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Expanded Contents
List of Research Focus Boxes iii
Preface/Introduction ix
Guide to the Major Animal Groups xiii
The Geologic Time Scale xiv
1
Environmental Considerations 1
2
Invertebrate Classification and Relationships 5
Introduction 5
Classification by Cell Number, Embryology, and Body Symmetry 6
Classification by Developmental Pattern 7
Classification by Evolutionary Relationship 14
Deducing Evolutionary Relationships 17
Why Determine Evolutionary Trees? 21
How Evolutionary Relationships Are Determined 21
Uncertainty about Evolutionary Relationships 27
Time Machines: Help from the Fossil Record 27
Classification by Habitat and Lifestyle 28
3
The Protozoans 33
Introduction 33
General Characteristics 35
Phylum Ciliophora 39
Structure and Function of Cilia 39
Patterns of Ciliation 40
Other Morphological Features 41
Reproductive Characteristics 41
Ciliate Lifestyles 47
Amoeboid Protozoans-The Sarcodinids 50
Phylum Amoebozoa 51
Phylum Foraminifera 53
Phylum Radiozoa 54
Phylum Heliozoa 56
Flagellated Protozoans 57
The Phytoflagellated Protozoans 57
The Zooflagellated Protozoans- Free-Living Forms 58
The Zooflagellated Protozoans-Parasitic Forms 58
Some Transitional Forms and Misfits 61
Spore-Forming Protozoans 64
Phylum Sporozoa (" Apicomplexa) 64
Phylum Microsporidea 67
Phylum Myxozoa (= Myxospora) 67
4
The Poriferans and Placozoans 73
Phylum Porifera 73
Introduction 73
General Characteristics 75
Poriferan Diversity 80
Other Features of Poriferan Biology: Reproduction and Development 84
Phylum Placozoa 85
Introduction 85
General Characteristics 85
5
Introduction to the Hydrostatic Skeleton 91
6
The Cnidarians 95
Introduction and General Characteristics 95
Class Scyphozoa 98
Class Cubozoa 102
Class Hydrozoa 103
Order Hydroida 104
Order Siphonophora 107
The Hydrocorals 110
Class Anthozoa 110
Subclass Hexacorallia (= Zoantharia) 113
Subclass Octocorallia (= Alcyonaria) 117
7
The Ctenophores 127
Introduction and General Characteristics 127
Ctenophore Diversity 133
Class Tentaculata 133
Class Nuda 136
Other Features of Ctenophore Biology: Reproduction 136
8
The Platyhelminthes 139
Introduction and General Characteristics 139
Class Turbellaria 141
Class Cestoda 145
Class Monogenea 149
Class Trematoda 149
The Digeneans 150
The Aspidogastreans (= Aspidobothreans) 159
9
The Mesozoans: Possible Flatworm Relatives 169
The Mesozoans 169
Class Orthonectida 170
Class Rhombozoa 171
10
The Nemertines 173
Introduction and General Characteristics 173
Other Features of Nemertine Biology 180
Classification 180
Reproduction and Development 180
11
The Rotifers and Acanthocephalans 185
Introduction 185
Phylum Rotifera 186
Introduction and General Characteristics 186
Class Seisonidea 191
Class Bdelloidea 191
Class Monogononta 191
Other Features of Rotifer Biology 196
Digestive System 196
Nervous and Sensory Systems 196
Excretion and Water Balance 197
Phylum Acanthocephala 197
12
The Molluscs 203
Introduction and General Characteristics 203
Class Polyplacophora 205
Class Aplacophora 210
Class Monoplacophora 210
Class Gastropoda 213
Subclass Prosobranchia 216
Subclass Opisthobranchia 222
Subclass Pulmonata 226
Class Bivalvia (= Pelecypoda) 227
Subclass Protobranchia 228
Subclass Lamellibranchia 231
Subclass Septibranchia 239
Class Scaphopoda 240
Class Cephalopoda 244
Other Features of Molluscan Biology 252
Reproduction and Development 252
Circulation, Blood Pigments, and Gas Exchange 256
Nervous System 256
Digestive System 257
Excretory System 257
13
The Annelids and Sipunculans 277
Introduction 277
Phylum Annelida 277
General Annelid Characteristics 277
Class Polychaeta 279
Polychaete Reproduction 282
Class Clitellata 288
Subclass Oligochaeta 289
Oligochaete Reproduction 291
Subclass Hirudinea 292
Leech Reproduction 294
Class Pogonophora 294
General Characteristics 294
Pogonophoran Reproduction and Development 299
Class Echiura 300
Other Features of Annelid Biology 304
Digestive System 304
Nervous System and Sense Organs 305
Circulatory System 306
Phylum Sipuncula 307
14
The Arthropods 323
Introduction and General Characteristics 323
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha 329
Class Trilobita 329
Subphylum Chelicerata 330
Class Merostomata 330
Class Arachnida 331
Class Pycnogonida (= Pantopoda) 335
Subphylum Mandibulata 335
Class Myriapoda 336
Orders Chilopoda and Diplopoda 336
Class Insecta (= Hexapoda) 337
Class Crustacea 351
Subclass Malacostraca 352
Subclass Branchiopoda 354
Subclass Ostracoda 357
Subclass Copepoda 359
Subclass Pentastomida 365
Subclass Cirripedia 366
Other Features of Arthropod Biology 368
Reproduction and Development 368
Digestion 374
Excretion 374
Blood Pigments 377
15
Two Phyla of Likely Arthropod Relatives: Tardigrada
and Onychophora 399
Introduction and General Characteristics 399
Phylum Tardigrada 400
Phylum Onychophora 402
16
The Nematodes 409
Introduction and General Characteristics 409
Body Coverings and Body Cavities 410
Musculature, Internal Pressure, and Locomotion 412
Organ Systems and Behavior 413
Reproduction and Development 415
Parasitic Nematodes 416
Beneficial Nematodes 421
17
Four Phyla of Likely Nematode Relatives: Nematomorpha, Priapulida,
Kinorhyncha, and Loricifera 429
Introduction 429
Phylum Nematomorpha 430
Phylum Priapulida 430
Phylum Kinorhyncha (= Echinoderida) 432
Phylum Loricifera 432
18
Five Phyla (Plus One Species) of Uncertain Affiliation: Myxozoa,
Gnathostomulida, Gastrotricha, Xenoturbella bocki, Chaetognatha, and
Cycliophora 437
Introduction 437
Phylum Myxozoa (= Myxospora) 437
Phylum Gnathostomulida 438
Phylum Gastrotricha 439
Phylum Uncertain 441
Xenoturbella bocki 441
Phylum Chaetognatha 441
General Characteristics and Feeding 441
Chaetognath Reproduction 444
Chaetognath Lifestyles and Behavior 444
Chaetognath Relationships 447
Phylum Cycliophora 448
19
The Lophophorates (Phoronids, Brachiopods, Bryozoans) and Entoprocts 453
Introduction and General Characteristics 453
Phylum Phoronida 455
Phylum Brachiopoda 456
Phylum Bryozoa (= Ectoprocta; = Polyzoa) 460
Class Phylactolaemata 463
Class Gymnolaemata 465
Class Stenolaemata 468
Other Features of Lophophorate Biology 468
Reproduction 468
Digestion 469
Nervous System 470
Phylum Entoprocta (= Kamptozoa) 470
20
The Echinoderms 477
Introduction and General Characteristics 477
Class Crinoidea 480
Class Stelleroidea 483
Subclass Ophiuroidea 483
Subclass Asteroidea 485
Class Concentricycloidea 489
Class Echinoidea 490
Class Holothuroidea 493
Other Features of Echinoderm Biology 498
Reproduction and Development 498
Nervous System 500
21
The Hemichordates 509
Introduction and General Characteristics 509
Class Enteropneusta 510
Class Pterobranchia 512
22
The Nonvertebrate Chordates 517
Introduction and General Characteristics 517
Subphylum Urochordata 518
Class Ascidiacea 518
Class Larvacea (= Appendicularia) 520
Class Thaliacea 522
Other Features of Urochordate Biology 525
Reproduction 525
Excretory and Nervous Systems 525
Subphylum Cephalochordata (= Acrania) 526
23
Invertebrate Reproduction and Development- An Overview 533
Introduction 533
Asexual Reproduction 534
Sexual Reproduction 537
Patterns of Sexuality 537
Gamete Diversity 539
Getting the Gametes Together 539
Larval Forms 544
Dispersal as a Component of the Life-History Pattern 552
Glossary of Frequently Used Terms 563
Index 565
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication: Invertebrates