 | substantial fidelity was possible, Microsoft could
|
23 | compete at the enterprise level by saying, give me a try
|
24 | in parallel with WordPerfect. If I do better, then
|
25 | incur the cost of switching out your old technology and |
43
1 | taking on our technology.
|
2 | In contrast today, I would submit to you the
|
3 | formats of Microsoft alphus data have been and are
|
4 | increasingly being obscured by Microsoft and cannot be
|
5 | presented, that is the data cannot be presented with
|
6 | true fidelity by any competitor, like OpenOffice, which
|
7 | thereby extends the time of their dominant position and
|
8 | permits extension of power into adjacent markets.
|
9 | It is the case that Red Hat cannot effectively
|
10 | compete with open source personal productivity
|
11 | applications, like word processors and other things, at
|
12 | the enterprise level against Microsoft, it can't get its
|
13 | foot in the door. If a client wants to give someone a
|
14 | try and you can't render their existing data in a
|
15 | meaningful fashion, that prevents anyone from entering
|
16 | into that market, I would submit to you, or doing so
|
17 | easily, anyway.
|
18 | Microsoft controls, I would submit to you, a
|
19 | facility of competition through the extension of IP and
|
20 | proprietary formats that is needed to meaningfully
|
21 | render and manipulate customer data. I have no doubt
|
22 | that's why you're seeing states like Massachusetts
|
23 | aggressively consider the open document format, a truly
|
24 | open standard in format in its procurement processes.
|
25 | The mono type litigation of Red Hat is another |
44
1 | example that illustrates that that I would be happy to
|
2 | comment on later.
|
3 | In summary, I guess I would say that innovation
|
4 | does not equate to intellectual property, and therefore
|
5 | greater focus on preserving and promoting true
|
6 | innovation in the marketplace is warranted. Further,
|
7 | there are numerous ways in which the use and assertion
|
8 | of intellectual property rights can be a pretext that
|
9 | chills competition and extends monopoly power.
|
10 | Thank you.
|
11 | (Applause.)
|
12 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you very much, Michael, for
|
13 | that, and I think we will take about a ten-minute break
|
14 | now.
|
15 | (Whereupon, there was a recess in the
|
16 | proceedings.)
|
17 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you, everyone. William
|
18 | Page is a Marshall M. Criser eminent scholar at the
|
19 | University of Florida Levin College of Law and he is
|
20 | also an alumnus of the Antitrust Division, where he
|
21 | served as a trial attorney in the 1970s.
|
22 | Bill?
|
23 | MR. PAGE: Thank you. Rather than speak in
|
24 | generalities about Section 2 remedies in high-tech
|
25 | markets, I want to zero in on one highly technical and |
45
1 | seemingly obscure provision in the final judgments in
|
2 | the government's Microsoft case that has turned out to
|
3 | be the most difficult and the most problematic in its
|
4 | enforcement.
|
5 | The provision requires Microsoft to license to
|
6 | software developers communications protocols that
|
7 | Microsoft uses in its Windows Client operating systems
|
8 | to interoperate with Microsoft server operating systems,
|
9 | either in corporate networks or over the Internet.
|
10 | Communications protocols are the rules for transmitting
|
11 | information between different devices.
|
12 | So, in a computer network, the protocols allow a
|
13 | user of a client computer, for example, to store
|
14 | information on a network drive or send an email or
|
15 | display a web page, among many other things.
|
16 | This sort of interoperation is relatively easy
|
17 | when the client computer's operating system and the
|
18 | server operating system share a common base in code.
|
19 | It's like they speak the same language, so they can
|
20 | interoperate easily.
|
21 | Where the client computer, usually a Windows
|
22 | client, has to interoperate with servers from other
|
23 | vendors, then the problem with interoperability becomes
|
24 | much more difficult, but there are ways of solving them.
|
25 | There are recognized ways of solving them. Some involve |
46
1 | installing a client on Windows that would allow
|
2 | interoperation with the non-Windows server and
|
3 | applications running on it.
|
4 | There are also standard protocols that are
|
5 | available and supported in Windows. This provision
|
6 | requires another way of assuring interoperation, that is
|
7 | requires Microsoft to disclose its proprietary
|
8 | protocols, to license them to software developers so
|
9 | that they can interoperate. The near-term goal would be
|
10 | for them to be able to write programs that will
|
11 | interoperate as well with Windows clients as
|
12 | applications running on Microsoft servers.
|
13 | The long-term goal is to allow -- is to preserve
|
14 | in this network context the so-called middleware threat
|
15 | that was the focus of the government case. The
|
16 | middleware applications running on servers, the concern
|
17 | is, may eventually evolve into platforms that could
|
18 | rival the Windows desktop and thereby erode the
|
19 | application's barrier to entry. Essentially the theory
|
20 | of the government case.
|
21 | In spite of its apparent obscurity, this
|
22 | provision has been given an unusual amount of importance
|
23 | by the District Court enforcing the Microsoft judgment.
|
24 | She's referred to it as the most forward looking
|
25 | provision in the final judgments and as necessary to |
47
1 | assure that the other provisions don't become
|
2 | prematurely obsolete. It's now being implemented by the
|
3 | two sets of plaintiffs in the Microsoft litigation, the
|
4 | Antitrust Division and the nine settling states, and
|
5 | also by the group of non-settling plaintiffs who were
|
6 | awarded essentially the same relief, but there are
|
7 | different enforcement mechanisms.
|
8 | There's the technical committee that Renata
|
9 | referred to in the Antitrust Divisions's consent decree
|
10 | and there's a technical consultant to the non-settling
|
11 | states under their decree, but they're coordinating
|
12 | their enforcement efforts. Both of these judgments went
|
13 | into effect in 2002.
|
14 | And the plaintiffs in both cases and Microsoft
|
15 | has been filing status reports every two months about
|
16 | the enforcement of both of the judgments, and I have
|
17 | studied these reports with the help of a research
|
18 | assistant, who was also a software developer and a
|
19 | management consultant, and so he has been sort of my
|
20 | technical consultant. He provided all of the technical
|
21 | expertise in this study, because I certainly claim none.
|
22 | The enforcement of this provision, this one
|
23 | provision in these judgments has dominated these
|
24 | reports, particularly in recent years. It by far
|
25 | occupies most of the reports and certainly most of the |
48
1 | time of the technical committee. And I'll argue that
|
2 | this provision has not accomplished its purpose, and
|
3 | that we can draw some lessons from that experience.
|
4 | So, I want to first describe what I take to be
|
5 | the principles of Section 2 remedies, I'll then suggest
|
6 | that most of the provisions in the Microsoft judgments
|
7 | adhere to these principles, but that this provision, the
|
8 | protocol licensing provision, departs from the
|
9 | principles and that is part of the reason why it has not
|
10 | been successful.
|
11 | I'll describe briefly how it has been
|
12 | implemented and then in the end I'll try to draw some
|
13 | lessons. And incidentally, this is a very brief summary
|
14 | of a much longer article which I hope to post on SSRN
|
15 | shortly.
|
16 | The goals of Section 2 remedies should be to
|
17 | restore competitive conditions that would have existed
|
18 | but for the illegal conduct. They should not be to try
|
19 | to restore or to create some sort of ideal competitive
|
20 | condition or to supervise market outcomes. I take the
|
21 | primary antitrust remedy to be deterrence, through fines
|
22 | and covered damages. If deterrence can be effective, if
|
23 | an optimal penalty can be imposed, that's always going
|
24 | to be preferable to having an administrative structure
|
25 | imposing remedies. It's simply the direct costs of |
49
1 | imposing those remedies will be -- will impose a greater
|
2 | cost than effective deterrence.
|
3 | Assuming that some sort of injunctive relief is
|
4 | required, I would suggest that injunctions should be
|
5 | limited to preventing reoccurrence of proven
|
6 | anticompetitive behavior. The Sherman Act, unlike
|
7 | sector-specific regulation, I believe reflects the
|
8 | assumption that if specific impediments to competition
|
9 | are removed, then private contracting within the market
|
10 | will lead to the efficient outcome. And if that would
|
11 | not be the case, then that would argue that the market
|
12 | should be regulated.
|
13 | Beyond that, I would suggest that injunctions
|
14 | are problematic. First, divestiture, at least in the
|
15 | case of a unitary company, should be a last resort,
|
16 | primarily appropriate to dissolve recent combinations.
|
17 | Regulatory decrees also, as many have observed, should
|
18 | be avoided. As the Supreme Court said in Trinko, they
|
19 | require antitrust courts to act as central planners,
|
20 | identify improper price policy and other terms of
|
21 | dealing in roles for which they are well suited.
|
22 | Most of the Microsoft final judgment provisions
|
23 | reflect these principles. They do not require any form
|
24 | of divestiture, and most provisions respond more or less
|
25 | directly to the liability holdings in the case that were |
50
1 | affirmed by the D.C. Circuit in 2001, prohibiting
|
2 | retaliation against computer manufacturers for promoting
|
3 | rival software, requiring uniform licensing terms,
|
4 | giving computer manufacturers the flexibility to remove
|
5 | the visible means of access to Microsoft middleware
|
6 | products and so forth.
|
7 | The protocol licensing provision does not
|
8 | respond directly to any illegal conduct. Server-based
|
9 | applications were mentioned in the findings of fact,
|
10 | only to exclude them from the market.
|
11 | Interoperability in networks was not an issue in
|
12 | the case, and in fact developing and refusing to license
|
13 | incompatible proprietary software was not held illegal,
|
14 | in fact, it was specifically held to be legal, if
|
15 | nothing more than that were shown.
|
16 | So, where did this come from? The idea for this
|
17 | provision actually arose, according to Ken Alletta's
|
18 | book on the Microsoft litigation, after the findings of
|
19 | fact had been issued. In other words, after the record
|
20 | was closed in the case. The feeling was that Microsoft
|
21 | essentially was not going to continue the conduct that
|
22 | was actually the subject of the litigation, the browser
|
23 | wars were over, Microsoft had already stopped the
|
24 | discriminatory pricing, it had gotten rid of the
|
25 | exclusive terms in its contracts, so we needed to be |
51
1 | more forward looking and what was forward was this
|
2 | network environment.
|
3 | The fear was that in this -- you've got to, you
|
4 | know, as the computer market moved toward networks, both
|
5 | local corporate networks and the Internet, it was
|
6 | necessary to assure that Microsoft would not
|
7 | discriminate in allowing rivals to interoperate with the
|
8 | dominant Windows client.
|
9 | And, so, various proposals for various
|
10 | interfaces by Microsoft were made. After the original
|
11 | judgment was reversed, of course the Antitrust Division
|
12 | reached an agreement with Microsoft on the consent
|
13 | decree and it included a version of this. The protocol
|
14 | licensing provision, which essentially we now have, in
|
15 | both that consent decree and in this -- the states'
|
16 | judgment.
|
17 | Judge Kollar-Kotelly approved this provision,
|
18 | even though she recognized that the government was not
|
19 | strictly entitled to it, because it was not responsive
|
20 | to proven illegality, and she also recognized that there
|
21 | were these other ways in networks of achieving
|
22 | interoperability besides requiring Microsoft to license
|
23 | its proprietary protocols.
|
24 | Nevertheless, she found that -- and here's the
|
25 | key language, it's closely connected to the theory of |
52
1 | liability in this case, and furthers efforts to prevent
|
2 | future monopolization.
|
3 | So, under this program, Microsoft has developed
|
4 | the Microsoft communications protocol program, which is
|
5 | an extension of its Microsoft developers network, and
|
6 | under this program, it offers a license to these
|
7 | protocols, and technical documentation. In the initial
|
8 | response in August 2002, actually before the consent
|
9 | decree was approved, but nine months after it was
|
10 | originally agreed to by the parties, Microsoft produced
|
11 | 5,000 pages of technical information, documentation, on
|
12 | the protocols, which it reported with a product of the
|
13 | work of five technical writers working essentially
|
14 | full-time for nine months.
|
15 | By July 2003, however, eight months after the
|
16 | entry of the final judgments, only four developers had
|
17 | licensed these protocols. And Judge Kollar-Kotelly told
|
18 | the parties in a status conference, this is reported in
|
19 | the report, that she was very, very concerned that
|
20 | nobody was taking these licenses. And both Microsoft
|
21 | and the government responded to this by various efforts
|
22 | to promote them. Microsoft took out ads, they
|
23 | evangelized these protocols, but with very little
|
24 | success. And finally the government conducted a survey
|
25 | of developers asking them why aren't you licensing this |
53
1 | material, and they gave a list of reasons, some of which
|
2 | focused on the license itself, said it was way too
|
3 | complicated, it was pages of technical terms, and they
|
4 | were too expensive, the technical documentation was
|
5 | insufficient, the royalty was too high, whatever. But
|
6 | some said, we just don't need them for our development
|
7 | efforts.
|
8 | All of these, except that last one, were
|
9 | addressed over the next three years. The license term
|
10 | has been extended, the limitations in it have been
|
11 | relaxed, and simplified, the royalties have been
|
12 | reduced, many of the open standard protocols that
|
13 | Microsoft supports have been made available under the
|
14 | royalty free license. Microsoft has made its source
|
15 | code available to licensees.
|
16 | Now, to become a licensee, you need to show you
|
17 | have a legitimate purpose. So, you can't go and ask to
|
18 | see the source code, but if you are a licensee and you
|
19 | can show that you have need for it, under the license,
|
20 | then they'll show it to you and they'll actually provide
|
21 | support to show you how to use it. It's also provided
|
22 | 500 hours of free premier technical support, it's
|
23 | provided a dedicated account manager, it's provided
|
24 | three-day, what they call plug fests, where you can
|
25 | bring your product and test it and Microsoft engineers |
54
1 | will work with you to try to make sure it interoperates
|
2 | well with Windows. It's created an interoperability
|
3 | lab, and I should mention, when we had the first plug
|
4 | fest, only two licensees signed up for it, no one has so
|
5 | far signed up for the interoperability lab.
|
6 | So, over the years, what's most dramatic about
|
7 | these status reports is the accounts of how Microsoft
|
8 | and the technical committee have tried to improve the
|
9 | technical documentation of the protocols.
|
10 | In July 2004, the technical committee and
|
11 | Microsoft agreed on a 40-page specification that the
|
12 | documentation was supposed to meet. And the technical
|
13 | committee undertook to develop what it calls prototype
|
14 | implementations of each protocol. There are about 100
|
15 | and 120 protocols, and in order to assure that the
|
16 | documentation of them was sufficient, the technical
|
17 | committee has undertaken to try to actually write a
|
18 | little application using the protocol.
|
19 | And, so, if they could do that, then that would
|
20 | show that the documentation, it could actually be put
|
21 | into effect by the developer. Where they run into
|
22 | problems, if they ran into problems, they treated that
|
23 | as an issue, and they reported that to Microsoft as a
|
24 | bug to be addressed, and depending on its importance,
|
25 | they gave them seven days or, you know, longer time |
55
1 | limits to respond to it.
|
2 | And this was the approach for about a year, but
|
3 | by early 2006, the technical committee had reported to
|
4 | Microsoft about a thousand of these issues, and only
|
5 | about 300 of them -- 300 of them had been resolved, and
|
6 | in May, this is about a year ago, the plaintiffs
|
7 | reported to the judge that the project had reached what
|
8 | it called a watershed, and at that point, someone who I
|
9 | take to be a strong personality, Robert Muglia, who is
|
10 | the senior vice president of Microsoft and formerly was
|
11 | the head of server division, reviewed this program and
|
12 | said that this process of trying to respond to bugs one
|
13 | by one, as they're reported by the technical committee,
|
14 | was just not working, and that we would need to start
|
15 | from scratch and rewrite all of the technical
|
16 | documentation.
|
17 | And, so, last summer, incidentally, it was at
|
18 | this point that the technical committee made contact
|
19 | with the European Commission's monitoring trustee, which
|
20 | is also administering an order to Microsoft to disclose
|
21 | protocols, and in connection with those communications
|
22 | had with Microsoft, agreed on a new overarching
|
23 | specification. This is now the third standard that will
|
24 | be used to judge the documentation.
|
25 | And Microsoft was given a new set of milestones, |
56
1 | time tables, to complete the project. At this point, it
|
2 | was clear that the decrees were due to expire in the
|
3 | fall, and it was pretty clear that that was not going to
|
4 | be enough time to do all of this, and so that's when the
|
5 | parties agreed to extend the term of the judgment for up
|
6 | to five years.
|
7 | Meanwhile, Microsoft has suspended royalty
|
8 | payments entirely for its licensees, until the
|
9 | documentation is deemed to be sufficient, and the
|
10 | technical committee has continued to develop these
|
11 | protocol implementations, and interestingly, Microsoft
|
12 | has also undertaken to do something similar, developing
|
13 | what they call test suites, which it's one of the
|
14 | practices of software developers when they're working on
|
15 | an application, they come up with suites of testing
|
16 | applications to see if they work, and Microsoft has
|
17 | undertaken sort of a parallel or duplicate testing
|
18 | mechanism.
|
19 | And in this most recent status report, which was
|
20 | issued earlier this month, the plaintiffs reported that
|
21 | although they've had some questions about Microsoft --
|
22 | apparently Microsoft discovered some new protocols that
|
23 | they hadn't identified before, they said that this new
|
24 | documentation is looking better, although significant
|
25 | additional work needed to be done. |
57
1 | So, Microsoft now has been -- remember the first
|
2 | project, it had a few technical writers working for a
|
3 | certain number of months to produce these 5,000 pages.
|
4 | They now have 313 employees working on this project.
|
5 | And the technical committee also has increased its staff
|
6 | to 40 engineers, and they now have offices both in
|
7 | Redmond, Washington and in Silicon Valley.
|
8 | The bottom line, as of this month's status
|
9 | report, of the thousands of developers writing
|
10 | applications for servers, for server operators, to run
|
11 | on server operating systems, only 27 firms have taken
|
12 | the royalty-based license, and all but four of these,
|
13 | but for very specific purposes, like media streaming or
|
14 | data storage or security, the proxy firewall segment.
|
15 | So, and of those 27, only 14 are producing any products.
|
16 | And none of these products seems likely to have any
|
17 | potential as a platform.
|
18 | So, what are the lessons from this experience?
|
19 | The original rationale for this project was to preserve
|
20 | the middleware threat to the Microsoft monopoly in the
|
21 | network environment. If so, at least so far, the
|
22 | project has not succeeded, because it's attracted very
|
23 | few licensees, despite these enormous efforts, and I
|
24 | think quite admirable, and impressive efforts on both
|
25 | sides. |
58
1 | What this suggests to me is that the primary
|
2 | reason why we're not seeing more licensees is that
|
3 | licensing Microsoft's proprietary protocols is generally
|
4 | not necessary for these firms to develop software
|
5 | applications to run on non-Microsoft servers. They can
|
6 | use the standard protocols that Microsoft supports in
|
7 | Windows, or they can develop their own windows client
|
8 | which then could run on the Windows client and
|
9 | communicate directly through Microsoft's application
|
10 | programming interfaces.
|
11 | So, to boil it down, what I would say is that
|
12 | what this remedy does is to treat the Microsoft
|
13 | protocols as if they were an essential facility, except
|
14 | that they're not essential. There are other ways of
|
15 | accomplishing the same thing.
|
16 | So, what I would take to be the two primary
|
17 | lessons are first, injunctive relief, particularly in
|
18 | high technology markets, should be limited to responding
|
19 | to a proven need, and the most important proven need is
|
20 | to -- is to interdict and remove anticompetitive
|
21 | practices, proven anticompetitive practices.
|
22 | So, if Microsoft is proven to have engaged in
|
23 | practices that violate the antitrust laws, those should
|
24 | be enjoined. But as we've seen, the protocol licensing
|
25 | provision did not respond to a proven violation, and did |
59
1 | not even address technology -- and it addressed
|
2 | technologies that were not even the focus of the
|
3 | liability phase.
|
4 | During the remedial proceedings, there was a
|
5 | record developed on network computing and there was
|
6 | evidence introduced of various so-called bad acts, as
|
7 | Judge Kollar-Kotelly characterized them, but she treated
|
8 | them as being essentially irrelevant, because they had
|
9 | not been shown to be anticompetitive, or at least if
|
10 | they were anticompetitive, they may have had
|
11 | pro-competitive justifications that had not been
|
12 | considered.
|
13 | The second, under this heading of only
|
14 | responding to a proven need, I don't want to rule out
|
15 | the possibility that forward-looking or fencing in kinds
|
16 | of provisions may be necessary, but if they are, then I
|
17 | think there should be -- there should be a record built
|
18 | to support the need for them. And I think in this case,
|
19 | for example, we know that the government at one point
|
20 | actually surveyed software developers to see what their
|
21 | needs were in this area.
|
22 | I'm not sure what was done during the
|
23 | negotiation of the consent decree, but perhaps more in
|
24 | that direction could have been done to find out
|
25 | precisely what was needed to ensure adequate |
60
1 | interoperation.
|
2 | And also I would just add that the Court of
|
3 | Appeals in the 2001 decision cautioned that remedies
|
4 | should be proportional to the strength of the proof that
|
5 | Microsoft's illegal actions actually reduced
|
6 | competition, and that was why the Court of Appeals said
|
7 | that divestiture was probably not going to be an
|
8 | appropriate remedy, because as they put it, the harm to
|
9 | competition for Microsoft's actions, in other words,
|
10 | whether they had actually prevented Netscape's browser
|
11 | or Java from evolving into a rival platform, that was
|
12 | established by only -- as they put it -- by inference,
|
13 | in other words, there was no evidence that that actually
|
14 | would have happened. And where you have that relatively
|
15 | weak evidence of likely anticompetitive effect, then you
|
16 | need more evidence to support more Draconian remedies.
|
17 | And divestiture is certainly that, but I also
|
18 | think regulatory relief is also a Draconian remedy, and
|
19 | that brings me to my second lesson, and that is to avoid
|
20 | regulatory decrees, especially in high technology
|
21 | markets. And this was recognized, Judge Kolar-Kotelly
|
22 | rejected one principle during the remedial proceedings,
|
23 | on the grounds that it would result in too regulatory of
|
24 | a decree.
|
25 | Well, the protocol licensing has become highly |
61
1 | regulatory and direct government supervision of price
|
2 | and other terms of dealing and especially quality.
|
3 | Direct government supervision of quality that's being
|
4 | produced. And the device of the technical committee
|
5 | certainly has provided a high level of expertise, but in
|
6 | effect, what its created is a regulatory body, and I'm
|
7 | not sure that the structure of the technical committee
|
8 | and its relationship to the plaintiffs and the court
|
9 | establishes an effective regulatory agency.
|
10 | So, just to conclude, if in the future cases
|
11 | have these characteristics, those should be treated as
|
12 | warning signs, and addressed in the -- in the relief.
|
13 | And with that I'll sit down.
|
14 | (Applause.)
|
15 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you, Bill. Marina Lao is a
|
16 | professor of law at Seton Hall Law School. She
|
17 | currently serves on the executive board of the section
|
18 | on antitrust law of the American Association of Law
|
19 | Schools, and she's an alumna of the Antitrust Division,
|
20 | where she was a trial attorney. She has published
|
21 | numerous articles on antitrust law and trade regulation,
|
22 | and somewhat surprisingly on this high-tech panel, she
|
23 | is the only speaker with slides.
|
24 | Marina?
|
25 | MS. LAO: I guess it's even more surprising |
62
1 | given that I am usually the least high-tech person on
|
2 | the panel. Thank you very much for inviting me and I'm
|
3 | happy to have the opportunity to participate in this
|
4 | hearing.
|
5 | I agree with a number of the speakers who have
|
6 | gone before me who have said that remedies are often
|
7 | treated as an after thought. Unfortunately, that's not
|
8 | a very good idea, because success in proving liability
|
9 | often does not translate into success in remedying the
|
10 | anticompetitive situation, and so it's often best to
|
11 | work your vision of remedy into the case development
|
12 | much earlier on.
|
13 | What I'm going to do, since I'm bringing up the
|
14 | rear, is to try not to overlap too much with what has
|
15 | been said; I'm going to focus on three main points in my
|
16 | comments and I will be skipping over some of the slides.
|
17 | First, where network effects are substantial in
|
18 | the industry that's affected by Section 2 violation, I
|
19 | probably differ from Bill, in that I think that there's
|
20 | a need for broader rather than narrower remedies for
|
21 | some of the reasons that I'll talk about later.
|
22 | Second, again, I guess on this issue I differ a
|
23 | bit from Bill as well. I'm going to talk about the
|
24 | importance of forward-looking remedies. I would call
|
25 | them affirmative remedies that reduce rivals' costs and |
63
1 | some of the problems in crafting them. I do agree that
|
2 | tayloring these remedies to the problem is a bit
|
3 | difficult.
|
4 | And lastly, I'm going to discuss whether there's
|
5 | any value in bringing Section 2 enforcement action if
|
6 | there is no effective judicial remedy. My conclusion is
|
7 | that there is deterrent value to bringing an enforcement
|
8 | action, even if it is irremediable, so to speak.
|
9 | Let me start with a few words about the ongoing
|
10 | debate among antitrust commentators on the application
|
11 | of antitrust in the dynamic high technology markets.
|
12 | The question that is often raised is: Do we need more
|
13 | rigorous antitrust enforcement or do we need a more
|
14 | hands-off approach? Those who say that less
|
15 | intervention is necessary generally argue that because
|
16 | there is rapid innovation, product cycles are short, and
|
17 | so dominance is fleeting. And there are continuous
|
18 | opportunities for fringe firms to overtake the
|
19 | incumbent. The Microsofts of the world will have to
|
20 | constantly innovate or they're going to be left in the
|
21 | dust.
|
22 | And so for that reason, there's really not that
|
23 | much of a need for antitrust intervention in order for
|
24 | markets to remain robust. In fact, too much antitrust
|
25 | intervention could stifle innovation and competition. |
64
1 | While there's obviously some truth to that
|
2 | argument, I think the Microsoft case itself tells us
|
3 | that rapid technological change can cut the other way,
|
4 | especially when you have substantial network effects
|
5 | which tend to operate as significant barriers to entry.
|
6 | If these are substantial network barriers to entry, a
|
7 | clearly dominant firm can much more easily exclude even
|
8 | superior technologies, up to only a certain point, of
|
9 | course, if it can ensure that the rival technologies
|
10 | remain incompatible.
|
11 | And, the dominant firm can also control research
|
12 | avenues, up to a certain point. What's more, even
|
13 | without any antitrust violations, there are natural
|
14 | benefits, that flow from network effects of those
|
15 | natural benefits, I think dominant firms can more easily
|
16 | use tying and other exclusionary strategies to preserve
|
17 | their dominance and to exclude competitors
|
18 | anticompetitively.
|
19 | So, my conclusion is that antitrust intervention
|
20 | is not only not redundant, but there is perhaps an even
|
21 | stronger need for it when you have markets with strong
|
22 | network effects.
|
23 | With respect to remedies, there's a similar
|
24 | ongoing debate among commentators. There are those who
|
25 | say that with fast moving technologies, you need milder |
65
1 | remedies, remedies that are less severe, because of
|
2 | several reasons. First, there is the self correcting
|
3 | market rationale, which postulates that the market is
|
4 | going to correct itself much faster than antitrust
|
5 | intervention can correct it. Second, advocates of mild
|
6 | remedies warn of the possibility of unintended
|
7 | consequences, that is where market conditions in the
|
8 | future are uncertain, one may not know what to prohibit
|
9 | and what not to prohibit, and so the remedies adopted
|
10 | today may not be sensible a few years hence.
|
11 | And, so, they argue it is probably safer to
|
12 | adopt milder forms of remedy in order to lessen the risk
|
13 | of chilling innovation and competition from the dominant
|
14 | firm.
|
15 | First of all, I happen to think that high-tech
|
16 | markets do not that easily, at least self correct, not
|
17 | if network externalities exist, because by definition, a
|
18 | self correcting market, requires innovation and new
|
19 | entry, but network effects raise entry barriers and
|
20 | reduce access to the network.
|
21 | Obviously easy entry markets are not going to
|
22 | easily self correct.
|
23 | As to the argument that uncertainty about future
|
24 | market conditions means that we should perhaps take a
|
25 | more hands-off approach and apply the mildest remedy |
66
1 | possible, I also do not completely agree with that. I
|
2 | think that if market conditions are uncertain, we have
|
3 | to exercise more care in defining the future boundaries
|
4 | of the relevant market, and in identifying the
|
5 | participants in this future market, and in crafting the
|
6 | remedy.
|
7 | But we should not overlook the danger of doing
|
8 | too little too late, which carries its own risk as well.
|
9 | Another possible solution to the uncertain market
|
10 | condition problem is to have a continuing jurisdiction
|
11 | clause in the remedial order, which I know is not a
|
12 | common practice. With a continuing jurisdiction clause
|
13 | either party can go back to the court for modification
|
14 | if it turns out that the remedies agreed upon do not
|
15 | work because of changing market conditions.
|
16 | As to the "potential chilling effects" argument,
|
17 | it's often said by advocates of milder remedies that
|
18 | compulsory licenses of IP rights and other affirmative
|
19 | remedies tend to chill innovation on the part of the
|
20 | dominant firm, that's basically one of the points
|
21 | Justice Scalia made in Trinko.
|
22 | What is often lost in this discussion, though,
|
23 | is that competition and innovation from fringe firms are
|
24 | also very important, and if remedies for an antitrust
|
25 | violation are insufficient, innovation and competition |
67
1 | from fringe firms could be chilled. The AT&T
|
2 | divestiture experience is very instructive. Few would
|
3 | disagree that the structural remedy in the AT&T case
|
4 | unleashed innovation from smaller telecommunications
|
5 | firms on an unprecedented scale, which enhanced consumer
|
6 | welfare.
|
7 | Another point that we should not lose sight of
|
8 | is that with high technology markets, it's extremely
|
9 | difficult to resuscitate a competitor, after the
|
10 | competitor has been crushed. The convergence of factors
|
11 | that produced a competitive challenge before it was
|
12 | anticompetitively excluded, may never re-appear, not in
|
13 | the same fashion, anyway.
|
14 | The factors together call for a solution that is
|
15 | less hands-off.
|
16 | They also lead me to conclude that narrowly
|
17 | focusing the remedy on the specific conduct found to be
|
18 | unlawful, will not return competition to the status quo;
|
19 | thus drafting or crafting forward-looking remedies is
|
20 | quite important.
|
21 | Of course I do realize that forward-looking
|
22 | remedies have to be carefully tailored.
|
23 | The problem one faces in crafting
|
24 | forward-looking remedies is that you have to understand
|
25 | the market. You've got to analyze the likely evolution |
68
1 | of the market, predict which way the market is headed,
|
2 | the innovations will likely emerge, what will be the
|
3 | next generation of innovations, and how these
|
4 | innovations might change the path of the market.
|
5 | Unless you have a pretty good grip on these
|
6 | issues, it's very difficult to predict what remedial
|
7 | actions would work to break down entry barriers and
|
8 | facilitate competition, and what would not.
|
9 | If we do not know what is going to work, then we
|
10 | risk adopting an injunction that constrains conduct that
|
11 | no longer needs to be constrained, but does not
|
12 | constrain conduct that needs to be constrained. Perhaps
|
13 | the prime example of this is the first Microsoft consent
|
14 | decree, which prohibited Microsoft from "per processor"
|
15 | licensing which it had engaged in. But by the time of
|
16 | the decree, Microsoft no longer needed to engage in that
|
17 | strategy, because its competitors in the operating
|
18 | systems market were already defunct and the prohibition
|
19 | accomplished nothing.
|
20 | Another problem, I think, that is rather
|
21 | peculiar to high-tech markets is having to anticipate
|
22 | how dominant firms might circumvent the judicial
|
23 | constraints imposed and still achieve their
|
24 | anticompetitive ends, and then block these alternative
|
25 | paths in the in the decree as well. Fast-changing |
69
1 | markets tend to be pretty malleable, thus giving the
|
2 | dominant firm myriad ways to achieve its anticompetitive
|
3 | objective.
|
4 | To understand how Microsoft or any dominant firm
|
5 | might sidestep an injunction and still achieve its end,
|
6 | we need to know what the possible alternative strategies
|
7 | are. But dominant firms generally have an information
|
8 | asymmetries advantage over the government that's quite
|
9 | natural.
|
10 | That is, the government knows much less than the
|
11 | dominant firm about what the potential new innovations
|
12 | and the possible alternative strategies to achieving the
|
13 | anticompetitive objective are. So how can the
|
14 | government overcome the information asymmetries problem?
|
15 | I think the simplest solution is to just enlist the
|
16 | assistance of the dominant firm's competitors or
|
17 | potential competitors, who probably are in a much better
|
18 | position than any outsider, including government
|
19 | enforcers, to know about the industry, to know what
|
20 | remedies might work and what might not work, and what is
|
21 | the innovation trend, et cetera.
|
22 | Oftentimes, when this is mentioned as a possible
|
23 | solution, you hear the argument that, well, then, the
|
24 | department or agency might be subject to capture. I
|
25 | think that simply relying on competitors to educate |
70
1 | government enforcers on the market is not equivalent to
|
2 | capture, and is also entirely consistent with the
|
3 | principle that we should protect competition and not
|
4 | competitors.
|
5 | Let me turn, briefly, to the importance of
|
6 | implementing creative affirmative obligations. The
|
7 | problem with conduct remedies and I'm not discussing
|
8 | structural remedies at all, because it's been discussed
|
9 | in detail already is that generally speaking, if the
|
10 | dominant firm has already successfully excluded its
|
11 | competitor and potential competitors, simply stopping
|
12 | the conduct and preventing its recurrence is not going
|
13 | to be enough to restore competition. That is because
|
14 | stopping the exclusionary conduct will not unravel the
|
15 | dominant firm's accumulated market power.
|
16 | Instead, what would be helpful would be to
|
17 | impose affirmative duties on the dominant firm. I call
|
18 | it lowering rivals' cost as opposed to raising rivals'
|
19 | cost. The Post-Chicago school has said that dominant
|
20 | firms can exclude competition anticompetitively by
|
21 | engaging in strategies that raise rivals' costs. For
|
22 | remedy purposes, we need to go a little bit beyond
|
23 | prohibiting acts that raise rivals' costs; we need to
|
24 | impose some obligation on the part of the dominant firm
|
25 | to reduce rivals' costs. |
71
1 | Some affirmative duties are pretty well
|
2 | established in antitrust jurisprudence, and are not very
|
3 | controversial.
|
4 | One is compulsory licensing of IP rights, with
|
5 | or without royalty fees. The case that springs to mind
|
6 | involving forced licensing is the Xerox case brought by
|
7 | the FTC in 1975. The FTC in that case imposed a
|
8 | compulsory licensing obligation on Xerox. In Microsoft,
|
9 | as Bill just mentioned, there was also a compulsory
|
10 | disclosure of information component in the decree as
|
11 | well Microsoft was required to disclose its APIs and
|
12 | also its communications protocol.
|
13 | Another typical affirmative duty is the
|
14 | obligation to sell to all customers on a
|
15 | non-discriminatory basis, and that was part of the order
|
16 | in the Ninth Circuit Kodak case.
|
17 | The third example that I have listed on the
|
18 | slide is also not terribly controversial, and that is
|
19 | unbundling. For example, in United Shoe, the defendant
|
20 | was required to unbundle its machinery and its repair
|
21 | service.
|
22 | The fourth category is probably the most
|
23 | controversial, and that is requiring the defendant to
|
24 | create products to comply with industry standards and
|
25 | not just with its own proprietary standard. This is the |
72
1 | remedy that the State of Massachusetts asked the court
|
2 | to impose in Microsoft, in the case that Massachusetts
|
3 | continued to pursue after Microsoft settled with the
|
4 | DOJ. Incidentally, the District Court did not grant
|
5 | that request.
|
6 | I was going to talk about the Korean Microsoft
|
7 | case, which I found very interesting, but I don't think
|
8 | I will have time for that, so let me just end with two
|
9 | points. I have alluded to the first point earlier, and
|
10 | that is the usefulness of a continuing jurisdiction
|
11 | clause in a remedial order. Perhaps those of you who
|
12 | are still in government can enlighten me as to why the
|
13 | government does not seem to want to include these
|
14 | jurisdiction clauses in their remedies anymore, back in
|
15 | the 1950s and 1960s.
|
16 | Having a continuing jurisdiction clause is
|
17 | helpful in a dynamic high technology market because it
|
18 | allows the court to assess the success of the remedy,
|
19 | and to assess future development. The purpose of
|
20 | assessment is not so much to ensure that strict
|
21 | compliance with the decree itself is occurring, although
|
22 | that is very important too, but to ensure that there's
|
23 | movement toward the ultimate objective set by the court.
|
24 | I think Professor Hovenkamp in one of his articles
|
25 | suggested that perhaps a continuing jurisdiction clause |
73
1 | would be very, very helpful, because it would allow the
|
2 | court to look at whether the decree has been successful
|
3 | or not. I think of success as not simply whether the
|
4 | defendant has complied with the specific terms of the
|
5 | decree, although that is obviously a part of it, but
|
6 | whether the decree is doing anything at all to make the
|
7 | market more competitive.
|
8 | One final note, and that is I think there is
|
9 | value to Section 2 enforcement even if no effective
|
10 | judicially-imposed remedy is available, on two
|
11 | conditions: if there is really an egregious violation
|
12 | of the antitrust laws, and if there is substantial harm
|
13 | to consumer welfare. The reason enforcement is
|
14 | important even if the violation is judicially
|
15 | irremediable is that I think the defendants would
|
16 | moderate their behavior somewhat, simply because
|
17 | litigation has been brought. And they may even
|
18 | voluntarily discontinue some of the challenged
|
19 | practices.
|
20 | I think it is commonly acknowledged and commonly
|
21 | known that Microsoft relaxed enforcement of its
|
22 | exclusive dealing contracts with the OEMs during the
|
23 | process of the litigation. And, as far as I can tell,
|
24 | Microsoft does not seem to be using against the type of
|
25 | tactics that it had engaged in against Netscape and |
74
1 | Java.
|
2 | I am not a very tech savvy person, but it would
|
3 | seem to me that there must be strategies similar to the
|
4 | kinds that Microsoft had employed against Netscape and
|
5 | Java, and yet they have not engaged in them against
|
6 | Google. Of course we will never know how much of their
|
7 | reticence is the result of the deterrent effect of the
|
8 | government's enforcement action.
|
9 | Finally, for public policy reasons the
|
10 | government should not just step back and say, well,
|
11 | there is no effective remedy, so what's the point of
|
12 | bringing a lawsuit? If consumer harm is substantial,
|
13 | and if the act is egregious, I think it is bad policy to
|
14 | take no action because it sends a wrong signal. Taking
|
15 | enforcement action can deter the Microsofts of the
|
16 | world. Who knows, it might deter Google at some point.
|
17 | With that, I hope I haven't repeated too much of
|
18 | what has been said.
|
19 | (Applause.)
|
20 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thanks, Marina. This is the
|
21 | portion of the hearing where we allow each of the
|
22 | speakers to comment with what they've heard before, and
|
23 | I'll start with Howard, please.
|
24 | MR. SHELANSKI: Well, I thought a number of the
|
25 | presentations raised provocative, extremely provocative |
75
1 | issues.
|
2 | Let me start with Michael Cunningham's comments
|
3 | about the problems that companies like Red Hat still
|
4 | face, even in the wake of the decree.
|
5 | I found his comments extremely interesting,
|
6 | because they suggested both at the same time a need to
|
7 | be very aggressive against anticompetitive behavior,
|
8 | because it has lasting effects, but also to raise real
|
9 | questions about what can be done about those effects,
|
10 | and if one were to translate that into a recommendation
|
11 | about remedies, it would be hard to know -- it would be
|
12 | hard to know exactly what the result is.
|
13 | On one hand, it might be taken to suggest that
|
14 | we need very aggressive kinds of remedies of the kinds
|
15 | that Professor Lao just suggested, with continuing
|
16 | supervision, and more creative solutions to lowering
|
17 | rivals' costs.
|
18 | On the other hand, I think that Bill Page raised
|
19 | very good reservations that I share about pursuing that
|
20 | kind of aggressive oversight.
|
21 | So, where I come out from Michael's comments is
|
22 | to say that we do need to pursue these cases. We need
|
23 | to pursue these cases to understand what kind of conduct
|
24 | is likely to lead down the road to problems that are
|
25 | very hard to uproot. And in concert, I think, with what |
76
1 | Professor Lao just suggested, even if we're not sure
|
2 | that the remedy will work, pursue the case so that next
|
3 | time around, we can uproot the conduct earlier and have
|
4 | a remedy that will be effective, but I think, Michael,
|
5 | you pointed to some really very difficult challenges.
|
6 | With regard to Renata Hesse's comments, I think
|
7 | I shared very, very much your point of view. I think
|
8 | you were a little bit more cautious about the likelihood
|
9 | of success of injunctive remedies, I thought you raised
|
10 | some very good points there, but I continue to think
|
11 | that particularly in the high-tech sector, injunctive
|
12 | remedies will take the form of a negative prohibition of
|
13 | thou shalt not are likely to be the most fruitful
|
14 | remedial avenue overall.
|
15 | Professor Page, I found that story fascinating,
|
16 | but I think the detail was extremely instructive, and
|
17 | very helpful. And I guess on one hand, I might be
|
18 | inclined to say, well, does that mean we shouldn't go
|
19 | deep into these kinds of continuing remedies; on the
|
20 | other hand, I might say, well, maybe this is very costly
|
21 | to Microsoft, with little benefit to competitors, but
|
22 | maybe costly to Microsoft in and of itself, isn't so
|
23 | bad.
|
24 | But maybe costly to Microsoft in and of itself
|
25 | isn't so bad. Maybe it's a very back-handed form of |
77
1 | disgorgement remedy through the front door.
|
2 | I say that partly tongue in cheek, because I
|
3 | don't know that they really notice that kind of spare
|
4 | change over there.
|
5 | (Laughter.)
|
6 | MR. SHELANSKI: No, but it does raise some very
|
7 | serious questions about how even the most carefully
|
8 | wrought and technologically sophisticated attempt at an
|
9 | affirmative remedy can be very difficult, and that's a
|
10 | lesson that I take very much to heart. So, I've learned
|
11 | a lot from all of you. Thanks, very interesting.
|
12 | MR. HILLEBOE: Thank you very much, Howard.
|
13 | Renata?
|
14 | MS. HESSE: Sure. I think -- I don't think the
|
15 | mic' is on. I think the thing that I took away from
|
16 | everyone's comments was very similar to what Howard just
|
17 | said, was that there seems to be a sort of inherent
|
18 | conflict between these two views of both the difficulty
|
19 | and in some cases I think impossibility of imposing
|
20 | remedies in technology markets, and yet at the same time
|
21 | the view that we really need to keep trying, even though
|
22 | we're not likely to be successful.
|
23 | And I haven't come up with a good way of
|
24 | bringing those two points of view together, other than
|
25 | to say that I think, you know, courts, and not in the |
78
1 | antitrust context, but in lots of other contexts, have
|
2 | over the years dealt with a lot of very difficult
|
3 | issues, which people, I think, over time, have thought,
|
4 | well, you know, how could a court ever figure out how
|
5 | to -- I'll use, you know, prison conditions litigation,
|
6 | which I think I talked about before, you know, school
|
7 | desegregation is another one.
|
8 | Difficult problems that are not within the core
|
9 | competency of either courts or lawyers, and everybody, I
|
10 | think, has thought that a social benefit derives from
|
11 | intervention in those areas, and at least an attempt to
|
12 | try to solve them in some way.
|
13 | And I don't really see technology markets as
|
14 | being different in any -- I mean, they're obviously
|
15 | different in terms of the substance that they deal with,
|
16 | but not different in terms of the importance of the
|
17 | issues that you're dealing with, in terms of the
|
18 | importance of markets to both not just America's
|
19 | economy, but the world economy, and to the every day
|
20 | consumer. I mean, these products and services are
|
21 | things that we all use on a daily basis, and spending
|
22 | time thinking about, A, whether or not the law is being
|
23 | violated in those areas, and B, if it is being violated,
|
24 | how can you do the very best job you can to try and
|
25 | solve the problem seems to me to be a worth while |
79
1 | expenditure of not only government time, but also in
|
2 | some cases in private litigation time, too.
|
3 | Keep at it, I guess, is my final conclusion.
|
4 | MR. HILLEBOE: Michael, and also I would ask you
|
5 | to address your points of the speed and cost of
|
6 | antitrust litigation are duly noted. If you have any
|
7 | profound suggestions with respect to those or practical
|
8 | suggestions or any other type of suggestions.
|
9 | MR. ELIASBERG: Or those quick and speedy cases,
|
10 | I was very interested in that.
|
11 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: Right, profound thoughts
|
12 | probably won't be forthcoming, but I will try and offer
|
13 | a couple. I take a pretty simple approach as a business
|
14 | person. I have a difficult problem, I keep working on
|
15 | it and keep attacking it until I come up with a
|
16 | solution.
|
17 | I think, you know, serious examination of the
|
18 | effects of the Microsoft remedies is worth while, but
|
19 | there is assuredly deterrent value. One part of the
|
20 | advice that I tell my client, which I didn't mention
|
21 | before, is that I believe it assuredly moderates
|
22 | behavior for us to have any participation and then for
|
23 | the case to be brought at all.
|
24 | Indeed, in the area of some of the protocols
|
25 | that have been licensed that Bill referred to, I deeply |
80
1 | wonder whether Microsoft would have reached out to Red
|
2 | Hat and requested our assistance and consultation in
|
3 | producing a very, very simple protocol license that's
|
4 | one page, we'll never know the cause/effect of both the
|
5 | EU action and the U.S. action, but there's reason to
|
6 | think that some of that may moderate behavior.
|
7 | I think in the case of Bill's examination, also,
|
8 | I would just comment that continuing to look at those
|
9 | facts are important. For example, Bill pointed out that
|
10 | there are other ways to interoperate. Other ways to
|
11 | interoperate that are fundamentally disadvantaged is not
|
12 | interoperation. It doesn't work.
|
13 | The IT community, you know, competes on the
|
14 | speed, efficiency, and look and feel of interoperation.
|
15 | So, simply concluding that there may be other protocols
|
16 | out there that may have issued since the decree, at
|
17 | least some of them, may not be complete examination. I
|
18 | should point out, Bill was kind enough to provide me a
|
19 | draft of his entire paper, which I didn't have a chance
|
20 | to look at before, so if it's addressed in the paper, my
|
21 | apologies.
|
22 | I think that, you know, these are terribly hard
|
23 | problems to work on, and I just don't see where, without
|
24 | learning and gaining experience in how to better address
|
25 | conduct remedies, we're able to make effective inroads |
81
1 | into some of these fast-moving markets.
|
2 | MR. HILLEBOE: Bill?
|
3 | MR. PAGE: I just have a few kind of stray
|
4 | comments. I was struck by Renata's point about focusing
|
5 | on a remedy early, and I agree that that is really
|
6 | critical, and I would suggest that particularly in a
|
7 | case that ends in a consent decree, before litigation,
|
8 | it's absolutely essential.
|
9 | What I -- part of the problem I saw in the
|
10 | Microsoft remedial issue was that the case lasted so
|
11 | long that it was a moving target to think about the
|
12 | remedy, you know, that at -- that by the time the case
|
13 | was over, the remedy that people wanted was different
|
14 | from the one they would have predicted early in the
|
15 | litigation.
|
16 | So, you know, particularly for cases that last
|
17 | longer than just a couple of years, it's particularly
|
18 | difficult to be sure the remedy from the outset and be
|
19 | building a factual basis for it.
|
20 | I think the point about avoiding mandatory kinds
|
21 | of remedies as opposed to prohibitory remedies is a
|
22 | valid one. I would just caution, though, that in the
|
23 | Microsoft case, there was another mandatory remedy to
|
24 | reveal the APIs that Microsoft uses to interact with its
|
25 | middleware, between the Windows operating system and its |
82
1 | middleware, and that one seems not to have caused that
|
2 | many problems. And I suspect that the reason for that
|
3 | is that Microsoft's whole business is marketing APIs,
|
4 | and documenting APIs. If they couldn't do that, they
|
5 | wouldn't be in business.
|
6 | So, that was a much more straightforward problem
|
7 | than marketing protocols, their own proprietary
|
8 | protocols, and I think that's, you know, perhaps that
|
9 | explains some of the difficulties that have been found
|
10 | in documenting that.
|
11 | So, not all mandatory types of relief will
|
12 | necessarily be as problematic as this one. On the issue
|
13 | of the technical committee, I want to combine this with
|
14 | the idea that the courts should retain jurisdiction, and
|
15 | periodically review the experience in enforcement. The
|
16 | technical committee I think is one institutional concern
|
17 | that I have about the technical committee, certainly
|
18 | they are quite expert. I know nothing about them
|
19 | individually, but certainly no one would challenge their
|
20 | technical capacity, but they were given a single task,
|
21 | and that was to assure that the documentation is first
|
22 | rate, flawless. And, you know, as Howard pointed out,
|
23 | who cares how much Microsoft pays, to do that, and so
|
24 | it's a very expensive process to meet that kind of
|
25 | standard. |
83
1 | On the other hand, I think at some point, the
|
2 | court should come back and ask the question, is this
|
3 | accomplishing as much as we could accomplish in other
|
4 | ways? In other words, the economic question is always
|
5 | compared to what? And particularly if we can
|
6 | preemptively think about these issues before they come
|
7 | up, but also, if we can think about them down the road,
|
8 | perhaps as an opportunity for mid-course corrections
|
9 | that could reduce costs and perhaps benefit the market
|
10 | better.
|
11 | Just finally, on the issue of whether high
|
12 | technology markets require or it's more appropriate to
|
13 | use remedies in them because of network effects, I would
|
14 | only caution that the literature on network effects
|
15 | doesn't exactly say that competition doesn't work in
|
16 | these markets. It doesn't necessarily say that network
|
17 | effects are bad, I mean, when you think about it,
|
18 | network effects are simply economies of scale on the
|
19 | demand side. In other words, they benefit consumers,
|
20 | and so the concern that they are simply a barrier to
|
21 | entry I think somewhat overstates the case.
|
22 | Markets converge on a single standard for
|
23 | reasons that are actually beneficial to consumers. It
|
24 | doesn't necessarily follow, then, that government
|
25 | intervention is necessary, and I would add to that the |
84
1 | issue of compatibility is also not so simple, because
|
2 | markets characterized by network effects can sometimes
|
3 | compete very effectively with totally incompatible
|
4 | systems, as we observed in the video game console market
|
5 | where, you know, it's a constant leapfrog competition of
|
6 | totally incompatible systems of hardware and software.
|
7 | And that is a very effective model for competition.
|
8 | So, it doesn't necessarily follow that we should
|
9 | be promoting interoperability in all circumstances.
|
10 | MR. HILLEBOE: Marina?
|
11 | MS. LAO: I actually only have a few comments.
|
12 | I think the presentations today highlight the
|
13 | difficulties involved. For instance, Bill's
|
14 | presentation focused on the problems that I had tried to
|
15 | shy away from, and that is there are major difficulties
|
16 | in using and implementing forward-looking remedies.
|
17 | And Michael's points, I think, drive home the
|
18 | need, for more active government intervention, because I
|
19 | think private Section 2 cases are extremely difficult to
|
20 | prove, especially since proving anticompetitive effects
|
21 | now often requires economic proof. When the violation
|
22 | involves technology that hasn't fully emerged yet, it's
|
23 | very difficult to show that there is actual
|
24 | anticompetitive effect. I pretty much agree with most
|
25 | of what Renata and Howard said. |
85
1 | MR. HILLEBOE: Okay, thank you.
|
2 | Bill, just as a point of clarification, I think
|
3 | you had indicated that Microsoft was licensing its
|
4 | source code. Just to clarify that, I think you probably
|
5 | mean it's licensing portions of its source code that are
|
6 | associated with interoperability issues. Is that
|
7 | correct?
|
8 | MR. PAGE: It's allowing licensees of the
|
9 | protocols access to the source code in order to help
|
10 | them use the protocols.
|
11 | MR. HILLEBOE: Right, but not the crown jewels,
|
12 | so to speak?
|
13 | MR. PAGE: No, they're not saying here's our
|
14 | source code, you can use it, you know, for whatever
|
15 | purpose, it's purely to assure -- there were some of the
|
16 | licensees, or prospective licensee who said that they
|
17 | really needed access to the source code, more than they
|
18 | needed the specification of the protocols. And I'm not
|
19 | enough of a geek to know why that would be, but this is
|
20 | in response to that.
|
21 | And interestingly, that is an important
|
22 | concession, I would say, on Microsoft's part, because
|
23 | that was one of the proposed remedial provisions that
|
24 | the non-settling states wanted to have added to the
|
25 | final judgment was to require Microsoft to disclose its |
86
1 | source code for these purposes, and the court refused to
|
2 | order that.
|
3 | And, so, in this limited sort of disclosure, I
|
4 | think is an important concession.
|
5 | MR. HILLEBOE: And several folks have talked
|
6 | about technical committees, and I wanted to direct a
|
7 | question to Renata about that, since she's had a lot of
|
8 | experience with that. I was wondering, Renata, if you
|
9 | can offer us some insights with respect to setting up
|
10 | the technical committees, given that in a conduct
|
11 | remedy, when you're talking about high-tech markets, and
|
12 | given the lack of expertise of lawyers and the fact that
|
13 | we're not engineers, and it seems almost inevitable that
|
14 | you're going to have a technical committee, were there
|
15 | things that you may have changed from the way you did
|
16 | it? Also, are there any differences in the European
|
17 | monitoring trustee? Is that a different situation? And
|
18 | also your thoughts about having all the parties involved
|
19 | in terms of determining who the trustee or the committee
|
20 | should be, including the defendant?
|
21 | MS. HESSE: I'm looking back at Patty Brink, who
|
22 | spent a lot of time with me trying to figure out how to
|
23 | construct the technical committee, and truthfully, it
|
24 | was in terms of the formation of the company, it was
|
25 | like starting a new business. So, we had to work |
87
1 | through all sorts of issues that you wouldn't ever
|
2 | anticipate, and we certainly didn't anticipate when we
|
3 | thought about the provision, including how do you set up
|
4 | a company so that it doesn't have tax liability, how do
|
5 | you hire employees, how are they paid, all of these
|
6 | things that none of us really knew how to do, and we
|
7 | spent a lot of time consulting with various people to
|
8 | figure that out.
|
9 | The more important pieces of it, though, I think
|
10 | really had to do with the selection of the technical
|
11 | committee members, and if you look at the comments and
|
12 | the response to the comments to the consent decree,
|
13 | there were a number of people who said, whoa, you know,
|
14 | Microsoft gets to pick and gets a role in picking at
|
15 | least one, so the DOJ and the states picked one,
|
16 | Microsoft picked one, and those two people picked the
|
17 | third, and, you know, that's just, you know, they're
|
18 | going to put one of their own people on there, and what
|
19 | good is that really going to do.
|
20 | And I think the interesting thing that happened
|
21 | was that we really did find three people who were not
|
22 | just technical experts, but also had been business
|
23 | people, so people who had started technical companies,
|
24 | and who really knew how to -- not only run the business
|
25 | that they had to run, but also what the business reality |
88
1 | of the various technical issues that they were advising
|
2 | on.
|
3 | And as it turned out, they really formed a
|
4 | whole, and they worked a lot with Craig Hunt, who is the
|
5 | nonsettling states group, who is sitting out in the
|
6 | audience, also. And they have, you know, coalesced as
|
7 | an entity unto themselves and the Microsoft appointee
|
8 | plays no different role in -- the Microsoft selected
|
9 | person plays no different role than any of the other
|
10 | members. And I think that has been really a tremendous
|
11 | success.
|
12 | I think the things that one would go back and
|
13 | look at again are the provisions in section 4 of the
|
14 | final judgment, which is the technical committee one,
|
15 | that relate to what the technical committee can say
|
16 | publicly and do publicly. And this is always -- and
|
17 | that's a big difference between the monitor trustee in
|
18 | Europe, and the technical committee in the U.S.
|
19 | In the U.S., the technical committee is not
|
20 | allowed to make public statements without prior approval
|
21 | of anybody, and their work product can't go directly to
|
22 | the court. In terms of a compliance or enforcement
|
23 | effort. And I think there were good, reasonable reasons
|
24 | to do that, and I think in the end that's probably the
|
25 | right way to do it, but in Europe, that's not how |
89
1 | they've done it. And so their monitoring trustee
|
2 | actually will testify at hearings about whether or not
|
3 | Microsoft is in compliance with the final judgment.
|
4 | And those are two very different roles, and I
|
5 | think it's important to think about when you're
|
6 | constructing something like this, which of those two
|
7 | roles you want the person to play. I think having them
|
8 | play both roles is pretty dicy.
|
9 | MR. HILLEBOE: And I know Bill from his comments
|
10 | expressed some skepticism about having a technical
|
11 | committee and having another regulatory body. I was
|
12 | wondering what the other speakers thought about having a
|
13 | technical committee, and if they don't like that idea,
|
14 | if they have some suggested alternatives to that.
|
15 | Howard, do you have any thoughts about that?
|
16 | MR. SHELANSKI: I mean, I think technical
|
17 | committees for the reasons that Bill outlined are likely
|
18 | to be extremely tricky, and so the only thing I have to
|
19 | add is probably what others have said.
|
20 | I think a technical committee should be reserved
|
21 | for circumstances in which we have a pretty clear idea
|
22 | of what needs to be accomplished, a pretty clear idea of
|
23 | the market demand for that outcome.
|
24 | MR. HILLEBOE: Michael, do you have some
|
25 | thoughts about that? |
90
1 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: Yeah, I personally think that
|
2 | at least if there's going to be a conduct remedy, not
|
3 | having a technical committee would be a fatal flaw. The
|
4 | technology is simply too complex, too subtle and too
|
5 | fast moving to not have, you know, that advice.
|
6 | But turning back to some of Bill's observations,
|
7 | the fact that the technical committee had a thousand
|
8 | comments when they sought to implement the protocols,
|
9 | might suggest a massive failure to comply. And, you
|
10 | know, the fact that the technical committee ran into
|
11 | difficulties, maybe because it's difficult, which is
|
12 | partly true, may be difficult because people were not
|
13 | trying to comply in good faith. I don't know.
|
14 | MR. HILLEBOE: And Bill, did you have some
|
15 | alternatives to having this regulatory body?
|
16 | MR. PAGE: Just on this one last point, before I
|
17 | answer that, most of the status reports do indicate that
|
18 | the technical committee, or the plaintiffs, were not
|
19 | really questioning Microsoft's effort. I mean, there
|
20 | are occasionally comments where they're disturbed by
|
21 | this or they're disturbed by that, but in general, the
|
22 | tone is one of this is a huge job, and we're having
|
23 | problems accomplishing it and we're both trying in good
|
24 | faith to do it. That's in general what I thought from
|
25 | these reports. |
91
1 | And I should just say that the reports are
|
2 | pitched at a certain level so that there's only so much
|
3 | understanding you can get from them. And maybe if they
|
4 | were any more technical, I wouldn't understand them at
|
5 | all, but I'm a little bit like a denizen of Plato's
|
6 | caves seeing the reflections of reality on the wall and
|
7 | the reality is really outside of the cave and I can't
|
8 | really tell for sure everything that's going on.
|
9 | But to some degree, that is the position of the
|
10 | court, and as Renata said, the technical committee is
|
11 | sealed off from the court, which means that its
|
12 | observations need to be mediated by the lawyers, who I
|
13 | suspect probably don't understand the technical issues
|
14 | much better than I do, and I think that's a problem.
|
15 | I mean, we have this technical body that does
|
16 | understand the issues from a technical point of view,
|
17 | but their antitrust significance has to be mediated by
|
18 | people who essentially don't. And I think that's a --
|
19 | that's a difficulty that perhaps wouldn't be the case if
|
20 | we had a more conventional administrative agency where
|
21 | expertise were, you know, the problems of addressing
|
22 | expertise and using it in decision-making were more
|
23 | formally, you know, implemented.
|
24 | MR. HILLEBOE: Marina, do you have any thoughts
|
25 | on this? |
92
1 | (No response.)
|
2 | MR. HILLEBOE: Okay. You know, one of the
|
3 | outstanding features of these types of markets that we
|
4 | look for are the presence of network effects, and some
|
5 | people have discussed this, but I think it's important
|
6 | to cover this. Is there a consensus with respect to in
|
7 | markets where you have network effects, are those
|
8 | markets that tend toward monopoly or toward a
|
9 | winner-take-all or winner-take-most equilibrium, or some
|
10 | people have suggested that, or is that overly simplistic
|
11 | or is that a capricious argument. What are your
|
12 | thoughts on that, Howard?
|
13 | MR. SHELANSKI: Well, first let me say that I
|
14 | think that the markets that are truly likely to tip to
|
15 | monopoly are few. I think it's a fairly circumstance
|
16 | where a network market will precipitously tip to
|
17 | monopoly, but it can happen.
|
18 | Not all cases where network market tips to
|
19 | monopoly yield bad outcomes. First of all, those
|
20 | monopolies can be unstable. There's a fair amount of
|
21 | research that actually shows that network markets
|
22 | flip-flop more frequently under some conditions than is
|
23 | good for consumers. Because they're stuck with legacy
|
24 | technologies that don't migrate forward to the product
|
25 | of new innovator. |
93
1 | So, I think that just because something is a
|
2 | network market doesn't mean that we need to worry about
|
3 | some kind of tragedy of tipping. But it -- it can
|
4 | happen. And then where it does happen, I think that the
|
5 | remedial problem is really a challenging one. The
|
6 | structural remedy can break up network effects,
|
7 | interoperability remedies can lead to the need for
|
8 | behavioral oversight, but also, we want to be careful, I
|
9 | think one of the commentators, it might have been Bill,
|
10 | pointed out, we don't necessarily want to mandate
|
11 | interoperability, even when recommending a network
|
12 | market, because new standards come into the market that
|
13 | could improve things for people and you don't want to
|
14 | eliminate the incentive to try to create the new network
|
15 | standard.
|
16 | So, I think network monopolies can arise, one
|
17 | should not presume that they are too easily going to tip
|
18 | to monopoly, even though their demand side of positive
|
19 | externalities. We've seen cases where multiple systems
|
20 | exist, and where they do exist, I think the remedy needs
|
21 | to be thought about very carefully. Structural remedies
|
22 | can be risky, interoperability is not always worth
|
23 | mandating.
|
24 | So, in those markets, it would seem the simplest
|
25 | and baseline remedy would be if there is some kind of |
94
1 | conduct that is clearly putting impediments in the paths
|
2 | of an innovator, enjoin that conduct, whether you go
|
3 | farther and engage in structural relief or mandate to
|
4 | interoperability should be undertaken with extreme
|
5 | caution.
|
6 | MR. HILLEBOE: Renata, did you want to comment?
|
7 | MS. HESSE: I guess I think that the presence of
|
8 | network effects in a market does at least open up the
|
9 | door for the suggestion that the market may be more
|
10 | susceptible to a monopoly -- to monopoly power being
|
11 | exercised, or existing. I also think that network
|
12 | effects can benefit consumers in many ways. So, there's
|
13 | a hard balance there, because you don't -- you honestly
|
14 | don't want to do something that will then take away the
|
15 | benefit of the network effect that the consumer derives.
|
16 | But I think they tend to raise barriers to entry,
|
17 | whether or not those are long-standing and durable
|
18 | barriers is I think the really big question, and if they
|
19 | are, how you fix them.
|
20 | MR. HILLEBOE: And Michael is somebody who is
|
21 | out in those markets every day. What's your view?
|
22 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: I'm not sure I can provide a
|
23 | broad across the industry, certainly the network effects
|
24 | in the markets we participate in is a very, very
|
25 | profound -- has very profound effects on competition. |
95
1 | So, I also can recognize that there are consumer
|
2 | benefits to it and I agree with Howard's comments that
|
3 | it probably presents some special challenges in
|
4 | structuring a remedy and that certainly structural
|
5 | remedies could present some real issues.
|
6 | MR. HILLEBOE: And Michael, precisely how do you
|
7 | think they affect competition if they present a barrier
|
8 | to entry? Is that essentially what you said?
|
9 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: Yeah, they present a barrier to
|
10 | entry. I think they also, because they present a
|
11 | barrier to entry, they permit, you know, migration into
|
12 | adjacent markets.
|
13 | MR. HILLEBOE: And Bill?
|
14 | MR. PAGE: One of the observations that was made
|
15 | fairly early in the effort to integrate antitrust and
|
16 | network effects, and I think it was Mark Rome who stated
|
17 | it, one of the observations that had been made was that
|
18 | when you're in this period of standards competition, in
|
19 | between two incompatible standards and it's not entirely
|
20 | clear which is going to become the dominant standard,
|
21 | there's a huge incentive for firms to engage in
|
22 | practices that don't look rationale. Penetration
|
23 | pricing, giving stuff away for free, and so forth, and
|
24 | part of the difficulty is that if you look down that
|
25 | list of things that they have the incentive to do, a lot |
96
1 | of them look like antitrust violations. You know, it's
|
2 | just rational to engage in practices that can look like
|
3 | antitrust violations, and what they are is standards
|
4 | competition, they're exactly what the literature would
|
5 | predict as standards competition.
|
6 | So, that is a serious dilemma for applying the
|
7 | antitrust laws in these markets. On the other hand, you
|
8 | know, one of the -- one of the supposed paradoxes in the
|
9 | Microsoft case was, you know, who cares who the
|
10 | Microsoft or Java, for example, wins, or Netscape/Java,
|
11 | or Netscape alone, because all you'll have is just the
|
12 | new monster. And who cares? You know, you'll just wind
|
13 | up with one firm dominating the market and you'll have a
|
14 | monopoly and so what.
|
15 | And I think there's a very good answer to that,
|
16 | that actually came up in the oral argument in the
|
17 | Microsoft case, and that I take that the Court of
|
18 | Appeals accepted, because they didn't even discuss it in
|
19 | their opinion, and that is that you don't want a biased
|
20 | choice. In other words, it does matter who wins.
|
21 | You're going to have a monopolist, it does matter which
|
22 | is the monopolist, and the network effects, the
|
23 | literature would suggest, that in some circumstances,
|
24 | network effects can exclude even a product that's better
|
25 | setting aside the network advantage. |
97
1 | So, you know, I'm not sure exactly where to come
|
2 | down on it. Mark had a few suggestions, in his article
|
3 | that was in Connecticut, and I don't remember the name
|
4 | of it, but he had a few suggestions on how to, for
|
5 | example, distinguish conventional with the sort of the
|
6 | predicted penetration pricing from genuine predatory
|
7 | pricing and how that might be adapted to network
|
8 | markets.
|
9 | MR. HILLEBOE: Marina, do you have any thoughts
|
10 | on that?
|
11 | MS. LAO: I think it's true that network effects
|
12 | can be very efficient, and the example that I'm thinking
|
13 | of is not a high-tech one, but is real estate
|
14 | multi-listing. No one would say that the network
|
15 | effects there are not efficient, and agree that in
|
16 | remedies where network effects are efficient, we have to
|
17 | be very sure -- we have to be very careful not to take
|
18 | away the efficiencies.
|
19 | So, for instance, in the real estate
|
20 | multi-listing situation, perhaps you could force the
|
21 | network to open itself up to competitors, but not try to
|
22 | introduce a competing network.
|
23 | MR. HILLEBOE: And moving on to sort of --
|
24 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: Just one final thought.
|
25 | MR. HILLEBOE: Sure. |
98
1 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: Just on the idea of preserving
|
2 | innovation through standards competition, perhaps
|
3 | apropos my principal comments, innovation also occurs
|
4 | through open collaboration about open standards and
|
5 | there's ample evidence about that. So, I think it's a
|
6 | factor, but I don't think it's the only factor that
|
7 | needs to be considered in that circumstance.
|
8 | MR. HILLEBOE: Moving on to kind of a nuts and
|
9 | bolts issue, Renata suggested that given the speed of
|
10 | change in these markets, that perhaps a shorter consent
|
11 | decree might be appropriate. Is that something that as
|
12 | an antitrust enforcement agency we should be thinking
|
13 | about?
|
14 | Howard?
|
15 | MR. SHELANSKI: Maybe I'm too optimistic about
|
16 | the ability to advise consent decrees, I should know
|
17 | better, I think I litigated waiver number 917 on the NIT
|
18 | decree, but I'm not sure that I would shorten the decree
|
19 | for the following reason, and I mean, I defer to you who
|
20 | implement these daily to know better, but it would seem
|
21 | to me that if it was easier to repeal and modify a
|
22 | decree than to re-authorize one or to negotiate a new
|
23 | one, I might put one in place for a longer period of
|
24 | time and back off if it becomes moot and then go in the
|
25 | other direction. That's an enforcement question I'm not |
99
1 | qualified to answer.
|
2 | MR. ELIASBERG: If I could follow up on that one
|
3 | with Howard. Howard, there were allusions to some sort
|
4 | of a review process, in which the court or somehow or
|
5 | another would open up the decree, not to see to
|
6 | necessarily compliance with the decree, but with the
|
7 | effectiveness of the decree. How would you factor that
|
8 | into this whole question of term of decree?
|
9 | MR. SHELANSKI: Well, I think it's a great idea,
|
10 | and I would favor a review provisions, or, you know,
|
11 | eventual sunset provisions in the absence of review.
|
12 | But review, you know, review is very difficult. You
|
13 | know, I'm not sure the second and third triennial
|
14 | reviews under the AT&T decree ever occurred, and so --
|
15 | and then the question of, well, what gives cause, what
|
16 | gives cause to open them up, but having them there in a
|
17 | decree so that someone can go get a mandamus and seek
|
18 | relief.
|
19 | MR. HILLEBOE: Do any other speakers have any
|
20 | thoughts about that?
|
21 | Yes, Bill?
|
22 | MR. PAGE: I think in principle, I like short
|
23 | decrees. On the other hand, it's a bit of a catch-22
|
24 | when you're talking about the compulsory licensing
|
25 | provisions, because how do you market to firms the idea |
100
1 | of building on, say, Microsoft's proprietary base, if
|
2 | the license is going to expire in a few years? I mean,
|
3 | how -- that seems to be like a contradictory -- I mean,
|
4 | not that firms would ever necessarily want to be
|
5 | building on Microsoft's proprietary protocols, in many
|
6 | instances, they might choose not to do that even if they
|
7 | were thought to be perpetual licenses, but I would be
|
8 | concerned that at some point, the government is going to
|
9 | leave the picture and Microsoft is going to yank my
|
10 | protocols under the basis of my whole business.
|
11 | So, you know, I guess it depends -- to my way of
|
12 | thinking, it would depend on the nature of the remedy.
|
13 | If it's a prohibitory remedy to remove specific
|
14 | impediments, that would make sense for that to just be a
|
15 | short-term one. But if there is a legitimate need for a
|
16 | forward-looking remedy, then I think, you know, five
|
17 | years is probably not enough, and certainly it hasn't
|
18 | been enough in the protocol licensing provision.
|
19 | MR. SHELANSKI: Can I just follow up really
|
20 | quickly on that?
|
21 | MR. HILLEBOE: Of course.
|
22 | MR. SHELANSKI: I think Bill makes a good point,
|
23 | I think the nature of the conduct really in some sense
|
24 | has to derive what the length of the decree is. For
|
25 | example, suppose somebody gets a network monopoly by |
101
1 | penetration pricing, and now they get zero, and then
|
2 | they undertake some type of conduct later once they have
|
3 | their monopoly that prevents subsequent innovators by
|
4 | doing the same thing, by exclusive dealing or something
|
5 | else like that. I'm not sure that you want a short
|
6 | decree there, because it's quite clear that the conduct
|
7 | will always be harmful, and so I think tying it to the
|
8 | conduct, there might not be a systematic answer.
|
9 | MR. ELIASBERG: Actually, if I can follow up
|
10 | with Renata, I think Renata you initially raised this
|
11 | point. What are your thoughts on how to determine if a
|
12 | shorter decree is appropriate, and also just how long
|
13 | that shorter decree ought to be.
|
14 | MS. HESSE: That's asking me impossible
|
15 | questions. I actually agree with both Bill and Howard
|
16 | that what kind of conduct it is that you're talking
|
17 | about is going to be an important input into that
|
18 | determination. It's clear that the five years was not
|
19 | enough, for the section of the consent decree, or that
|
20 | at least both Microsoft and all the plaintiffs came to
|
21 | the conclusion that they needed more time.
|
22 | So, and then there was a lot of work done, which
|
23 | I think if you, you know, scour the status reports,
|
24 | you'll see they're done to make sure that this problem
|
25 | that Bill talked about, which was why would I invest in |
102
1 | this to begin with if it's going to get yanked out from
|
2 | under me in the end, to see that the terms of the
|
3 | licenses were flexible enough so that hopefully people
|
4 | felt comfortable with that.
|
5 | I think that the kinds of things to think about
|
6 | when you're trying to decide whether or not a shorter or
|
7 | longer decree makes sense have to do with both the way
|
8 | in which the market changes, how quickly you think the
|
9 | market is going to change, whether or not that matters
|
10 | for the ultimate success of the remedy, whether or not
|
11 | you think that there's a sort of simple one-shot
|
12 | solution to the problem, and that if somebody can -- if
|
13 | the particular conduct, if stopped for a period of time
|
14 | will result in new entry, or in a lowering of a barrier
|
15 | to entry that will be sufficient in a short period of
|
16 | time to overcome the prospect of the network effect.
|
17 | I think in most technology markets, despite the
|
18 | fact that they move fast, this issue that Bill raised
|
19 | about there being an underpinning in the monopolist's
|
20 | technology that may be an important part of alleviating
|
21 | the anticompetitive or the harm from the anticompetitive
|
22 | conduct, would tend to suggest that shorter decrees
|
23 | actually are not warranted in most cases.
|
24 | On the other hand, you know, I think both of the
|
25 | agencies have gone away from the idea of doing perpetual |
103
1 | decrees, ten years is generally the standard. So,
|
2 | you're talking about the difference between five and ten
|
3 | years, and it's hard to know precisely in what cases it
|
4 | makes sense to do one or the other I guess.
|
5 | MR. HILLEBOE: I thought Howard made an
|
6 | interesting point, and it's something that we touched on
|
7 | yesterday, but we kind of had a truncated discussion on
|
8 | it, and that is I think there's a recognition frequently
|
9 | in a case you see perceived liability, but you recognize
|
10 | that it's going to be very difficult to come up with a
|
11 | remedy. And the question what is the value of
|
12 | proceeding and prosecuting that type of a case, and the
|
13 | possible goals might be for deterrence, as Howard
|
14 | suggested, or for establishing a precedent, or for
|
15 | making it easier to bring a subsequent case.
|
16 | I know Howard's view on that, but what do the
|
17 | other speakers think about that? Renata, do you have
|
18 | any thoughts about that? Or do you want to punt that
|
19 | one?
|
20 | MS. HESSE: How about this, why don't we start
|
21 | down there, so Marina can go first.
|
22 | MR. HILLEBOE: Marina?
|
23 | MS. LAO: I believe that we should proceed if
|
24 | the violation is egregious and if the consumer harm is
|
25 | substantial, but where it is not substantial, and where |
104
1 | the act is borderline, then if we don't have a clear
|
2 | remedy that is workable, then perhaps we should back
|
3 | off.
|
4 | MR. HILLEBOE: So, sort of a sliding scale in
|
5 | your analysis?
|
6 | MS. LAO: Sliding scale.
|
7 | MR. HILLEBOE: Bill?
|
8 | MR. PAGE: I would suggest that one remedy is
|
9 | collateral estoppel, and that, you know, there are
|
10 | plaintiffs who will not bring a case for the reasons
|
11 | that we've just heard, that because it's simply
|
12 | impossible to go up against the monopolist in
|
13 | litigation, for practical terms. Just because an
|
14 | injunctive remedy is not issued, does not necessarily
|
15 | mean that there is not a remedial benefit, because there
|
16 | can be follow-on litigation. I mean, the most recent
|
17 | estimate I saw of the damages or the settlement amounts
|
18 | in the Microsoft litigation was approaching nine billion
|
19 | dollars. Even for Microsoft, nine billion, that will
|
20 | get your attention.
|
21 | So, I suspect that even establish -- and if the
|
22 | case were brought with an eye for collateral estoppel, I
|
23 | think there's every reason to bring a case.
|
24 | MR. HILLEBOE: Michael?
|
25 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: It's certainly consistent with |
105
1 | my visceral reaction and my advice to clients, to my
|
2 | client, that it has a deterrent effect for typically
|
3 | even more egregious behavior. I do think there are some
|
4 | potential evidences that the deterrent effect is real.
|
5 | I think in addition to the complaints that Howard laid
|
6 | out when dealing with complicated problems the
|
7 | experience of competition authorities in learning how to
|
8 | deal with them and getting more sophisticated in dealing
|
9 | with them is not a value that should be discarded value.
|
10 | MS. HESSE: Actually, I think I said this
|
11 | earlier, I actually agree with the notion of the
|
12 | deterrent effect of taking action, even if you're not
|
13 | 100 percent sure that you can figure out a way to solve
|
14 | the problem perfectly, or even reasonably well, and I
|
15 | think there are a lot of people who would say, even
|
16 | people who will say both, that the Microsoft decree has
|
17 | been a failure, and has done nothing, and at the same
|
18 | time say that it was a case that was worth bringing.
|
19 | So, and I tend to -- I'm not taking a position
|
20 | on whether it was a failure or not, but I agree that
|
21 | even if you assume it was a failure, that the case
|
22 | itself, both demonstrated that these were markets that
|
23 | the government was capable of dealing with, that they
|
24 | were capable of litigating against a huge company and
|
25 | winning, and that, you know, nobody was, you know, above |
106
1 | the law. And that's an important point to make.
|
2 | MR. HILLEBOE: Bill, I just have a question for
|
3 | you. We talked yesterday about various goals in terms
|
4 | of antitrust remedies, and you spent a great deal of
|
5 | time talking about Microsoft. How would you
|
6 | characterize, what's your opinion of what the goal was
|
7 | for the government at the time they entered into that
|
8 | remedy based upon reading from Charles James articles or
|
9 | whatever, and do you think the goal was achieved?
|
10 | MR. PAGE: You mean the consent decree?
|
11 | MR. HILLEBOE: The 2002 consent.
|
12 | MR. PAGE: Well, they're in a position where the
|
13 | Court of Appeals had really given them not too much
|
14 | choice. The thought of pursuing any type of structural
|
15 | relief was impossible at that stage. So, at that point,
|
16 | some sort of -- some sort of conduct was all that you
|
17 | were going to get, and I suspect that -- well, perhaps
|
18 | I'm not the best one to -- I'm certainly not going to
|
19 | sort of assume what the goals were, but as I said
|
20 | earlier, I think that by and large, the terms of the
|
21 | consent decree and the parallel relief in the states'
|
22 | remedy are closely tied to the theory of liability in
|
23 | the government case.
|
24 | Now, certainly the grandest standard by which we
|
25 | would judge that would be does it restore the platform |
107
1 | threat? You know, does it create some sort of rival
|
2 | platform that would threaten Microsoft, and by that
|
3 | standard, you would have to say that it hasn't done
|
4 | that. On the other hand, I think there are other ways
|
5 | of evaluating the decree. I mean, one of the provisions
|
6 | of the decree is to make sure -- there's an internal --
|
7 | there are two, actual, internal Microsoft compliance
|
8 | officers, and, you know, if you go back and listen to --
|
9 | if you go back and read Judge Jackson's comments about
|
10 | Microsoft, it's almost he said they were like, you know,
|
11 | young punks or organized crime or, you know, defiant
|
12 | organization, criminal enterprise, whatever, and I don't
|
13 | think anyone -- well, I'm not sure that anyone would
|
14 | necessarily say that that's the case now.
|
15 | I think at least, you know, there is a huge --
|
16 | in fact, there is one of the status reports describes
|
17 | the Microsoft compliance program, I think they said
|
18 | something like -- well, they've conducted these
|
19 | antitrust compliance seminars worldwide, 15,000
|
20 | employees have taken them, you know, all the executives
|
21 | are schooled in the requirements of the consent decree
|
22 | and the antitrust laws, it may all be window dressing,
|
23 | but I suspect that there is a difference in attitude at
|
24 | Microsoft because of this case.
|
25 | MR. HILLEBOE: Any of the other speakers want to |
108
1 | comment on that?
|
2 | MR. ELIASBERG: Yeah, a question I wanted to
|
3 | touch base, actually, and start with you, Renata, you
|
4 | indicated or suggested that there could be some
|
5 | disruption to structural relief, indeed, sometimes it
|
6 | can be cleaner and so forth. But we seem to have some
|
7 | language from the Court of Appeals suggesting that we
|
8 | should be extremely reluctant about thinking about
|
9 | structural relief and indeed it should be the last
|
10 | resort.
|
11 | What thoughts do you have about just how
|
12 | advisable is it for us to be thinking about structural
|
13 | relief right out of the box with respect to such a
|
14 | matter?
|
15 | MS. HESSE: I think I read the Court of Appeals'
|
16 | decision to be -- and this actually was something Bill
|
17 | was talking about, also, to be focusing on the question
|
18 | of causation and the importance of establishing
|
19 | causation if you're then going to go and impose a
|
20 | structural remedy. And that -- I think that is a very
|
21 | important question.
|
22 | I think the Court of Appeals' attitude toward
|
23 | structural relief probably supports some of the things
|
24 | that I said, which is that imposing it occasionally in a
|
25 | Section 2 case or demonstrating that you're capable of |
109
1 | doing that may have a greater deterrent effect, and that
|
2 | people perceive that remedy, rightly or wrongly, to be a
|
3 | more Draconian one than a behavioral remedy.
|
4 | But the question of causation, I think, is
|
5 | really an interesting one, because it does get to this
|
6 | question of how do you know what the competitive
|
7 | conditions of the marketplace would look like without
|
8 | the bad exclusionary conduct? And nobody knows, really.
|
9 | Nobody knows whether another platform effect would have
|
10 | emerged. And so I think it's hard to say looking at at
|
11 | least in the Microsoft context, looking at the
|
12 | marketplace today, whether or not the decree has been a
|
13 | booming success or, you know, an abject failure, if --
|
14 | because you really don't know what would have happened.
|
15 | And I think the record was -- had some information about
|
16 | it, but I don't think anybody really knew whether
|
17 | Netscape, in fact, was really a viable platform threat.
|
18 | We knew that Microsoft was worried about it and thought
|
19 | that it was.
|
20 | So, I think I certainly wouldn't out of the box
|
21 | say, it's not worth even spending your time thinking
|
22 | about, because I think these cases are -- they're not
|
23 | only hard to put together and then try, but they're very
|
24 | difficult, and you should leave open all of your options
|
25 | in terms of thinking about how to resolve, how to remedy |
110
1 | a problem that you've seen and I think that, you know, a
|
2 | structural remedy would certainly be appropriate in the
|
3 | right cases.
|
4 | MR. ELIASBERG: Howard, did you have something
|
5 | you wanted to add?
|
6 | MR. SHELANSKI: Well, my tongue-in-cheek remark
|
7 | earlier about the cost to Microsoft aside, I don't
|
8 | believe any of us believe that the government should be
|
9 | in the business of just creating costs for firms. So,
|
10 | we need to be darn sure of the curative potential for --
|
11 | I think for any remedy, and I think with a structural
|
12 | remedy, I read the Court of Appeals, too, of being as
|
13 | insisting on a tight causal link, and I would rephrase
|
14 | that slightly as a strong curative likelihood of success
|
15 | for the competitive harms.
|
16 | And I think you want to be darn sure of that in
|
17 | a structural setting, because especially in a high-tech
|
18 | industry, I think the unintended consequences of
|
19 | structural relief could be many.
|
20 | MR. ELIASBERG: Something I also wanted to just
|
21 | cover with the panelists, just to be sure we canvassed
|
22 | all the views, Marina floated the notion of I'll
|
23 | describe it as lowering rivals' costs as a strategy with
|
24 | respect to shaping -- creating -- formulating relief. I
|
25 | was curious if any other panelists had a reaction one |
111
1 | way or the other about the advisability or not of such
|
2 | imposition. You can either volunteer or I'll just go
|
3 | ahead and call on you.
|
4 | MR. PAGE: Well, I would say that it's
|
5 | appropriate if it's in response to actions that
|
6 | anticompetitively raised rivals' costs. I don't know
|
7 | that because a violation has been found that all
|
8 | methods, and I don't want to characterize you saying
|
9 | this, but all methods of lowering rivals' costs have
|
10 | been appropriate.
|
11 | So, again, lowering rivals' costs is certainly a
|
12 | legitimate goal, if the causal link to the
|
13 | anticompetitive conduct is established.
|
14 | MS. LAO: I really see that as a conduit to
|
15 | promoting consumer welfare, and not to benefit
|
16 | competitors for the sake of benefitting the competitors.
|
17 | MR. SHELANSKI: As a veteran of the unbundling
|
18 | wars in Telecom, I twitch a little bit when I hear
|
19 | lowering rivals' costs, and I think the one thing that
|
20 | would give me pause is I would say maybe, if the cost
|
21 | you're lowering is one that the defendant is being asked
|
22 | to lower through the remedy is a cost that the defendant
|
23 | created, and I think that that would be a tie that even
|
24 | before thinking about it I would want to see there,
|
25 | because otherwise, I think there's really great danger |
112
1 | for the agency to become an ongoing regulatory authority
|
2 | as opposed to someone recommending particular
|
3 | anticompetitive conduct.
|
4 | MR. ELIASBERG: One more question.
|
5 | MR. HILLEBOE: Sure.
|
6 | MR. ELIASBERG: Actually, this one, Michael, is
|
7 | to you. In your presentation, you made a comment about
|
8 | situations where steps may be taken by an incumbent to
|
9 | change structure of its product so that it could not be
|
10 | transferability or used by a subsequent -- front by a
|
11 | rival or something of that nature. In a case like that,
|
12 | assuming for the moment that there was liability found,
|
13 | found for that alteration or change in the product
|
14 | design, what would be the type of relief you would think
|
15 | would be -- what would be the remedy that you would
|
16 | think would be the appropriate remedy in a situation
|
17 | like that?
|
18 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: In our industry, I guess with a
|
19 | strong network effects, some interoperability remedy
|
20 | would seem to be the one that you would need. Yeah.
|
21 | MR. ELIASBERG: Nothing else comes to mind?
|
22 | MR. CUNNINGHAM: No.
|
23 | MR. ELIASBERG: Anyone else have a rationale for
|
24 | that?
|
25 | (No response.) |
113
1 | MR. HILLEBOE: Well, I note that it's close to
|
2 | 12:30. So, I just want to say on behalf of the FTC, and
|
3 | my colleagues at DOJ, I wanted to say thank you very
|
4 | much to these speakers, an excellent presentation, and I
|
5 | want to remind and thank everyone for coming and remind
|
6 | everyone that we have a final wrap-up in the coming
|
7 | weeks. Thank you.
|
8 | (Applause.)
|
9 | (Whereupon, at 12:28 p.m., the hearing was
|
10 | adjourned.)
|
11 |
|
12 |
|
13 |
|
14 |
|
15 |
|
16 |
|
17 |
|
18 |
|
19 |
|
20 |
|
21 |
|
22 |
|
23 |
|
24 |
|
25 | |
114
1 | C E R T I F I C A T I O N O F R E P O R T E R
|
2 |
|
3 | DOCKET/FILE NUMBER: P062106
|
4 | CASE TITLE: SECTION 2 HEARINGS
|
5 | DATE: March 29, 2007
|
6 |
|
7 | I HEREBY CERTIFY that the transcript contained
|
8 | herein is a full and accurate transcript of the notes
|
9 | taken by me at the hearing on the above cause before the
|
10 | FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION to the best of my knowledge and
|
11 | belief.
|
12 |
|
13 | DATED: 4/3/07
|
14 |
|
15 | SALLY JO BOWLING
|
16 |
|
17 | C E R T I F I C A T I O N O F P R O O F R E A D E R
|
18 |
|
19 | I HEREBY CERTIFY that I proofread the transcript
|
20 | for accuracy in spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and
|
21 | format.
|
22 |
|
23 |
|
24 | SARA J. VANCE
|
25 | |
|