Archeological Inventory and Evaluation of
Lincoln's South and East Beltway
Lancaster County, Nebraska

December, 1998

FOR GENERAL DISTRIBUTION

Does not contain cultural site locations

Excerpted from UNL, Anthropology Department,

Technical Cultural Resources Report 98-05

by:

Stanley M. Parks, and

Stacy Stupka-Burda

Research Archeologists

Archeological Research Laboratory

Department of Anthropology

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

for:

Olsson Environmental Sciences

Lincoln, Nebraska

ABSTRACT

In November of 1997 and May of 1998, Olsson Environmental Sciences contracted with the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Anthropology to conduct a systematic archeological cultural resource survey as part of the ongoing South and East Beltways Study in Lancaster County, Nebraska. Investigations were conducted along a single southern corridor (SM-4) and along three eastern corridors (EC-1, EM-1, EF-1). As part of this phase of the study, a pedestrian survey was conducted along a one-quarter mile (0.4 km) wide corridor of the proposed SM-4, EC-1, EM-1 and EF-1 routes and one-half mile (0.8 km) diameter areas surrounding ten intersection locations. In total, 47 archeological sites were located, and several were tested for National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) eligibility. Of these, three sites are recommended eligible to the NRHP. The following report is released for public distribution. Site locations, however, have been omitted per Nebraska State statute LAW 84-712.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...i

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………...ii

List of Figures………………………………………………………………….……..….iv

List of Tables……………………………………………………………..….……...……v

Protection of Cultural Resources Site Locations...........................................................vi

Introduction........................................................................................................................1

Site Records and Archives Search...........................................................................5

Physiographic and Environmental Background...........................................................11

Regional Geology .................................................................................................11

Present Landsurface Formations………................................................................13

Modern Surface Soils.............................................................................................14

Regional Climatic and Vegetational Background..................................................15

Natural Vegetation at Euroamerican Arrival.........................................................16

Natural Faunal Resources at Euroamerican Settlement.........................................18

Environmental Resources Available in This Region.............................................19

Environmental Summary.......................................................................................21

General Overview of Great Plains Culture History.....................................................24

Paleoindian Period.................................................................................................24

Archaic Period.......................................................................................................25

Woodland Period...................................................................................................27

Plains Village Period.............................................................................................28

Protohistoric Period...............................................................................................31

Native Americans During the Historic Period.......................................................33

Post-Contact Native American Tribes in Eastern Nebraska..................................37

Pawnee...................................................................................................................38

Omaha....................................................................................................................39

Ponca......................................................................................................................41

Oto..........................................................................................................................42

The Nomads...........................................................................................................44

Athapaskans............................................................................................…...........44

Siouan and Algonkian Nomads.............................................................................45

Wagons Westward.................................................................................................46

Euroamerican Settlement on the Plains.................................................................48

Ethnohistoric Accounts of Indians in Lancaster County.............................................50

Project Design and Survey Methods.............................................................................55

Native American Contacts....................................................................................56

Local Interest Group Contacts..............................................................................56

Field Inventory Methods………………………………………………………...56

Modern Agriculture and Effects on Cultural Resources..................................... .57

Observed Cultural Resources................................................................................58

Test Site Selection.................................................................................................59

NRHP Evaluation Criteria for Archeology...........................................................60

Evaluation of Archeological Resources Located..................................................61

Research Methods Conclusion..............................................................................62

Description of Observed Cultural Resources...............................................................63

25LC93............................................................................................................…..64 25LC94..................................................................................................................65

25LC95..................................................................................................................66

25LC96..................................................................................................................67

25LC97..................................................................................................................68

SOAP97-2.............................................................................................................68

25LC112................................................................................................................72

25LC113................................................................................................................73

25LC114................................................................................................................74

25LC115................................................................................................................76

25LC116................................................................................................................78

25LC117................................................................................................................80

25LC118................................................................................................................81

25LC119................................................................................................................84

25LC120................................................................................................................86

25LC121................................................................................................................88

25LC122................................................................................................................89

25LC123................................................................................................................91

25LC124................................................................................................................92

25LC125................................................................................................................94

25LC126…………………………………………………………………………96

25LC127................................................................................................................98

25LC128..............................................................................................................100

25LC129..............................................................................................................101

25LC130..............................................................................................................105

25LC131..............................................................................................................106

25LC132..............................................................................................................108

25LC133..............................................................................................................111

25LC134..............................................................................................................112

25LC135..............................................................................................................113

25LC136..............................................................................................................114

25LC137..............................................................................................................115

25LC138..............................................................................................................116

25LC139..............................................................................................................119

25LC140..............................................................................................................120

25LC141..............................................................................................................121

25LC142..............................................................................................................122

25LC143..............................................................................................................124

25LC144..............................................................................................................125

25LC145..............................................................................................................127

25LC146..............................................................................................................128

25LC147..............................................................................................................132

25LC148..............................................................................................................133

EBAP98-38.........................................................................................................134

EBAP98-39.........................................................................................................135

EBAP98-40.........................................................................................................136

EBAP98-41.........................................................................................................137

Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………...139

Recommendations for Geologic Investigations………………………………...139

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Location of Study Area South of Lincoln, Nebraska..........................................1

Figure 2: Project Area of the South and East Beltways Study...........................................2

Figure 3: Proposed South and East Beltway Alignments...................................................4

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Archeological Sites Previously Documented within the South and East

Beltway Study Area……………………………………………………...6

Table 2: Cultural Sequence of the Central Great Plains.............................................….36

Table 3: Description of the Archeological Sites Located Within the SM-4 Survey

Corridor................................................................................................….64

Table 4: Description of Archeological Sites Located Along the Proposed Eastern

Road Alignments……………………………………………………..….71

Archeological Inventory and Evaluation of
Lincoln's South and East Beltway
Lancaster County, Nebraska

1. Introduction

The South and East Beltways Study is a Major Investment Study/Environmental Impact Statement being conducted to determine if major transportation improvements are needed south and east of Lincoln, Lancaster County, Nebraska. These improvements would include construction of multiple lane roads within the study area boundaries (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1997:1). At this time, the principal objective of the study, is the preservation of a multi-use corridor within the southern and eastern fringes of Lincoln, Nebraska (Figure 1) (EA Engineering 1995). The corridor areas, and general limits of the project are as follows (Figure 2):

South corridor area: Yankee Hill Road south to one-half mile south of Saltillo Road, and U.S. Highway 77 on the west to Nebraska Highway 2 on the east.

East corridor area: 96^th Street eastward to one-half mile east of 148^th Street, and Interstate-80 on the north to Nebraska Highway 2 on the south.

The approximate length of the South and East Beltways Study Area is 17 miles (27.4 km), covering approximately 91 square miles (236 sq km).

This project will receive Federal funding, and all reports and documentation must meet the Nebraska Department of Roads and Federal Highway Administration requirements, therefore, cultural resource inventories are required for compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106 review process (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1997:1).

Figure 2. Project area of the South and East Beltways Study (map courtesy HWS Consulting Group).

In November of 1997 and May of 1998, Olsson Environmental Sciences contracted with the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), Department of Anthropology to conduct a systematic archeological cultural resources survey along a single southern corridor (SM-4) and along three eastern corridors (EC-1, EM-1, EF-1) as part of this ongoing South and East Beltways (SEB) Study (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1997). Under separate contract, a survey and National Register of Historic Places evaluation of standing structures was implemented by "On Site Photography and Preservation."

The Standard Form of Agreement between Engineer (Olsson Environmental Sciences) and Consultant (University of Nebraska-Lincoln) dated 7, November, 1997, called for a survey of a single South Beltway route that "…corresponds to the SM-4 Route and the three possible diagonal connections in the vicinity of Nebraska Highway 2" (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1997:1). The dividing line between the South section and East section of the Beltway Study Area is Nebraska Highway 2. At present, only one southern route is being considered for development or cultural resource survey (Figure 3). A second Standard Form of Agreement between Engineer (Olsson Environmental Sciences) and Consultant (University of Nebraska-Lincoln) dated May, 1998, called for a survey of three Eastern Beltway routes that "…correspond to the EC-1, EM-1 and EF-1 Routes" (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1998:1). Three possible routes (EC-1; EM-1; EF-1) are still being considered along the eastern edge of Lincoln, from Highway 2, northward to Interstate 80.

Both the Nebraska State Historical Society (NSHS) and the UNL Department of Anthropology have conducted surveys on individual tracts of land in the Study Area. Additionally, during the summer of 1987, the UNL Department of Anthropology Summer Field School conducted systematic inventory of limited portions of the Stevens Creek drainage, which crosses the SEB Study Area east of Lincoln. Prior to this project, however, no systematic, or large scale cultural resource inventory had been conducted in the SEB Study Area.

Figure 3. Proposed South and East Beltway Alignments (Map courtesy HWS Consulting Group).

As part of this phase of the project, systematic, intensive pedestrian archeological survey was conducted along a one-quarter mile (0.4 km) wide corridor (1/8 mile (0.2 km) each side of the centerline on the proposed SM-4, EC-1, EM-1 and EF-1 routes, including diagonals (Figure 3) (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1997, 1998). In addition, survey was conducted on one-half mile diameter areas surrounding ten potential intersections (Figure 3). The goal of this cultural resource project was to identify surface archeological sites that exist within the proposed corridors and to evaluate the potential for encountering unknown, or as yet unrecognized, but significant cultural resources that could be negatively impacted by projects related to this SEB Study, and subsequent development and/or construction.

This report is a result of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Anthropology's pedestrian cultural resource survey, field evaluation and limited site testing of the four SEB corridors and connecting intersections. The report presents relevant background information, including a generalized regional environmental overview, and an outline of the culture-history of Native populations of eastern Nebraska, with archival information specific to Lancaster County. In addition, it presents site evaluations, potential project impacts, and recommendations.

Site Records and Archives Search:

In 1996, a records search was conducted and a report was written, covering the South and East Beltway Major Investment Study Area (Barton 1996). During that investigation, a search of archeological records was conducted at the Nebraska State Historical Society Archeological Site Records Office; the Nebraska State Historic Preservation Office, and the University of Nebraska Lincoln Department of Anthropology to determine the presence and locations of previously recorded cultural resources within the defined SEB Study Area (Table 1) (Barton 1996).

Existing historic accounts record that, at the time of European arrival onto the Plains, the region that became eastern Nebraska was dominated by Pawnee, Oto and Omaha Indians. As reported by Barton (1996), however, previously recorded prehistoric sites within the Study Area represent a much wider range of time and cultures. A total of thirteen previously known prehistoric (Native American) sites were shown to be located within the SEB Study Area.

Prior to this 1998 cultural inventory, only one of the prehistoric sites within the project area was on the National Register of Historic Places. That site, 25LC1, the Schrader Site, is a small late prehistoric village attributed to the Smoky Hill Phase (AD 950-1350) of the Plains Village Period. Several earthlodges and associated features have been archeologically investigated at 25LC1 (Hill and Cooper 1936). Two additional sites, 25LC18 and 25LC48, have been initially identified as Archaic Period sites, possibly dating as early as 8,000 BP. Based on the surface manifestation, site 25LC35 is documented as Woodland Period, dating to some time between 1,000 to 2,000 BP. Other identified prehistoric sites in the SEB Study Area represent more recent Plains Village Period or Historic Native American occupations.

In addition to the prehistoric sites shown in the report (Barton 1996), fourteen previously recorded historic sites, including some standing structures, were reported within the SEB Study Area (forms on file NSHS).

Barton (1996) identified a "Cultural Resources Area," along Saltillo road, near the western edge of the SEB Study Area. This Jamaica-Saltillo Historic District, 25LC85, contains many individual historic properties and/or locations that are known to exist, but that have not been individually or extensively documented. Maps (on file at NSHS) dated 1864 and later, indicate the presence of a soldier's camp, a settler's layover camp, a Mormon camp, and three freighter's camps, as well as the early settlement communities of Saltillo and Jamaica.

The Union Pacific Railroad established Jamaica as a railroad depot, watering and loading station, undoubtedly hoping a town would grow from these roots. Several houses, a Baptist church, a blacksmith's shop, a telegraph office, and possibly a feed and seed store (Hayes and Cox 1889) were built at that location, but the town grew no further.

The town of Saltillo was founded by John Cadman who came to the area in 1859, taking a claim along Salt Creek and establishing a stage station and the town of Saltillo on that site. The Cadman Stage Station/Ranch is recorded as 25LC00-13 with the Nebraska State Historic Society. Saltillo was ideally located for success, situated along Salt Creek at a location that became the official ford for the Oregon Trail Nebraska City-Fort Kearny Cutoff (25LC71). In 1860, the Cutoff was established to shorten the route between Nebraska City and Fort Kearny. The new route made it unnecessary to go north before turning west across Saunders County to follow the Platte River westward, this route shortened the Oregon trail between Nebraska City and Fort Kearny by nearly 75 miles (120 km). The Cutoff immediately became the most heavily traveled segment along the Oregon Trail until around 1873. By that time, Lancaster County was so heavily settled that traffic was forced to follow surveyed section lines, and alternate routes were chosen (Olson 1966).

A Public School at Saltillo educated children from both Saltillo and Jamaica, as well as the surrounding countryside. Businesses included a grain elevator, a creamery, and stockyards. A Post Office was established in 1865, continuing operation until 1906 (Lancaster 1990:XIII-4). Saltillo enjoyed years of relative prosperity, and played an important part in the lives of early Salt Valley settlers.

Not reported by Barton's (1996) record search, is the Olatha-Roca Historic District, the northern portion of which extends into the southern study area, and the Shirley Road Ranch, 25LC56, located east of Lincoln. The Olatha-Roca Historic District includes 21 separate historic entities, some which are extant structures, others are archeological resources, including both prehistoric and historic sites (Lancaster County 1990:XIV-2). Historic sites include numerous houses and farmsteads, several pioneer grave locations, stream crossing fords, a blacksmith shop, two water-powered grist mills, and the Olatha townsite (25LC38) (Lancaster County 1990:XIV-2).

The majority of these individual Olatha-Roca Historic District properties are outside of the SEB Area, however, the exact location, and extent of each archeological site within the Historic District is not known. Archival information indicates the presence of such resources, but complete and systematic survey and field research has not yet been conducted. The Olatha-Roca Historic Historic District has been approved for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, although at this time, nomination has not yet occurred (Lancaster County 1990:XIV-3).

The "Shirley Road Ranch" was located along Stevens Creek east of present-day Lincoln. Established by William Shirley in 1858 at the junction of several trails and a stream ford, the trading post/rest-station served travelers passing through the region. In 1859, the election that established Lancaster County "for elective and judicial purposes" (Lancaster 1916:1037) was held at the Shirley Station. The U.S. Postal Service established a station there is 1863, appointing Shirley the first postmaster of Lancaster County. The postal station was closed only two years later, in October of 1865.

This region of eastern Nebraska that encompasses the SEB Study Area was settled by Euroamericans quite soon after passage of the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act that created the Nebraska Territory and opened the region to authorized settlement. The first official settler to take permanent residence in Lancaster County was John D. Prey who arrived in the Salt Creek valley in spring of 1856 (Although at the time, his property was in the now defunct Clay County, which was divided between Gage and Lancaster Counties in 1864). His homestead was located along Salt Creek, just outside the SEB Study Area. It is recorded with the NSHS as site 25LC39. Many settlers followed Mr. Prey, and the region along southern Salt Creek, and east along Steven's Creek were settled and well populated several years prior to the development of Lincoln (Hayes and Cox 1889).

Vague and incomplete reports also exist in the archives that suggest a few Euroamericans settled in the region preceding these official dates. These would include settlers who illegally occupied the region prior to the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act, as well as individuals (squatters) who simply did not register a claim on the property that they occupied. Several early Lancaster County maps, as well as settler's accounts suggest pre-1856 residents in, or near the SEB Study Area. Although the locations are imprecise, reports suggest that a pre-1856 cabin existed north of present-day Lincoln, along and east of Salt Creek, (map on file UNL Anthropology Department). Early documents also report at least one pre-1856 dugout along Stevens Creek, although the number and locations are, as yet, unknown (notations on file UNL Anthropology Department).

Four major historic trails, and several cutoffs related to those trails, are also known to cross the SEB Study Area. The greatest portions of these linear sites have been destroyed by years of tillage, land leveling, and natural erosion/sedimentation processes. In a few cases though, short sections of these historic features have been preserved by far-sighted individual landowners, or at unplowed margins between individual properties. Recent documentation also records remnants of several rock fords that have survived the years, and are visible along the banks of Salt Creek and Stevens Creek (Lancaster County 1990:VIII-1-3).

2. Physiographic and Environmental Background

Humans are highly mobile creatures that move about within and between environmental zones, to procure the resources they need and/or desire. For human groups to occupy any location for an extended period of time, certain essential resources, such as food, water, fuel, and raw material must be available through either direct procurement or trade, within a cost effective distance. Most frequently, archeological sites are the result of human activity which concentrates resources at a central location where those resources are altered, consumed, discarded, lost, or abandoned when the group moves to another central location where the process is repeated (Binford 1983:262; Thomas 1989:224). Consequently, to adequately evaluate the cultural resources, especially the archeological potential of any project area, researchers must examine more than just precise, localized points on a map. To be responsible to the cultural resources, a researcher must gain a general understanding of the regional environmental setting, the climate, and the availability of natural resources. In addition, the natural geologic formation processes that create and preserve, or destroy, sites should be taken into account.

Regional Geology:

The primary upper bedrocks underlying this portion of Nebraska are Wabaunsee Formations of Pennsylvanian System limestone, deposited prior to 280 million years ago, and Admire and Council Grove Formations of Permian System limestones and interbedded shales laid down in a vast inland sea before 245 million years ago. Overlying the limestone formations are Dakota Formation sandstones deposited during the Lower Cretaceous Period, roughly 120 million years ago.

Throughout the Quaternary Period, between 1.6 million to 10,000 years ago, multiple stages of deposition occurred across what is now eastern Nebraska. Approximately 1 million years ago, Kansan Age ice sheets spread layers of glacial drift, composed of granite and quartzite boulders, cobbles, and pebbles, across eastern Nebraska, covering the ancient stream-eroded Pleistocene topography. These Kansan Age glacial tills were then overlain by Illinoian Age sand, sandy-gravel, and coarse gravel deposits of glacial-meltwater outwash alluvium laid down around 150,000 years ago. In turn, these were mantled by a series of three major loess deposits (Soil Conservation Service 1980).

The Loveland Formation is the oldest of these loess deposits and is typically a yellowish-brown eolian silt that reddens toward the top of the unit due to pedogenesis. Thermoluminescence dating of the Loveland paratype section from sites in western Iowa indicate that Loveland Loess was deposited during the Kansan Age, about 140,000 years ago (Forman et al. 1992; Mandel and Bettis 1992). More recent Wisconsinian Age deposits (< biblio >) bury the reddish Sangamon soil developed in the upper portions of Loveland.

The Gilman Canyon Formation is the oldest Wisconsinian loess deposit and is composed of a dark brown, silt loam that has been modified by pedogenesis. Radiocarbon ages of organics contained in the Gilman Canyon Formation range from around 35,000 years at its base to 20,000 years of age at the top (Johnson and Zhaodong 1993; Mandel and Bettis 1995; May and Souders 1988).

The most recent major eolian deposit, a mantel of Peorian Loess overlies the Gilman Canyon Formation. The yellowish-tan to buff-brown colored silts of the Peorian Loess Formation covers substantial portions of the region. In many areas cross-sections exhibit primary eolian bedding indicating rapid deposition. Radiocarbon ages from Peoria Loess deposits at several sites in Nebraska range from about 23,000 years at its base to 13,000 years near the top (Johnson et al. 1993; Mandel and Bettis 1995).

Subsequent to the Pleistocene Loess depositions, the topography has been further shaped by erosion and deposition within a very active fluvial system. Deposits of fine-grained to sandy-or-gravely Holocene alluvium blanket the drainages of both Salt Creek and Stevens Creek. Localized deposits may also consist of coarser sediment in areas where till and glacial alluvium is exposed on valley slopes. Ages of this alluvium range from more than 10,500 years, to as recent as sediment washed downslope by last summer's rains. The thickness of the alluvium is extremely variable in eastern Nebraska, being absent on many slopes and all uplands, to many meters thick in major or secondary drainages.

Regionally, the alluvium deposits are grouped into a classification known as the "DeForest Formation" (Bettis 1990) which can, in turn, be divided into a series of "members" relating to timeperiods and types of aggradation. The various alluvial members are separated by either fluvial erosion surfaces or unconformities marked by buried soil horizons. Buried soils are most often not traceable from one valley to another, indicating some degree of discontinuity and localized variability in the environment during their development.

Present Landsurface Formations:

The topography of the greater South and East Beltways Study Area is best described as one of gently rolling hills interspersed with flat alluvial lowlands. The hilltops are usually rounded except for a few nearly level upland divides between drainages.

The sequence of loess mantels covering southeastern Nebraska becomes thinner as the distance from the Missouri River increases. As a result, preceding depositions outcrop more frequently and cover larger surface areas (Elder 1969:7). Dark brown deposits of the Gilman Formation have eroded to the surface on some uplands and terrace slopes in the south and west reaches of the Salt Valley drainage (Soil Conservation Service 1980). Illinoian Age Loveland Formation loess and outwash alluvium deposits of sand, sandy-gravel, and coarse-gravel outcrops in stream terrace walls and eroded surfaces at several locations in Lancaster County. The Kansan Age granite and quartzite till, contained in a matrix of grayish-brown clay, is visible at eroded surfaces and stream cuts at locations throughout central, western and northern Lancaster County (Boellstorff 1978; Dillon 1992; Forman et al. 1992).

Numerous localized outcrops of bedrock are present in Lancaster County. Rusty-brown Dakota sandstone has been exposed by downcutting in several local drainages. Other bedrock exposures occur along homoclinal ridges at stream valley margins. Uplift and subsequent stream erosion has exposed the older Permian and Pennsylvanian limestone bedrocks at numerous locations along the margins of the Salt Creek Valley south of Lincoln.

Modern Surface Soils:

Loess and glacial till are the principle inorganic parent materials for soil production in this region of the Plains. The majority of soils in the uplands of Lancaster County are mild-to-medium acidic mollisols described as "deep, gently-sloping to steep, moderately well-drained to well-drained silty-soils that formed in loess and loamy-soils that formed in glacial till (Soil Conservation Service 1980:4). In general, Mollisols are well-developed soils with dark-brown to black, organic-rich humus A-horizons which are clearly defined from the sterile subsoils. They maintain a rich and fertile humus complex due to the extremely dense root zones of native Plains and Prairie vegetation. Soil moisture is adequate to encourage a flourishing soil biota, but not overly abundant to cause nutrient leaching (Elder 1969).

The floodplains of Salt Creek, Stevens Creek, and their major tributaries are blanketed with up to 10,500 years of Holocene alluvium. Established floodplain soils in the basins are slightly acidic-to-mildly alkaline mollisols described as "deep, nearly level to very gently sloping, moderately well to very poorly drained, clayey to silty soils that formed in alluvium; on floodplains" (Soil Conservation Service 1980:7). More recent bottomland deposits, where mature soil zones have not yet developed due to periodic flooding and continuing erosion, migration and redeposition of surface materials are neutral-to-mildly alkaline fluvent entisols. These are immature soils developing in relatively unstable, unconsolidated materials. Such soils have poor horizonation, gradually merging with the sterile subsoils with no clear lines of distinction between soil zones. These locations, however, are often very fertile and organic rich since the alluvium that formed them is, most frequently, topsoil eroded from uplands (Elder 1969).

Regional Climatic and Vegetational Background:

At present, there are few detailed paleoenvironmental studies of this region of the central Great Plains. Palynological and macrobotanical profiles are scarce because there are few suitable Holocene deposits with sufficient time depth (Zalucha 1990). Therefore, we are left with a somewhat ambiguous picture of Holocene climatic and vegetation changes prior to around 9,000 years before present (Cummings 1990).

There is general agreement among most paleobotanists and paleoclimatologists that Sage (Artemisia sp.) steppes, similar to the "barren-grounds" of modern north-central Canada, dominated the Plains at 28,000 to 22,000 years ago, during the late stages of Wisconsinian Glaciation (Wells 1970; Wells and Stewart 1987). From 22,000 to 12,000 years before present, dense taiga-like forests of Pine (Pinus spp.) and Spruce (Picea spp.) prevailed throughout much of the still cold southern and eastern Great Plains (Olfield and Schoenwetter 1975:167). At the end of the Pleistocene and into the beginning of the Holocene, from around 15,000 to 12,500 years ago, the climate warmed and became more arid. The boreal forests were gradually replaced by a mosaic of intermixed coniferous and deciduous woodlands (Webb, Cushing and Wright 1983). Between 12,500 and 9,000 years ago, these forests became patchy and interspersed with constantly increasing areas of dense grassland vegetation. By 9,000 years ago, the Great Plains was predominately grassland, although, like today, tracts of forest grew on steep slopes along the valley margins and in narrow belts along the meandering waterways (Baker and VanZant 1980; Semken 1980; VanZant 1979).

From approximately 8,000 to 5,000 years ago, the North American Great Plains became severely dry and hot. Known as the Altithermal Climatic Episode (Antevs 1937, 1955), this period is now known, not as one long drought, but rather, multiple periods of extended, many centuries-long droughts that were separated by episodes of increased effective moisture that most probably fell as late-winter and early-spring precipitation (Benedict 1979).

In the past 5,000 years, frequent climatic oscillations have occurred across the Plains, altering floral and faunal niches, as well as impacting the lives of the humans who depended on those resources. Between approximately AD 1100 and 1200, the "Neo-Atlantic" event led to a northward influx of tropical air, increasing the summer rainfall amounts and bringing about a westward spread of woodlands.

By AD 1200, continuing oscillations brought about a catastrophic degeneration of Plains climatic conditions. This "Pacific" climatic event brought strengthened westerly winds and drier, cooler air onto the central and northern Plains. Steppe conditions again spread eastward, as the climate deteriorated and the prairie ecosystem retreated, leading to drastic declines in vegetation and faunal resources on the Plains.

Around AD 1500, the Plains again recovered to what we would recognize as a "normal" climate, although, smaller regional or localized fluctuations in the climate cycles continue. Today, the central Great Plains has a temperate, mid-continental climate typical of that found in the interior of a large continent. Temperatures can be extreme with hot summers, and cold winters. Both temperature and precipitation may vary greatly from year to year and even day to day. The weather is often subject to extreme, violent, and seemingly unpredictable fluctuations. These rapid changes in temperature and precipitation are caused by warm, moist air masses from the south and southwest interacting with dry, cold air moving out of the north and northwest. The majority of moisture that falls in the region in both summer and winter, is brought by southerly winds from the warm air-masses that pick-up humidity over the Gulf of Mexico (Muller and Oberlander 1984).

Natural Vegetation at Euroamerican Arrival:

For most of the time between approximately 9,000 years ago and the late AD 1800's, when the natural landcover of the Plains was broken for agriculture, nearly all of this region supported medium-to-tall grassland vegetation (Baker and VanZant 1980; Semken 1980; VanZant 1979). At the time of European arrival into the Plains, the predominant native grasses on the terraces and uplands would have included little bluestem (Andropogon scoparius), needle grasses (Stipa spp.), gramma grass (Bouteloua gracilis), june grass (Koeleria pyramidata), prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepsis), sideoats gramma (Bouteloua curtipendula), and buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides). Major bottomland grasses included big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi), Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), reed-grasses (Calamagrostis spp.), common wild rye (Secale cereale), tall panic-grass (Panicum virgatum), and prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata). Interspersed among the sea of grasses was a rich variety of wildflowers, woody plants, and occasionally, shrubs and woody-thickets (Nebraska Statewide Arboretum 1982; Stubbendieck et al. 1986; U.S. Department of Agriculture 1971).

Throughout prehistory and into the early historic period, the grasslands have been subject to frequent prairie-fires. Plants and animals evolving in this environment have developed adaptations that enabled them to survive and even thrive under these conditions. Today, modern agriculture, introduced lawn grasses, concrete, and modern development covers much of Lancaster County. Only small, scattered remnants of undisturbed native grasslands are still present in the region, a few small tracts of which are within the SEB Study Area.

Although the "Great American Desert" was known for its wide expanses of treeless grasslands, areas of forest did exist throughout recent prehistoric times along waterways of the region. Due to the increased soil moisture content along streams, seedlings were able to weather most periodic droughts that occur in the region. In these more moist locations, trees were able to become established and grow large enough to withstand all but the most severe grassfires which frequented the Plains (Brown 1989; Fenneman 1931).

In 1856, when John W. Prey first arrived in the Salt Valley, he described groves of magnificent elms (Ulmus americana), huge cottonwoods (Populus sp.), and honey locusts (Gleditsia triacanthos). "Timber hugged the banks of the stream as far as they could see" (in Copple 1959:5). Others told about green ash (Fraxinus lanceolata), black walnut (Juglans nigra), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), red mulberry (Morus rubra), white oak (Quercus alba), boxelder (Acer negundo), and American basswood (Tilia americana) groves in these streamside woodlands (Hayes and Cox 1889; Sawyer 1916; Pound and Clements 1900). A few ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), common dwarf juniper (Juniperus communis), red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), basswood (Tilia americana), American hazelnut (Corylus americana), and hickories (Carya sp.) could be found on some upland slopes at valley margins (Nebraska Statewide Arboretum 1982; Pound and Clements 1900; Sawyer 1916). The floors of these forests were thicketed with various woody and vining plants, including fruit bearing wild plum (Prunus americana), wild gooseberry (Ribes americanum), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), wild raspberry (Rubus occidentalis), and frost grape (Vitis riparia) (Nebraska Statewide Arboretum 1982).

Salt Creek and its larger tributaries have tended to meander, thereby creating a broad floodplain dotted with oxbow lakes and alluvial point-bars. Both black willow (Salix nigra) and sandbar willow (Salix exigua) quickly colonized the edges of the creeks. These trees retain the soils with fibrous, matted root systems. Oxbow-cutoff lakes eventually filled with sediments to become marshy wetlands, representing a transition between flowing water and, eventually, dry floodplain (Soil Conservation Service 1980).

Natural Faunal Resources at Euroamerican Settlement:

The deep, fertile soils of greater Salt Creek Valley, with its woodlands, wetlands, and grasslands, have created a diverse ecological system which provided abundant food, nesting, and habitat resources for a wide variety of native animal species (Brown 1989; Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

The most important animal resource on the Plains was, of course, the immense free-ranging herds of bison (Bison sp.). Other large game faunal resources, including white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), elk ("Wapati")(Cervus elaphus), and pronghorn (Antilcapra americanus) were also present (Brown 1989; Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

An infinite number of bird species were common in this region of the Plains, including a large inventory of resident and migratory waterfowl, songbirds, and predatory or scavenging bird species. In addition to providing nesting grounds for waterfowl, area wetlands served as stopover places for many species of migratory fowl. Upland game bird species common to the region included bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus), and wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) (Brown 1989; Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

Numerous reptiles and amphibians were found in the waters, wetlands, moist floodplains, including the major reptile species such as the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), painted turtle (Chrysemys picta), soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx spiniferus). In the drier uplands of the region, were western box turtle (Terrapene ornata) of the grasslands appear to have been preyed upon by early residents of the region (Brown 1989; Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

At the time of Euroamerican settlement, fish species found in the waterways of Lancaster County included largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), flathead catfish (Pylodietis olivaris), crappie (Pomoxis sp.), walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), bullhead (Ictalurus sp.), and sunfish (Lepomis sp.) (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

Environmental Resources Available in This Region:

The environment of eastern Nebraska, including the entirety of the SEB Study Area, is a product of a multitude of factors that combined to create a fertile, and usually rich and bountiful system for the plants and animals, and ultimately, for the human groups who preyed upon them. Exposures of the Pennsylvanian and Permian limestone bedrock frequently contain chert nodules, giving early Plains residents access to valuable lithic resources. Likewise, outcrops of glacial tills provided access to various other workable lithics, including quartzites, alibates, agates, and jaspers. Outcrops of Dakota Sandstone provided prehistoric peoples with a source for abrader and grinding materials. The geology of the region also provided a foundation for parental materials of the fertile soils. The weathering and degrading of the limestone formations, combined with loess deposits and organic materials, to create the fertile, mineral-rich soils of the region that, eventually, led to the luxuriant grasslands.

These grasslands, in turn, provided food and habitat for a myriad of animal resources, upon which resident cultures, both prehistoric and historic, have preyed. Throughout the last 10,000 years, the most important animal resource for the Native residents of the Plains was the herds of bison (Bison sp.). Zooarcheological research has also shown that other large game faunal resources, including white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), elk ("Wapati")(Cervus elaphus), and pronghorn (Antilcapra americanus) played an important part in the diets of eastern Plains people. During certain periods of prehistory, other smaller mammals abundant in the region were also preyed upon (Brown 1989; Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

During some prehistoric periods, Plains residents also preyed on aquatic resources. Following settlement of the basin many early Euroamericans depended heavily on fish as a food source (Hayes and Cox 1889; Sawyer 1916; Wedel 1986), as well as wetland reptiles such as the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), painted turtle (Chrysemys picta), and soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx spiniferus). The wetlands of the Salt Creek, Stevens Creek, and surrounding drainage basins were also an important source of waterfowl production, which in turn, was an important food source for prehistoric and early historic residents of this vicinity.

The wooded acres along waterways provided prehistoric people with building materials for the earthlodge frames, and fuel for their fires. The floors of these forests were often thicketed with various fruit bearing trees and shrubs. These fruiting plants provided valuable resources throughout prehistoric times and into the historic settlement period (Hayes and Cox 1889; Sawyer 1916; Wernert 1986). Following the settlement of Lancaster County, these streamside woodlands were quickly cut for log cabins, or sawed into lumber for building construction materials. It was also burned as fuel for steam-mills, brick-kilns, and in the fires of the short-lived salt production companies west of Lincoln. By the late 1860's, the vast majority of streamside forest was gone and many early settlers arrived to find a treeless plain (Hayes and Cox 1889; McKee 1984; Sawyer 1916). In the 1870's, with encouragement of men like J. Sterling Morton, people began planting both native and non-native species (Copple 1959). These trees provided protection as windbreaks and shade trees, supplied wood fuel, and were aesthetically pleasing. Within a few years, portions of Lancaster County were again forested, with the amount of woodland acreage actually exceeding that present in prehistoric times (Nebraska Statewide Arboretum 1982; Sawyer 1916; U.S. Department of Agriculture 1977).

Environmental Summary:

The "Great Plains" generally brings to mind the vast, relatively flat, semiarid grasslands that sprawl from the Mississippi valley on the east to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains on the west. The northern Plains are bounded by the coniferous forests of the Saskatchewan River basin in Canada, and the southern edge by the Rio-Grandé River in Texas (Wedel 1961). Although often thought of as a relatively homogeneous environment, this expanse of the central North American continent, with its many unique physiographic and climatological features, forms many ecological zones, which have, through time, supported a variety of plant and animal resources.

Many of the early European and Euroamerican explorers who traveled into or across the Great Plains were unfavorably impressed with the environment. In 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, who established the route from St. Louis to Santa Fe, predicted that America's western lands would "...become in time equally celebrated as the sandy desarts (sic) of Africa" (Pike in Olson 1966:8), and they should be "...left to the wandering and uncivilized aborigines" (Pike in Wedel 1961:278). Lewis Henry Morgan, an early anthropologist, even stated that the Plains were "...a barren wasteland not congenial to the Indian, and ...only made tolerable to him by possession of the horse and the rifle" (Morgan in Wedel 1961:279). Alfred Kroeber, who revolutionized American thinking about Native Americans, believed that the prehistoric Plains were "...only sparsely or intermittently inhabited" (Kroeber in Wedel 1961:299).

The idea that the central Plains, including eastern Nebraska, were relatively unoccupied prior to the arrival of the horse and rifle continued long into the twentieth century. In 1935, William Duncan Strong recognized the error of this belief and published An Introduction to Nebraska Archeology in which he states that:

"Despite the fact that geological, geographical, and faunistic considerations all suggest the Great Plains as a highly probable home for early man in North America, ...an idea seems to have been prevalent that the region had no archeology worthy of the name" (Strong 1935:5, emphasis ours).

In the years since Pike, Long, and Kroeber, we have come to recognize that, not only are the Great Plains habitable, but they have been inhabited continuously for the past 12,000 years and possibly longer (Table 3).

Since the 19^th century settlements of the region by Euroamericans, the virgin prairies have been plowed or paved, prairie fires controlled, waterways channelized, wetlands filled, and dams built. In addition, exotic, sometimes ecologically aggressive plant and animal species have been introduced, intentionally and accidentally, into the environment. Such habitat alterations have caused populations of some indigenous plant and animal species to decrease. By the 1850's when this region was being settled by Euroamericans, the majestic elk, and the vast bison herds were gone from eastern Nebraska, having succumbed to over-hunting by both Indian and White fur-traders, to a dozen years of meat and sport hunting by pioneers crossing the Plains. (Norton et al. 1984). Waterfowl production was greatly reduced following stream channelization and oxbow filling that destroyed wetlands. Upland bird populations decreased as natural habitat grasslands fell under the plow. Most native species, though, have adapted and, in spite of the many environmental changes that have taken place throughout the Salt Creek watershed, it remains, even today, quite well suited for all but a few native wildlife species (Brown 1989; Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 1972; Wernert 1986).

3. General Overview of great Plains Culture-History

The date of human arrival into the central Great Plains is open to debate. Conservatively, empirical evidence has shown that human groups existed throughout the New World, including the Plains, by at least 12,000 years ago. Although some archeological evidence exists to suggest that the first "Americans" arrived long before the 12,000 years ago date, and many archeologist now agree that humans have been in the New World at least 20,000 years (Frison 1991; Haag 1962; Humphrey and Stanford 1979; Willey and Sabloff 1980). In the central Plains, several sites deeply buried in the Peorian Loess of the Republican River drainage of southern Nebraska suggest pre-17,000 BP occupations in this region of the Great Plains (Holen 1995).

Paleoindian Period (12,000+ to 8,000 years ago):

The earliest universally accepted New World cultural tradition is that of the "Clovis" people who lived approximately 12,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene "Ice Age," during what is known as the "New World Paleolithic" (Braidwood 1964; Harris 1993), or "Paleoindian" period. Cultural remains of Clovis people have been found across the eastern two-thirds of North America. Armed only with stone tipped spears, Clovis people were hunters of gigantic mammoths (Mammuthus spp.) and other Pleistocene megafauna. They are thought to have lived in small groups of highly nomadic hunters, moving their families and camps to the vicinity of large kills; following the herds. We have no evidence of structural remains, no food storage patterns, and no hearths to indicate sustained, continuous site use; although there is evidence that Clovis peoples returned at irregular intervals for short-term reoccupation of certain campsites near rich resource bases (Gunnerson 1984, 1987; Stanford 1979).

Following the age of the Clovis complex mammoth hunters were numerous other Big Game hunting groups armed with a variety of finely worked points. The different point styles of Folsom, Hell Gap, Scottsbluff and other Late Paleoindian complexes, undoubtedly represent related, but separate regional traditions. Like earlier Clovis people, they are thought to have been highly nomadic groups; following and relying heavily on herds of extinct forms of Bison (Bison antiquus and B. occidentalis), although other Pleistocene animals were also preyed upon. Faunal remains from archeological sites in the Plains include the extinct American Horse (Equus sp.), Western Camel (Camelops hesternus), Woodland Musk Ox (Symos cavifrons), giant beaver (Castoroides ohioensis), and giant sloth (Northrotheriops shastensis) (Agenbroad 1973, 1974; Roberts 1935, 1939).

Archaic Period (8,000 to 2,000 years ago):

By around 8,000 years ago, the age of the "Big-game hunter" traditions had passed. Major climatic shifts taking place across the entire central North American continent during the period between 8,000 and 5,000 years ago resulted in a severe warming and drying of the Great Plains to their Holocene maximum. Known as the "Altithermal Climatic Episode," these climate changes greatly altered the range and quantity of both plant and animal species (Antevs 1955). In turn, humans present on the Plains and dependent on those resources were affected during the Early Archaic Period (Gunnerson 1987).

At one time, researchers thought the Plains became completely devoid of human occupation during that portion of the Archaic Period (Mulloy 1958). It has now been recognized, however, that while Plains populations were reduced and lifestyles altered, occupation of the Plains continued throughout the Altithermal Episode (Fagan 1991; Frison 1978; Frison and Wilson 1975). Evidence suggests that populations in the western Great Plains were reduced as people sought refuge in the more moist foothills and High Plains plateaus of the Rocky Mountains. Excursions were made onto the Plains in search of animal resources (Benedict 1991: Benedict and Olson 1978 Frison 1991; Frison and Walker 1984; Greiser et al. 1983; Swanson et al. 1964). Populations in the eastern Plains were also reduced as the carrying capacity of the environment declined. Remaining populations may have become seasonally sedentary as they concentrated around permanent, reliable water sources during the worst of the Altithermal Episodes (Anderson and Semken 1980; Baker and VanZant 1980; Frison 1978; Frison and Wilson 1975). Investigations at the Logan Creek site, 25BT3, in Burt County, Nebraska, have revealed that the southern portion of the Logan Creek valley in eastern Nebraska was one location capable of supplying the necessary resources for long-term, or at least repeated occupations of that site (Carlson 1992; Kivett 1962; Mandel 1992b).

The changes in resource availability forced a shift in subsistence technologies by the people living in this region and a new form of "broad spectrum" (Flannery 1965) subsistence appeared as group's broadened their diet-breadth. As primary resources are restricted, hunters are eventually forced to include smaller prey and exploit a wider variety of animal species. Groups "...make use of increasing numbers of small food packages to compensate for the more specialized (but no longer viable) strategies" (Binford 1983:212). For the first time on the Great Plains, gathered plant foods became a significant supplement to hunted food resources. Many Plains sites that date to the early Archaic Period reflect this broad spectrum subsistence adaptation and include remains from a much wider range of hunted food resources (Frison 1991; Greiser et al. 1983; Swanson et al. 1964; Thompson and Bettis 1980; Wedel 1940, 1961). Eastern Plains sites often reflect some broadening of subsistence strategies, although at certain sites bison continued to dominate as the primary hunted resource (Anderson and Semken 1980; Baker and VanZant 1980; Carlson 1992; Hoyer 1980).

As the effect of the Altithermal Episode lessened and the environment returned to a cooler and moister climate around 5,000 BP, larger populations again returned to the Plains. As Great Plains culture complexes grew and developed, they began to reflect distinct, regional, and localized subsistence strategies. Western Plains cultures returned to a form of nomadic big-game hunter-gather subsistence; largely dependent upon the modern bison species (Bison bison) (Gunnerson 1987). Although eastern and central Plains diets were heavily dependent on the bison, these cultures remained broad spectrum foraging economies subsisting on a highly diversified diet, with a partial dependence on smaller hunted game such as deer and rabbits. Collected plant foods, some of which were dried and ground into flour with milling stones, remained an important part of the economy, and fishing also became an integral part of many subsistence strategies (Wedel 1986).

Woodland Period (2,000 to 1,000 years ago):

While artifact assemblages dated to the very early Woodland Period resemble assemblages from the Late Archaic, it was a time when rapid cultural and technological change was beginning to take place, and Plains lifestyles were soon to be much different from those of past Plains dwellers (Gunnerson 1984). Through cultural diffusion and long distance trade, evidence of which first appears on the Plains at this time, Woodland cultures were heavily influenced by cultural developments occurring east of the Great Plains in the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys among the Adena and Hopewell cultures (Wedel 1986:81). The cultures of the Plains Woodland Period are largely a result of the well-documented inter-regional exchange of ideas, technologies, artifacts, raw materials, and exotic items with cultures outside of the Plains area (Benn 1980, 1990; Frison 1991; Hoffman and Brooks 1989).

A major development to appear on the Plains at this time is permanent-structure housing. These houses were often loosely grouped in small, diffuse settlements near easily tillable land and permanent water sources. The homes of Woodland people were circular, shallow pits with roofs supported by central wooden posts. A framework of wood poles covered the central support posts, and smaller branches were laid across this framework (Haas 1983; Hill and Kivett 1941; Wedel 1986).

Pottery also first appears on the Plains at this time. Woodland pottery is relatively simple and thick-walled, but sturdy and comparatively well made. Pottery styles resemble those found in sites east of the Plains (Gunnerson 1984). Woodland pottery is conical or globular with no flattened bottom for standing the vessel up, requiring the vessel to be either hung from a cord holder, or placed in a depression dug into the ground. These early Plains

vessels were often cord impressed using a cord wrapped paddle. This "decoration" may be a result of compressing the surface of the vessel for strengthening, rather than for aesthetic reasons.

The presence of these new adaptations indicates at least semi-sedentary lifestyles which, in turn, suggests some type of horticulture (Gunnerson 1984, 1987; Wedel 1986). The early Woodland Period was characterized by incipient horticulture subsidizing a largely hunting and gathering subsistence. As time passed, horticulture products became a larger part of the diet in the eastern Plains complexes. Evidence of "corn" (a chaplet derivative of Zea mays) has been found in late Woodland sites, although at that time it was still being experimented with and did not become a major staple until much later (Wedel 1986).

Certain groups appear to have been located in more optimal areas for floodplain horticulture, resulting locally identifiable, specialized technological complexes, and leading to more complex social organizations evident in the Plains Village Period (Alex 1981; Anfinson 1982).

Plains Village Period (1000 years ago to ca. AD 1600):

The Plains Village Period was a result of a flourishing of technological, and cultural developments that began in the Woodland Period, creating a relatively affluent and bountiful time on the central and eastern Plains. The introduction, acceptance, and success of horticulture resulted relative resource abundance, leading to a more sedentary lifestyle, which in turn led to populations increasing dramatically during the early Plains Village Period. Population densities between approximately 900 and 700 years ago were the greatest of anytime during prehistory (Gunnerson 1984, 1987; Strong 1935).

Evidence has been interpreted to suggest that the advanced technologies, ceramic forms, and cultural complexities that define the Plains Village Period developed out of the preceding Woodland Traditions (Wedel 1961, 1981). More recent interpretations (Eighmy 1994; Emerson 1991; Gibbon 1994; O'Brien 1994; Winham and Lueck 1994; Vehik, S. 1994), however, have suggested that many aspects of this later period was introduced through migrations and diffusion out of the Mississippian cultural complexes far to the east.

Within the central Great Plains, a large number of roughly contemporaneous, but distinct, localized, or regional variants developed and have been identified. Collectively, however, all are recognized as sharing an abundance of cultural material traits. In common, they share a settlement pattern and subsistence technology that is based on simple horticulture (Krause 1969; Gunnerson 1984; Lehmer 1954; Wedel 1959). Similarities between Plains Village cultures located within the very central Plains region and their distinction from groups outside of this region has led to a "Central Plains Tradition" grouping of cultures (Blakeslee 1978; Blakeslee and Caldwell 1979; Gunnerson 1984). People of the Central Plains Tradition built large rectangular, multi-family earthlodges from 6 to 14 meters (20 to 45 ft) across. Like earlier housing, they were built over shallow depressions with roofs supported on central posts. The lodges were covered with earth and sodded over, making them cool in summer, and warm in winter. Houses were located either singularly, or in small clusters, on ridges and terraces near reliable waterways and easily tilled bottomlands (Wedel 1959).

An ecologically determined, seasonal pattern of subsistence strategies has been identified and well documented throughout the Tallgrass Prairie portions of the eastern Great Plains such as present-day eastern Nebraska. Semi-sedentary, horticulturalists occupied earthlodge villages near small bottomland gardens part of the year while producing the triumvirate, corn (Zea mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), and squash (Cucurbita spp.) domesticated crop that they supplemented with a wide variety of wild plants resources. Food was plentiful, and was dried and stored in subterranean pits dug into the floors of the earthlodges. The remainder of the year was spent following more mobile subsistence strategies. Extended hunting and gathering trips westward, away from the villages, were likely coordinated with seasonal movement of large bison herds and supplied much of their annual meat resources (Wedel 1986).

An abundance of other new ideas and technologies appear in the archeological record of the Plains of this period. The bow and arrow, introduced during late Woodland, quickly replaced the spear and/or atlatl dart as the hunter's weapon of choice. A broader range of artifacts made from stone, bone, horn and shell are found at sites dating to this period. The appearances of bone fishhooks indicate that fishing became a major contributor to Plains Village Period diets. Perhaps the most distinguishing artifact, to make an appearance, and indeed the hallmark of this period, is the bison scapula hoe used in the horticulture of bottomlands, and in digging storage pits and earthlodge floors.

The more arid western Shortgrass Plains were, for the most part, not suitable for horticultural based subsistence strategies, but did provide ample grazing for immense herds of bison. As a result, pedestrian nomadic hunting and gathering culture complexes, contemporaneous with the horticulturalist eastern Plains cultures, developed and occupied the drier western Great Plains. This dual pattern of Plains subsistence technologies became more intense toward the end of the Plains Village Period, continuing in altered forms through the Protohistoric and into the Historic Periods.

The climatic deterioration of the Pacific climatic event (ca. AD 1200) brought about catastrophic environmental degeneration and drastic declines in vegetation and faunal resources on the Plains. These resulted in humans virtually abandoning the Plains core, and crowding within stable resource areas. As the climate and environment recovered, new ethnic arrivals, nomadic Athapaskans from the north filled this void, adding to the crowding conditions.

The diffuse village patterns common during the early Village Period were abandoned in favor of larger, more consolidated settlements that were easier to defend. Villages were often fortified with ditches, earthenworks, or stockades, reflecting overcrowding, encroachment by hostile groups, and intense, violent competition between these Late Plains Village Period groups. The concentration of populations into fewer, but larger and more densely occupied villages may have created greater economic and social stability for the people; which resulted in the fluorescence of their cultures as seen in the archeological record. The elaborate cultures of the Plains Village farmers were at their heights when the first European explorers, missionaries, and fur traders made their way up the river channels and into the Plains.

The newly arrived Athapaskan speakers introduced circular, temporary, skin covered housing, now known as the "tipi," (Gunnerson 1984) was adopted by other nomadic groups, providing transportable, but weather-tight housing.

Protohistoric Period (roughly AD 1600 to early 1800's on the central Great Plains):

The Protohistoric period of the Plains is typically characterized by that brief period when there was an infusion of White tradegoods into Native American cultures without intensive White presence.

Recognizing that possession of horses would strengthen the military abilities of Native Americans, official Spanish policy outlawed trade of horses to Indians. To further prevent Indians from coming into possession of horse herds, the Spanish military directed expeditions to use geldings which, if stolen, or lost, could not be bred. This policy was clearly violated though. During Coronado's exploration through the Southwest in 1540, enslaved Pueblo Indians cared for horses owned by the Spaniards (Haines 1938). Some Pueblo escaped, apparently taking with them fertile Spanish horses that they bred and, within a few years, began trading to other Indian groups. While there is considerable controversy over the exact means by which Indians came to own herds of horses, one thing is eminently clear; horses became a large part of Native American Plains cultures shortly after Coronado's explorations (Ewers 1968).

During the next century, Algonkian and Siouan tribes, who were formerly residing east of the Plains in the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys, or northeast, in the Red River Valley

east to the Great Lakes area, were being pushed south and west by better armed tribes to the north and east who had acquired guns from French and New England traders and settlers (Ewers 1968). Eventually the gun came into the possession of tribes moving onto the Plains. This unique set of circumstances caused the convergence on the Plains of the horse, from the Southwest, and the gun, from the Northeast. The combination forever changed the pattern of existence among the Native Plains people.

The combination of the horse and gun had a tremendous impact on Native Plains cultures. These increased geographic ranges encroached upon, and threatened the traditional hunting and territorial boundaries of other, often distant tribes, intensifying the level of hostility between Native groups that, previously, had only rare contact (Ewers 1968). In addition, with the horse, a hunter could travel much farther and kill far more animals than he could on foot. Coinciding with the fur trade, the equestrian bison hunters initiated the wholesale slaughter of the seemingly endless bison herds in exchange for tradegoods supplied by the growing Euroamerican populations to the east.

Although the horse and gun were the most important and culturally influential of the White tradegoods, other items also came to be in high demand. Utilitarian goods such as axes, steel knives, firesteels, pots, pans, and other household utensils were highly desired by Plains people, as were cloth, buttons, beads and other items of adornment. Trade routes that had been established early in prehistory, served to rapidly transport Euroamerican goods throughout the Plains. During the early 1700's, French fur traders began to penetrate the northeastern Plains to visit upper Missouri Plains tribes in an attempt to set up trade centers. In 1738, Pierre LaVerendrye, a French trader who was one of the first Europeans to enter the region, visited a large, fortified earthlodge village belonging to the Mandan on the northern Missouri River. Along with the aboriginal trade of cultivated and hunted resources, he noted that the northern Plains tribes already owned and traded a wealth of both guns and horses (Ewers 1968). In exchange for these tradegoods, Native Plains people entered into the fur

trade wholeheartedly. With this new "wealth" brought about by fur trade, began the demise of the great bison herds upon which the Plains Indians were dependent and, subsequently, the demise of Native cultures.

Native Americans During the Historic Period (ca. 1800 to present on Plains):

Throughout many years of Spanish and French trading and exploration on the Plains, they made little direct impression upon the land and their influence on the Native Plains peoples was mostly limited to that of the itinerant trader who provided the goods by which Plains society was altered. (Olson 1966). Toward the middle of the 18^th century, however, large scale fur traders began to operate along the Missouri and its tributaries, and the impact became more profound. Juan Munier was given exclusive trading license with the Ponca at the mouth of the Niobrara River. Jacques Mackay established a trading post with the Oto and Pawnee at the mouth of the Platte (Wesley 1949), and Fort Charles, a trade fort, near the big Omaha village of Ton wa Tonga in present day Dakota County, Nebraska (O'Shea and Ludwickson 1992).

With the United States' 1804 purchase of the Louisiana territory from France, the history and face of the land and peoples of the Plains was nearing abrupt change. The scale of trade on the Plains grew even larger under United States Government control. Manual Lisa and his St. Louis Missouri Fur Company, moved up the Missouri and into the Yellowstone area, flooding the region with White tradegoods in exchange for furs collected by the Plains Indians. Trade briefly subsided during the War of 1812. At the end of the war, the United States War Department established numerous forts along the Missouri to protect fur traders, counteract remaining British influence among the native peoples, and to enforce treaties recently signed with various Plains Indian tribes (Ewer 1968).

Reports from early European explorers who traveled onto the Great Plains had always spoken of vast and uninhabitable expanses of land between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains. In 1820, when Major Stephen Long of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers returned from his expedition to the Rocky Mountains, he wrote:

"I do not hesitate in giving the opinion that it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of course, uninhabitable by a people depending on agriculture for their subsistence. This extensive section of country (is) an unfit residence for any but a nomad population" (Long from Olson 1966:3).

Such reports had originally steeled in the minds of the growing Euroamerican population in the east that the American Great Plains were, in fact, "The Great American Desert." As such, the Plains seemed to be the answer to the problem of the Indian population. It soon became popular opinion, and briefly official government policy, that, since civilized people could not live there, the Plains would become a permanent Indian frontier; the homeland of the American "savage" (Norton et al. 1984).

The establishment of forts and a military occupation of the Plains, however, provided opportunity to experiment with agriculture. Rather than failing miserably as predicted, crops at Fort Atkinson, north of present day Fort Calhoun, Nebraska, flourished. Crop production increased annually and milk cows and beef cattle herds grew. This angered some who, like Military Inspector George Croghan, argued that the army was "...destroying military spirit and making officers the base overseers of a troop of awkward ploughmen" (quoted in Wesley 1949:30). From a military standpoint, the agricultural experiments may not have been productive, but they did prove that the Plains, previously thought of as the "Great American Desert," could indeed be fruitful. The forts and trading posts were expanding and becoming small oases for Euroamericans, providing centers of "civilization" with gardens, tailors, gunsmiths, blacksmiths, and all the needs for a steadily growing population of Euroamericans. This attracted the attention of the Euroamerican populations in the east, whose changing perceptions of the Plains began to threaten the idea of an Indian "homeland."

The 1834 Indian Intercourse Act had intended to prohibit additional non-Native people from trespassing on Indian lands without a government license, and was aimed at saving the Plains for the Natives. Consequently, settlers could not legally take up residence on the Plains. Continued interest in lands to settle began to focus on Oregon. An "Oregon Emigration Society" was organized in Massachusetts, in 1838, and others soon developed elsewhere. Newspapers and pamphlets urged the United States to assert its "manifest destiny" rights to Oregon. By the 1840's, the Plains Indian territory was no longer west of the United States, but right in the middle, presenting a barrier to "progress" (Olson 1966). Table 2 presents an overview of the cultural sequence of Plains cultural periods, showing the main features that typify each period.

Post-Contact Native American Tribes in Eastern Nebraska:

At the time of European arrival onto the Plains, the predominant Indian cultures occupying the region that became eastern Nebraska were the Pawnee, Oto, Omaha, and Ponca. Other groups frequented this area on hunting forays, inter-tribal raids, or passing through in search of raw material resources. The salt basin west of present-day Lincoln, which lured the first Europeans to the region, had, likewise, attracted Indian groups. Throughout early historic times, most likely for centuries, Native groups traveled long distances to gather the valuable salt at the basin. In addition, since at least Archaic times (ca. 8,000 BP), prehistoric groups have frequented the "Nehawka quarries" in Cass County. At that location, Pennsylvanian limestone outcrops along several miles of ridge. Contained in the limestone is a very high quality chert that was much sought after by Plains residents as an item of significant value, for either manufacture of tools, or as a trade item. The following is a brief summary of the Native American tribes that dominated the history of the region that became eastern Nebraska.

Early accounts by Spanish and French explorers and missionaries in the 1600-1700's documented the lifeways of the Plains Village people at the height of their cultural apex. Their earthlodge villages were generally located along waterways where the women cultivated the easily tillable slopes of the stream terraces with digging sticks, bison scapula hoes, and antler rakes. They planted corn (Zea mays), beans (Amphicarpa sp.), squash and pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.), and sunflowers (Helianthus annuus). They also gathered wild plant resources, including prairie turnips (Psoralea esculenta), groundnuts (Apios americana), Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), morning glory (Ipomoea spp.), wild plums (Prunus americana) choke cherries (Prunus virginiana), as well as cattail (Typha spp.), bulrush (Scirpus spp.), and Arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia) tubers. The men hunted wild game, and prepared for biannual long-range bison hunts, during which they lived the nomadic phase of their annual life. The summer hunt occurred in June through August, after the second hoeing of their gardens, but prior to harvest. The winter hunt followed the harvest, and the drying and storing of crops.

Pawnee:

The Native American concept of land "ownership" differed greatly from that of Euroamericans, however, prior to the onslaught of European diseases and encroachment of other Native cultures, the powerful Pawnee "owned" or certainly claimed and defended the majority of the region that became eastern Nebraska. The territory claimed by the Pawnee centered around the "core" area, in central and eastern Nebraska and northern Kansas where their permanent earthlodge villages, croplands, and their most-sacred sites were located. Their territory then extended outwards, encompassing the range of hunting grounds, the peripheries of which overlapped territories of surrounding tribes (Wishart 1984:11).

Prior to the 1830's, the Pawnee nation was the most powerful Native group on the central Plains. The population of the four bands of the Pawnee nation may have numbered as high as 25,000 (Wishart 1984:10), though other estimates are lower (Mooney in Parks et.al 1980:289). Pawnee warriors from southeastern Nebraska raided as far south as the Santa Fe Trail and Mexican settlements on the upper Rio Grande River. However, the decline of the Pawnee tribe was rapid and 1831 was a turning point for the Pawnee people, when one-half of the tribe died from smallpox. John Dougherty, the Pawnee agent who lived among them that summer, stated that "…not one under 33 years of age escaped this monstrous disease…" (quoted in Wishart 1984:13). Epidemics of smallpox returned in 1837 and 1838. By 1839, their population had been reduced to fewer than 6,500.

Weakened by disease, the Pawnee were further harassed by raiding from traditional enemies. The powerful nomadic Sioux prevented the Pawnee from traveling west or north to hunt much needed bison. Euroamerican emigrants traveling westward along and south of the Platte River were rapidly depleting the reserves of timber, grass, and game. In 1843, the westward migration of Whites to Oregon increased, and to survive, the impoverished Pawnee were left to beg and pilfer along the trails. In 1849, cholera spread among the remaining Pawnee leaving less than 1,600 people. Sick, destitute and starving, the Pawnee began a sequence of ceding pieces of their traditional territory to the U.S. Government in exchange for assistance and protection from their enemies.

Originally placed on a reservation at the abandoned Mormon village of Genoa, Nebraska, the Pawnee were still under constant pressure from Sioux raids. In August of 1873, a Pawnee hunting party of 250 men, 100 women, and 50 children attempted to make a summer bison hunt in western Nebraska. While near present-day Trenton, they were attacked by roughly 100 Sioux warriors, the Pawnee men rushed their women, children, and horses loaded with hides and meat into a canyon, then set-up a defensive line, hoping to repel the attackers. The Pawnee put up a good fight for an hour or more, until their defense was overrun by a second attack of more than 800 mounted Sioux warriors. In a desperate attempt to escape, the men cut the packs of meat, hides, and supplies from the horses, loaded up the women and children, and began a frantic, bloody retreat south towards the Republican River. The heavily armed Sioux continued to rain bullets and arrows down from the canyon rim, breaking off the attack only after the arrival of a cavalry troop. After the fighting, the ravine (from that time on known as "Massacre Canyon") and the plain leading to the Republican River, was littered with the dead and mutilated bodies of more than 100 Pawnee, at least half of them women or children.

In 1874, the once mighty Pawnee Nation, crowded by encroaching tribes, their numbers depleted by disease, famine, and warfare, finally resigned themselves to abandoning their centuries old homelands, and ceded their final claims to all land in Nebraska. Shortly after, they were removed to the Indian Territories in Oklahoma.

Omaha:

Between AD 1500 and 1600, there began an encroachment of Siouan speaking people into the area that became Nebraska, including the ancestors of the Dhegiha dialect of Siouan speaking Omaha and Ponca. Prior to the Omaha migration to Nebraska, their prehistory is somewhat vague. Tribal legend places the Omaha homeland in the Ohio River valley, although there is a paucity of archeological evidence to support this. It has been suggested, again with little direct empirical support, that from approximately AD 800 to 1400, the Dhegiha groups had been woodland farmers of the "Middle Mississippian" cultural sphere that developed in the vicinity of present-day eastern Missouri (O'Shea and Ludwickson 1992). Prior to their migration to what became Nebraska, and probably until the later 1600's, the Omaha and Ponca appear to have been one people. At some point, intratribal rivalry divided the tribe and the Ponca separated from the Omaha.

The earliest well-documented location of the Omaha is from 1670 when the French expedition headed by Marquette and Joliet placed the "Maha" in horticultural villages along the Missouri River. In 1700, Pierre Charles le Sueur reported them to be living on the Big Sioux River at the "Blood Run Site" below present-day Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Sometime after 1714, the Omaha moved again, settling in a village on Bow Creek in Cedar County, Nebraska. Regardless of their original homeland, the Omaha were already knowledgeable horticulturalists, and once on the Plains, they readily adapted to the more arid environment, quickly developing a lifestyle as horticulturalist bison hunters, very similar to the well established Caddoan Plains dwellers (Welsch 1984).

From Bow Creek, the Omaha moved to a location near present-day Dakota City, Nebraska, but relocated several more times between 1750 and 1854, occupying a series of sites in eastern Nebraska, including the well documented "Big Village" Ton wa Tonga, near present-day Homer, Nebraska (O'Shea and Ludwickson 1992). The Omaha were constantly harassed by warfare with, first, the Algonkian speaking Sauk and Fox tribes from the south, and later by the nomadic Siouan Lakota from the north. In addition, the Omaha people suffered great losses to smallpox epidemics, one of which struck in 1800, killing more than 400 Omaha, including the great chief Black Bird. In 1700, Pierre Charles le Sueur reported the Omaha to have a population of roughly 4,000 people (Olson 1966). By 1854, through warfare, famine, and disease, their population had plummeted to just over 1,000 people (Parks et. al 1980).

Seeking military protection from their traditional enemies, and government subsidy assistance, the Omaha people ceded the majority of their traditional lands to the U.S. Government on March 16, 1854. A small tract of land was kept in what is now eastern Thurston County, Nebraska measuring 18 by 30 miles (47 by 78 Km) (Olson 1966). The Omaha Reservation along the Missouri River is hilly and was unsuited to traditional Omaha farming methods, but they did manage to raise crops along the stream bottoms and, with government assistance, were able to feed themselves.

Ponca:

The earliest documented location for the Ponca as a separate people, is from Pierre Charles le Sueur who places them along the Missouri River in 1701, where they, like their Omaha kin, lived semi-sedentary lifestyles of the hunter-horticulturalist. In 1789, approximately 800 Ponca (Parks et. al 1980:293) were residing at the "Ponca Fort Site," 25KX1 (Wood 1994), at the confluence of the Niobrara River with the Missouri when Juan Baptiste Munier established a government licensed trading post at that location. Shortly after Munier and other traders arrived, the Ponca suffered an outbreak of smallpox, loosing a great number of their tribe. When the Lewis and Clark expedition contacted the Ponca in 1804, they estimated a population of only 200. Their numbers recovered quickly, though, and by 1842, they again numbered nearly 800 (Olson 1966).

After 1850, the Ponca, like the Pawnee and Omaha, were under constant pressure from the nomadic Sioux tribes. In 1858, in an attempt to gain the protection of the U.S. Government, the Ponca relinquished all their traditional land except for a small reservation along the Niobrara River. Harassment from the Sioux continued, however, and then, to compound their problems, an error in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie gave the Ponca reservation land to the more powerful and numerous Sioux. To resolve the problem, the government ordered the Ponca to relinquish their Nebraska holdings, and move to the Indian Territories in Oklahoma.

The majority of Ponca did not want to leave their homes, but were forced to move by the U.S. Army. Upon arriving in Oklahoma, they began dying of malaria. The Ponca chief, Standing Bear, lost his son to the disease, and requested permission to return home to the Niobrara River to bury him. Originally denied permission, Standing Bear defied authority and traveled north with a small group of Ponca and the body of his son. They stopped at the Omaha Reservation to rest, but federal troops arrived with orders to return the "renegades" to Oklahoma. Newspapers spread the Ponca story and, surprisingly, public sentiment sided with the Standing Bear's group.

With the help of Senators Algernon Paddock of Nebraska and H.M. Teller of Colorado, as well as a group of Omaha, Nebraska attorneys, Standing Bear brought a lawsuit against the U.S. Government. It became a test case to determine if an Indian was a person within the eyes of the law, and entitled to Constitutionally guaranteed rights, or if the government can confine a free man to a reservation against his will.

During this trial, Standing Bear made a simple but persuasive argument for his case. Holding his hand up before the court, he proclaimed: "That hand is not the color of your hand, but if I pierce it I shall feel pain. The blood that will flow from mine will be the same color as yours. I am a man!" (Standing Bear quoted in Blaine 1984:97).

In May 1879, Judge Elmer Dundy ruled in favor of Standing Bear, ordering that the Ponca should be released, and declaring that no authority existed to remove Indians from their lands without their consent. On March 3, 1881, Congress appropriated money to pay for Ponca losses, and returned the reservation lands near the Missouri River (Wooley 1984).

Oto:

The Oto are of the Chiwere dialect of the Siouan family of languages, closely related to the Missouria, and more distantly, the Iowa, and Winnebago. Until the early 1600's, the Chiwere appear to have made up a single nation occupying a region near the Great Lakes (Wooley 1984:36). At that time, the Oto, Missouria, and Iowa separated from the Winnebago and migrated westward. The Iowa settled in what became south central Iowa. The Oto and Missouria are thought to have followed the Mississippi to the mouth of the Missouri River. The Oto continued up the Missouri, forming a separate group, and eventually migrating as far as eastern Nebraska. In 1673, Marquette documented them west of the Missouri River between the 40^th and 41^st latitude (Whitman 1937). In 1714, Bourgmond placed the Oto at the "Ashland Site," 25CC1, at the mouth of Salt Creek near Ashland, Nebraska. By 1721, the Oto were living on the southern bank near the mouth of the Platte River where they were visited by the 1804 Louis and Clark expedition (Wooley 1984:36). Documents from Jacques Mackay, who established a trading post with the Oto and Pawnee at the mouth of the Platte (Wesley 1949), indicate that the majority of Oto lived in four villages, each consisting of 40 to 70 lodges, along the southern bank of the Platte, or western bank of the Missouri Rivers. Their lifestyles were similar to other semi-sedentary horticulturalists in the central Plains, relying heavily on domestic crop resources that were supplemented by two bison hunts each year.

Around 1730, Algonkian speaking Sauk and Fox people began repeated attacks on the Missouria, forcing a series of migrations farther westward, into what became central Missouri. In 1780, the populations of both the Oto and Missouria still exceeded 1,000 people (Parks et. al 1980:285). The attacks by the Sauk and Fox, and epidemics of smallpox, however, decimate the tribes. In 1798, a Sauk and Fox attack nearly wiped out the few remaining Missouria. The survivors divided and fled, joining other tribes for protection. Most Missouria sought refuge with their Oto kin and by 1819, the Missouria merged so completely, they were considered to again be one nation.

Their traditional enemies, the Sauk and Fox, continued harassment of the Oto and repeated outbreaks of disease continued to reduce their population. In addition, resources were being rapidly depleted as fur traders, both white and Indian, pushing the bison to the edge of extinction, and leaving few herds to be found on the biannual hunts. Like the Omaha and Pawnee, Oto hunting parties were also subjected to attack by the nomadic Lakota and Arapaho. In 1874, the Oto held their final summer hunt, but were no longer able to defend themselves against the nomads. In 1881, resigned to seeking assistance from the U.S. Government, they ceded their remaining claims to all land in Nebraska, and the roughly 350 surviving Oto were placed on a reservation in Oklahoma (Wolley 1984).

The Nomads:

Between AD 1450 and 1800, there were multiple influxes onto the Plains, of nomadic cultural groups. These nomad hunters resided on the short grass Prairies and western High Plains where horticulture was not feasible, their lives tied inextricably to the herds of bison. Although not residing in eastern Nebraska, their presence on the Plains greatly impacted the Native groups living here, and they helped shape the late prehistory and early history of eastern Nebraska.

Athapaskans:

The first influx occurred sometime around 1450 when groups of Athapaskan speakers began a series of migrations southward, to occupy the Plains areas that had been abandoned during the Pacific Climatic Episode. By 1525, they had spread as far south as the Rio Grande River. Ancestors of the Apache, Lipan, and Navaho, they had previously been pedestrian-nomad caribou hunters to the far north in Canada, and their technologies were efficient and well suited to the nomadic lifestyle. Bringing with them a large breed of dog used to carry packs, or to pull a travois, and living in sewn-skin tents, the "tipi," which provided weather-tight, yet easily movable shelter, they were pre-adapted to the life of full-time nomadic hunting, and simply shifted from caribou to bison hunting.

The Athapaskans were one of the first Plains Natives to come into possession of horses, giving them a clear military advantage over other, unmounted Plains groups. By 1650, the Apache were acting as slave traders, supplying Plains Indians to the Spanish for labor in the Southwest, Mexico, and the Caribbean. The Pawnee from eastern Nebraska were among those most frequently preyed upon by the slavers and for nearly 100 years, there was a nearly constant and bloody conflict between the two cultures.

By the time of U.S. arrival into the region that became Nebraska, the Apache were far to the southwest, and no longer thought of as a Plains tribe. However, the technologies and methods introduced by the Athapaskans enabled the lives of those nomadic bison-hunters who followed.

Siouan and Algonkian Nomads:

Many of the Algonkian and Siouan groups that history recognizes as "Plains" Indians were residing in various regions northeast of the Plains before the 17^th century. Some of these people lived as sedentary woodland horticulturalists, and other groups were pedestrian nomadic-hunters living along the margins between the tall-grass prairie and woodlands in the region that became western Minnesota and the eastern Dakotas.

The migration of these groups onto the Plains was not simultaneous, but instead, occurred over a period beginning roughly 1650 and extending to nearly 1800. Movements originated due to crowding of cultures from their traditional homelands by a "domino-effect" following the arrival of Europeans along the Atlantic coast and colonial expansion westward. The routes and means of the Native transformations varied. When pushed westward, some groups, like the ancestors of the Arapaho and Crow immediately migrated to the Plains, quickly adopting the successful pedestrian-nomad lifestyles and technologies of the bison hunting Athapaskans. Other groups, such as the Cherokee and Yankton Sioux, encountered the villages of the Mandan along the Missouri River and, for a brief time, settled nearby, adopting the Plains earthlodges and the stream side horticultural practices of established Plains horticulturalists (Berthrong 1984; DeMallie 1984; Gunnerson and Bouc 1984).

Sometime shortly after 1750, the horse trade reached the northern Plains and horses quickly became part of the lives of those pedestrian-nomads. Some tribes, such as the Cherokee, did not migrate to the Plains until after their acquisition of the horse. By 1775, Sioux groups began moving across the Missouri River and onto the shortgrass Prairie and High Plains, coming in contact with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, forming alliances with those groups, and waging wars with others. It was these groups of late Plains arrivals that flourished into the stereotypic feathered Plains horse mounted nomad.

Numerous Algonkian and Siouan groups were displaced westward during the 18^th and 19^th centuries. The late prehistory and early history of eastern Nebraska was heavily impacted by the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota Sioux tribes. These groups did not reside in eastern Nebraska, but they dramatically influenced the lives of the Natives who did reside here (Berthrong 1984; DeMallie 1984; Gunnerson and Bouc 1984). The newfound wealth in horses, tradegoods and guns, allowed these Equestrian nomads to rapidly grow in number. Like all American Natives, they suffered losses to European diseases, but unlike the village people, they did not loose large numbers of their population. Combined, the Arapaho and Cheyenne numbered more than 7,500 in 1805, and by the mid-1800's the Lakota probably numbered nearly 20,000 (Parks et. al 1980:291-4), forming the largest and most powerful force on the Plains.

These three nomadic tribes actively engaged in the fur trade, and with the horse and gun, they killed enough bison to begin creating shortages in some regions. As an allied force, they were able to displace other tribes and rigorously defend their newly gained bison hunting grounds from outsiders, including the Pawnee, Ponca, Omaha, and Oto from eastern Nebraska who depended heavily on the bison herds for subsistence. In addition to their competition for bison hunting territory, the nomadic tribes frequently raided eastward, plundering the villages for horses, corn, and women, or for the glory and honor.

Wagons Westward:

With the settlement of Oregon, and later California, the Great Plains became simply a place to be crossed on the way west. Abandoning the northern Missouri River route of Lewis and Clark, other trails were charted across the central Plains, most of them winding across southeastern Nebraska from the trailheads along the Missouri River and converging at Fort Kearny. The first wagons to leave their tracks on what was to become the Oregon Trail, were those taken west by Jedediah Smith, David Jackson, and William Sublette in 1830 (Hulbert 1930:20-22). In 1843, the migrations to Oregon began in earnest with more than 1000 people traveling westward. Brigham Young and his followers set out to establish a "New Zion," by way of the Mormon Trail in 1847. Driven by hunger for land, adventure, or religious freedom, thousands had used the trails to emigrate through what is now Nebraska, then in 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in California. Reliable statistics are not available, although most estimates place the number of westward-bound emigrants at 40,000 in 1849, increasing to 55,000 in 1850, the numbers held steady until 1853 when the Nation's gold fever diminished. The migrations along these trails continued until the establishment of the transcontinental railroad, although not at the fevered-pace of the early 1850's (Norton et al. 1984).

Although thousands had traveled the trails ahead of them, many of the "Forty-Niners" were unprepared for the trip. Many started west with their wagon preposterously overloaded; other tried to walk, carrying their worldly possessions on their backs. Only a few miles west of the Missouri River, they became aware of their mistakes, and the trail became strewn with abandoned equipment and baggage. Some sold, traded, or burned their excess, a few unhooked the teams of horses, and rode away, leaving fully loaded wagons (DeWolf 1925).

Illness was a constant threat to the wagon trains and numerous pioneer graves can be found along the trails. One traveler wrote: "It is supposed that one-fifth are dying here now with cholera and diarrhoeas (sic)…" (Wood 1871:31). Another wrote: "In respect I had intended to notice in my journal every grave… but have abandoned this part… Graves are so numerous that to notice them all would make my narrative tedious" (Langworthy in Phillips 1932:37-38).

Euroamerican Settlement on the Plains:

With the eastern United States already settled, and ever increasing streams of emigrants heading west, the concept of a permanent Indian frontier west of the Mississippi was abandoned. In 1841 the passage of the Pre-emption Act enabled settlers to buy up to 160 acres of land in organized territories from the Federal Government for one-dollar-and-a-quarter an acre after they had cultivated it for one year. With the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which created the Nebraska Territory and opened the region to settlement, Euroamerican settlers began pouring into the new Territory. This hunger for land to feed a rapidly growing nation forced the United States Congress to devise an official policy for handling the "Indian problem." Reservations were created to board the Indian population and the military began coercing tribes to sign treaties relinquishing their traditional lands. The eastern Plains tribes, weakened by disease and conflict, presented little resistance. Once on reservations, Indian agents, teachers and missionaries flocked to the reservations to "save," educate, and assimilate the Natives into the White culture.

Passage of the Homestead Act of 1862 made land ownership more easily available, resulting in a flood of immigration by Euroamericans and some free-Blacks into the territory, further increasing the urgency for the government to deal with the Native populations. At the end of the Civil War, in 1865, the efforts of the military were concentrated against the Plains Indians. The large, powerful western Plains Equestrian Nomad tribes continued to resist being place on reservations, and once confined to reservations, even the eastern Plains groups continued annual bison hunts. In an effort to destroy the primary resource base of the Nomads, and the reason for other tribes to leave their reservations, the United States Government expanded the policy of bison herd extermination (Norton et al. 1984; Oswalt and Neely 1996). These Indian Wars campaigns lasted into the 1890's when the last of the Indian tribes succumbed to the U.S. military pressure and the government's reservation policy.

Because of its geographic, environmental, and social situation, the Great Plains, more than any other culture area, underwent radical transformations throughout prehistory. Prehistoric trade routes and migration brought Plains people, either directly or indirectly, into contact with people, technologies, customs, and ideas from outside the Plains physiographic region. For 12,000 years, and possibly longer, the Plains were the home to an evolving series of vibrant aboriginal cultures. In the end, decimated by European diseases, starving because of the lack of bison, defeated by the U.S. Army, and displaced by Euroamerican settlers, the Native populations were eventually confined to reservations. At that time, care of the wide-open and fertile Great Plains was taken over by Euroamerican immigrants.

4. ETHNOHISTORIC ACCOUNTS OF INDIANS in lancaster county

"As the white man comes in, the Indian goes out." Shakopee, Chief of the Santee Sioux

The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 opened the region to settlement and Euroamericans began pouring into the new Nebraska Territory. Merely two years after the territory was opened, the first Euroamericans took up permanent residence in the Salt Creek Valley and its tributaries, including the Stevens Creek Valley.

Many accounts are written regarding the interactions between these early settlers and the Indians who remained in eastern Nebraska at that time. The accuracy of some stories is open to dispute and many early authors clearly embellished the actual events. Regardless of the memories and imaginings of these early settlers, the Hollywood scenario of the "Wild West" with a band of "savage" painted Indians circling a ring of covered wagons and a timely rescue by heroic blue-clad Cavalry troops was never played out in the eastern Plains.

After the Louisiana Purchase in 1804, explorers, traders, and trappers were regulars on the Plains, but their numbers were relatively small. Because Indian groups welcomed the tradegoods brought by these newcomers (Dorsey 1882; Holder 1967; Parks 1992), their presence, at that time, was not significant enough to provoke serious Indian resistance. Along with the tradegoods, though, came European diseases to which the Indians had no natural tolerance, resulting in tragic, profound depopulation. Hardest impacted were eastern Plains village cultures like the Omaha, Oto and Pawnee (Parks, et al. 1980). At the same time, these village tribes were under constant pressure from their old enemies, the Arapaho and Cheyenne, and the powerful, relatively new arrivals, the Lakota Sioux. These once formidable village tribes residing in the eastern Plains, now allied with the Whites to insure their own survival (Dunlay 1984). Fort Atkinson, established north of present-day Omaha in 1819, was abandoned in 1827 because the frontier of Indian conflict had moved farther west. By June of 1856, when John D. Prey and his son John W. took residence along Salt Creek, one-half mile south of what would become 25^th and Roca Road, all large-scale conflicts and military campaigns against the Indians were waged, primarily, with the nomadic equestrian tribes west of Fort Kearny in central Nebraska. Although Indians still lived in Lancaster County at that time, few Indian related incidents involving bloodshed occurred and when they did, the Indians were usually the ones to die.

In 1857, a man named John Davis, residing near the village of Saltillo, "...had a great desire to add to his experiences that of killing an Indian" (Hayes and Cox 1889:69). "He made his brags that he would..., and one day, very uncalled for, he fulfilled this desire by killing a Pawnee that wandered onto his property." (Sawyer 1916:339). The consequences were not what he anticipated. At that time, there were a number of Pawnee, Oto, and Omaha in the vicinity. Upon hearing of the death of one of theirs, they "...went on the war path (Hayes and Cox 1889:69). The settlers, fearing for their lives, escaped eastward, gathering together at the larger settlement of Weeping Water. A company of about 100 volunteers was formed in Nebraska City to quell the "uprising." They captured one Indian, but the men assigned to stand guard let him step out for fresh air, and he escaped. After two weeks, residents returned home, many finding their homes raided, or burned, although no settler's lives were lost (Hayes and Cox 1889; Sawyer 1916).

In early 1859, several Pawnee stole the carcass of a freshly killed deer from the home of Jeremiah Garrett a few miles south of present-day Lincoln. Garrett, and neighbors, Solomon Kirk, and William Arnold set out to punish the Indians. After about three miles, they caught with the thieves in the act of skinning the deer, and fired on them. Arnold wounded one of them, and Garrett killed one, but was wounded by an arrow before the Indians fled. A few hours later, the cabin of James Bogus was found looted of clothing and food. A group of volunteers gathered at the home of a settler, Mr. Sophir, along Salt Creek west of the present site of the penitentiary. The next morning, one of the settlers, Joel Mason, attempted to talk with the Indians who were camped within site of the Sophir cabin. The Indians were uncooperative and threatening, though, and forced him back to Sophir's cabin, where the settlers opened fire, killing three Pawnee and wounding five others (Hayes and Cox 1889).

Later that year, during the summer of 1859, several bands of Cheyenne and Arapaho came east to the Salt Creek basin to gather salt. During their visit, some band members, apparently young braves intent on making a name for themselves, roamed the area causing mischief. They appeared at the home of John W. Prey and abducted his daughter, 13 year old Rebbeca. Mrs. Prey followed the Indians while her 16 year old son, David, summoned help. David, his father, and several of the Preys' neighbors caught up with the Indians within a few miles, and convinced them to release the girl unharmed. Several days later, the Indian bands moved northward toward the Platte River, leaving nervous, but unharmed settlers behind (Hayes and Cox 1889).

Some insight into the makeup of the Indian population, and the size of the Native groups still living in the County can be made based on the account of John S. Gregory. In September of 1862, Gregory arrived at the salt basin, near present-day Lincoln, where he observed "...about a mile west on Middle Creek, the smoke was rising from a camp of Oto Indians." He spent his first night in the area "...down in the bend of Oak Creek, where West Lincoln now stands, [at] a camp of about 100 Pawnee wigwams" (quoted in Hayes and Cox 1889:78-79).

News of the 1862 Santee Rebellion in Minnesota caused some concern to the Euroamerican residents of eastern Nebraska, although it appears that word did not reach Lancaster County until the rebellion had been thoroughly crushed by the U.S. Army (Sawyer 1916). Little else occurred until 1864 when the Sioux appeared to the west, in the valley of the Big Blue River. Most terrified residents of Lancaster County fled eastward to Weeping Water or Nebraska City. A group of eight brave men, though, proceeded west to gather information. They saw no Indians until they reached the Big Blue River, when they noticed a single warrior watching them from some distance. The settlers decided to retreat, but the Indian made a signal and "...suddenly there rose up from the low grounds, several hundred mounted Indians, right across their pathway. The [warriors] began to bear down on the little company of whites to hem them in" (Hayes and Cox 1889:71). The settlers drew their weapons, intent on putting up a good fight, in spite of the overwhelming odds. To the relief of the "army" of settlers, it was not the Sioux, but a party of Pawnee, allied with the U.S. Government, out hunting their traditional Sioux enemies. Thinking all the settlers had left the region, the Pawnee attacked, hoping they had caught a small band of Sioux, separated from their kin. When the Pawnee got close enough to realize their mistake, they halted the attack and raised a white flag in time to prevent bloodshed on either side. The Pawnee explained their actions and moved on, in search of the Sioux. The Salt Valley volunteers, apparently having seen enough Indians for a while, quickly headed back east, toward their homes (Sawyer 1916:19).

Indians frequently stayed overnight at the Retzlaff Stock Farm, east of present-day Lincoln. Mrs. Retzlaff "…made coffee and cornbread for them, and after they had eaten, they would sit on the ground and smoke their peace pipe" (quoted in The State Journal, Sunday June 10, 1917). Writing in 1907, Charles Retzlaff states: "Indians were plenty in those days, but all were friendly. The only thing I ever knew of their doing was to kill a neighbor's cow or two, which they cut to pieces and carried away. We had one Indian scare... in 1864 it was reported that the Indians were going to drive all the whites from Nebraska. Many of the settlers left their homes and went to Nebraska City. I loaded my rifle, a single shot affair, after which I felt secure from the thousands of Redskins, remained on my claim and never saw a single Indian" (quoted in Sawyer 1916:341).

Most occurrences of settler and Indian conflict, was the result of theft of property, or incidents that some settlers felt was extortion. Clearly many of the disputes resulted from cultural differences concerning differing customs of sharing resources and contrasts in perceptions of private property ownership. These differences were, most assuredly, heightened by each group's preconceived ideas about the other. Tragically, some incidents resulted from small bands of destitute Indians resorting to any means to survive. While the Indians were a source of constant suspicion and uneasiness to the early settlers, most settlers simply resigned themselves to live with the occasional loss of a cow or other property. With the end of the Civil War in 1865, the effort of the U.S. military was concentrated against the Plains Indians, pushing the frontier of conflict farther west, and virtually ending all contact between the Natives and the Lancaster County settlers (Sawyer 1916).

5. PROJECT Design and Survey Methods

The Nebraska State Historic Preservation Office (NeSHPO) determined the design of this pedestrian cultural resource survey. They recommended complete (100%) coverage of all stream-crossings from valley margin-to-margin, and a ten-percent coverage sample survey of the uplands. Olsson Environmental Sciences, in communication with the NeSHPO, contracted with the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) for a one-quarter mile (400 m) wide survey corridor along a single proposed east-west southern corridor (SM-4); three proposed north-south corridor alternatives (EC-1, EM-1, EF-1); and five alternate connecting diagonals. All survey corridors were centered along the entire length of the proposed roadways. In addition, complete (100%) survey coverage was required on one-half mile (800 m) diameter areas surrounding major intersection alternatives. These intersections included a single connector of SM-4 with U.S. Highway 77; three interchanges where alternate diagonals intersect Nebraska Highway 2; three intersection alternates along U.S. Highway 34 (east O Street); and three alternates to connect to Interstate 80. Maps and aerial photographs of the South and East Beltway (SEB) Study Area showing the locations of the proposed road alignments were supplied to UNL by Olsson Environmental Sciences.

Project oversight for the archeological investigations were provided by Mr. Rob Bozell of the Nebraska State Historical Society-Highway Archeology Program through an agreement with the Nebraska Department of Roads.

Landscape data and topographic settings for the project area were gleaned from USGS 7.5-minute topographic maps and air-photos to identify areas of uplands and extents of stream-crossings. The aerial photos also provided a means of identifying major landmarks and features to better determine the proper location of roadway alignments while in the field. Prior to initiating the pedestrian survey, Parks and Stupka-Burda conducted reconnaissance of the project area to field check and refine these landform data.

Native American Contacts:

The UNL Department of Anthropology supplied details of the SEB cultural resource survey to the Nebraska State Indian Commission by letter. This letter detailed awareness that sites held sacred by Native Americans could exist within the region. We requested guidance in determining a course of action that would insure such sites are appropriately recognized and protected if determined to exist within the SEB study area boundaries.

Upon the recommendation of the Nebraska State Indian Commission, the Department of Anthropology sent letters to ten Native American Tribes describing the SEB study, and reiterating a commitment toward protecting sacred sites should they exist within the SEB study area. These tribes include, the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska, the Santee Tribe, the Omaha Tribe, the Winnebago tribe, the Southern Ponca Tribe, the Pawnee Tribe, the Iowa Tribe of Nebraska and Iowa, the Otoe-Missouri Tribe, the Lakota Tribe, and the Three Affiliated Tribes (Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara). Currently, no information that may affect this project has been returned.

Local Interest Group Contacts:

Informational letters were also sent to representatives of local neighborhood interest groups. The letters explained the purpose of this cultural resource survey and asked for group support in fulfilling this compliance inventory. The UNL researchers also asked for assistance in identifying individual sites, locations, or districts that may be of special concern. No responses to these informational letters were received.

Field Inventory Methods:

The archeological research methods and field techniques employed by UNL during this Cultural Resource Inventory met all guidelines set forth in the Nebraska State Historic Preservation Office Guidelines for Protection of Archeological Properties (NSHS 1989); the U.S. Department of the Interior Archeology and Historic Preservation Standards and Guidelines (USDI 1983); as well as the highest professional ethics and standards.

The Principle Investigators were assisted in the pedestrian cultural resource survey by numerous experienced, paid crew-persons from the UNL Department of Anthropology. Parks and/or Stupka-Burda were present during all phases of field survey, and were solely responsible for identifying the location and alignment of the corridor centerline and location of intersections centers, and for determining survey corridor width and intersection radiuses.

While conducting stream-crossing survey, where total coverage was called for, pedestrian survey transects were spaced at not-greater-than 30 meter intervals. In survey units, or portions of units where surface visibility was significantly diminished, transect spacing was reduced to compensate for this decrease in visibility. Additionally, more intensive survey was conducted on alluvial fans and/or terraces, settings in which past experience has shown higher statistical tendencies for site location. The surface visibility of all surveyed acreage was minimally ten-percent. Visibility was greater, averaging 30-to-50-percent throughout the vast majority of surveyed acreage, nearing 80-to-90-percent in a limited number of survey units.

In the survey of uplands, where a ten-percent sampling of acreage was conducted, transect locations were based on landowner permission, surface visibility, and archival or informant information. An attempt was made to evenly spread the ten-percent sampling of acreage along all portions of upland. Survey of some portions of upland far exceeded the ten-percent required because archival research suggested a higher than average potential for locating trails/and or other historic features within that vicinity. These increased percentages of surveyed upland acres in other areas more than accounted for the failure to gain access to other uplands, and the sample survey of ten-percent of the uplands was met, or exceeded.

Modern Agriculture and Effects on Cultural Resources:

Much of the survey corridor currently exists as cultivated fields. While cultivation can offer researchers increased ground surface visibility, it also affects the integrity of archeological sites. Cultivation destroys any artifactual association previously contained within the plowzone. In addition, cultivation also spreads artifact scatters beyond their original point of deposition, thereby expanding the extent of surface manifestation.

Observed Cultural Resources:

When cultural materials were observed, transect spacing was reduced and the surrounding area intensively investigated. All observed artifacts were pin-flagged to determine the artifact density and surface spatial extent of each site. Researchers employed a non-collection strategy, and unless otherwise noted, artifacts were not collected.

UNL field designations were assigned to each site. The field designations along the southern corridor began with "SOAP" (an acronym for the SOuthern Archeological Project), included "97" (a project year indicator), and each cultural manifestation received a sequential number. Field designations on the eastern corridors began with EBAP (acronym for Eastern Beltway Archeological Project), included "98", and a sequential number. Hence, the first site recorded during the inventory project along the southern route was "SOAP97-1". The first site along the eastern corridors was "EBAP98-1".

After a site was thoroughly surveyed, the assemblage assessed, and the extent and density of artifacts determined, field notations and sketch maps were made, and multiple photographs taken. Some UNL field designations were assigned to locations that were determined to not warrant formal Nebraska State archeological site numbers. NSHS Archeological Site Forms were completed for each of the forty-seven previously unrecorded sites found in the survey.

Following the completion of the intensive pedestrian survey of the Ό mile (400 m) wide Beltway corridor options, controlled subsurface testing was conducted on 17 selected sites with potential for additional subsurface cultural materials. These sites were in consultation with NeSHPO. Testing was conducted to provide additional data for descriptions, evaluations, and recommendations regarding these newly recorded cultural resources. Such limited subsurface testing is intended to indicate whether intact, undisturbed cultural deposits are present, and to determine if additional, perhaps multiple, occupational levels not represented by surface manifestations, are present beneath known site locations. Ultimately, the evaluation of these subsurface test data are intended to provide a reasonable basis for determining if additional, more intensive subsurface testing, or mitigative action would be warranted prior to road construction or related impacts.

Test Site Selection:

As agreed upon in the Scope of Work (Olsson Environmental Sciences 1998), Rob Bozell, Associate Director for Archeology, Nebraska State Historical Society, was consulted by UNL researchers during selection of sites to be tested. Bozell (personal communication September 1998) concurred that systematic subsurface investigations were advisable at 18 sites. No formalized set of criteria was used to determine which sites were tested. Instead, test site selection was based on several, seemingly quite subjective, but commonly employed archeological standards. Typically, two or more of the following criteria must be met for a site to warrant consideration for testing. These criteria include:

1) Presence of multiple surface artifacts and/or the presence of surface features, such as depressions.

2) Also heavily considered, was the geologic landform on which the site is located.

3) The presence of patterned tools.

4) The presence of multiple artifact classes, such as lithic and pottery and/or fire-cracked rock .

5) Relative proximity to current, or past water resources.

6) Information supplied by landowners/tenants regarding amateur collecting of cultural materials.

Once test sites were selected, a standardized program of procedures was implemented to obtain comparable data from tested sites. In general, the purpose of the program was to assess the natural, subsurface, geomorphological characteristics at site locations, to assess the integrity of cultural materials at each site, and, at some sites, to achieve limited site-specific objectives, such as identifying and assessing features evident at surface levels.

In view of these objectives, an important consideration in the testing program development, was selection of shovel test transects and intervals, as well as formal test unit locations, to maximize information concerning both vertical and horizontal site characteristics. Limited field time and the absence, at most sites, of observable surface features, or extensive surface materials, were factors that made it desirable to conduct subsurface testing, using a restricted number of quite widely dispersed test locations within each site area.

NRHP Evaluation Criteria for Archeology:

There are four criteria used to evaluate properties for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) (Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 1981). These criteria require that the sites:

A) are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad

broad patterns of our history; or

B) are associated with the lives and persons significant in our past; or

C) embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of

construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high

artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity

whose components may lack individual distincition; or

D) have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory

or history.

(Preservation Law 1995:SecII:60.4).

Archeological sites are most commonly nominated for inclusion to the National Register under Criterion D, which includes properties that have the potential to contain information that answers important research questions about human prehistory or history which could not otherwise be addressed. Archeologically, Criterion D has two requirements, which must both be met for a property to qualify for the NRHP:

1) The property must have, or have had, information to contribute to our understanding of human history or prehistory, and

2) That information must be considered important.

(Preservation Law 1995:SecIII:Bulletin 15:D).

Once these two basic Criterion D requirements are met, other guidelines determine the information potential requirements applicable to archeological sites:

1) The property must have sufficient physical integrity to contain intact data that is retrievable if the appropriate study techniques are employed; and

2) The property must contain information which contributes directly to our understanding of human history or prehistory; or

3) The property must contain information to test a hypothesis or hypotheses about events, groups, or processes in the past that bear on important research questions about history or prehistory; or

4) The information must corroborate, confirm, refute, and/or supplement in an important way currently available information, or

5) The property must make it possible to reconstruct the sequence of archeological cultures for the purpose of identifying and explaining continuities and discontinuities in the archeological record.

(Preservation Law 1995:SecIII:Bulletin 15:D).

The archeological sites recorded during the pedestrian survey conducted in association with the South and East Beltway Major Investment Study were preliminarily considered for nomination under all criteria described above, but particularly with regard to Criterion D.

Evaluation of Archeological Resources Located:

Temporally diagnostic artifacts collected from the ground surface in the vicinity of the SEB Study Area during previous archeological investigations suggest that humans were present in the region as early as 8,000 years ago (Wood 1998). For a variety of reasons though, the prehistory of the area has not been well documented and is generally poorly understood. Therefore, almost every prehistoric site in the area could contribute, to some degree, to our knowledge of the region. Not every site, however, will meet the minimum standards for nomination to the NRHP.

Much of the modern ground surface in the SEB Study Area has been impacted to some degree by modern human activity, including agriculture, construction, road building, and flood control activities, as well as natural factors such as flooding and erosion. These impacts have affected to varying degrees the integrity of the archeological materials located within the SM-4, EC-1, EM-1, and EF-1 survey areas.

Research Methods Conclusion:

The field methods employed during this project met all professional standards and guidelines. It should be noted that several factors were inherent in the project design and research methods that, if unaccounted for, would bias any statistical analysis or probability statements based solely on the data collected during this survey. Surveyed acreage was confined to a selected corridor along a proposed transportation right-of-way, and within intersections of that corridor and existing roads. The selection of acreage for the ten-percent upland sample within the corridor was dependent upon surface visibility and landowner permission. These factors resulted in surveyed acreage that was not random. Consequently, the data from this inventory project should not be employed statistically to calculate probabilities regarding cultural resources for any given topographic setting within the Salt Creek or Stevens Creek watersheds.

6. DESCRIPTION OF observed CULTURAL RESOURCES

In November and December of 1997, six previously unidentified cultural sites, 25LC93; 25LC94; 25LC95; 25LC96 and 25LC97; SOAP97-2, were recorded through intensive inventory of the one-quarter mile wide (400 m) corridor along the SM-4 route. The sites are summarized in Table 2. In May - July of 1998, 41 previously unrecorded cultural sites, 25LC112-to-25LC148, EBAP98-38, EBAP98-39, EBAP98-40 and EBAP98-41 (Nebraska State trinomials for the four EBAP numbers are forthcoming) were recorded through intensive inventory of the one-quarter mile wide (400 m) corridor along the EC-1, EM-1 and EF-1 alternatives. These sites are summarized in Tables 3 and 4. Each site identified during both stages of the SEB Corridor Cultural Resources Survey is described further below, beginning with sites located along the SM-4 route.

SOAP97-1 was assigned to a cultural resource site that is located outside of the SM-4 corridor. That site was discovered as survey crews crossed a field to reach the SM-4 corridor. The acreage surveyed to determine the nature and extent of that site is not included in acreage covered for this project.

If archeological sites were located, property owners were notified by letter. If site testing was necessary affected property owners were contacted again by phone.

These investigations employed a non-collection strategy, therefore, artifacts were generally not collected. Any artifacts collected remain the property of the landowner and will be returned upon request. If artifacts were collected, affected property owners will be contacted upon completion of these investigations.

25LC93 (SOAP97-3):

This site is a prehistoric lithic scatter and covers approximately 4000 m². In December of 1997, the vegetation at this site was harvested milo, providing a ground surface visibility of approximately 70-percent.

Initially, a diffuse quartzite and chert flakes and shatter were noted on the ground surface. Additional, intensive survey of the location was conducted, revealing the presence of fire-cracked rock. No temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed.

Site 25LC93 has been plowed, impacting the integrity of archeological content contained within the plow-zone. In addition, the field where this site was located has been conservation terraced. The artifacts were observed approximately 10 m downslope from a terrace band. No terracing had been done downslope from the lithic scatter.

25LC93 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The lithic scatter is located within the proposed SM-4 corridor and if construction proceeds as planned, this site could be impacted or destroyed.

This location was intensively surveyed and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, conservation terracing, and years of plowing have modified the slope where the scatter is located. There is little chance for intact subsurface cultural deposits with a potential for yielding significant cultural data that can contribute to archeological research of the region.

Site 25LC93 is not considered eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance of the site during construction along the SM-4 roadway is not required.

25LC94 (SOAP97-4):

This site is the remnants of a Euroamerican farmstead and is estimated to cover 600 m². In 1997, vegetation on site consisted of patchy, un-mowed grasses, woody scrub thicket, and trees, limiting ground surface visibility to approximately 10 percent.

A shallow foundation depression feature, approximately 9 m in diameter by 1 m deep, containing foundation rubble was located near the south edge of a scatter of historic artifacts. Remnants of a possible sidewalk and fencing were also observed. Surface artifacts included various types of sun-altered and colored bottleglass, flatglass, ferrous wire nails, pressed common red brick, and limestone foundation rubble with lime mortar. Modern litter, including beer and soda bottles and cans, snack food containers, and plastic sacks are also present around several recent "campfire" features.

The site area was possibly impacted by construction of nearby roadways. The artifact assemblage has also been heavily, negatively impacted by recent human activity at the site.

25LC94 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The historic farmstead site is located within the SM-4 corridor, near a potential diagonal. If construction along that route proceeds, it is probable that some impact to the site will occur.

The cultural resources at 25LC94 are limited and the information already collected is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. While it is possible that this site preserves intact subsurface features, additional archeological investigation of these features is unlikely to yield new information that could contribute significantly to research questions regarding historic lifeways of the region.

Site 25LC94 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the proposed SM-4 roadway is not required.

25LC95 (SOAP97-5):

This site is a Euroamerican farmstead and associated features covering approximately 2,500 m². In 1997, vegetation on site consisted of mowed, mixed grasses permitting a ground surface visibility of about 30 percent.

This early Lancaster County homestead was registered in 1884. The father of the current landowner purchased the property in 1908. The foundation outline of the original house structure is clearly evident. The concrete back steps and a hand-dug, brick and limestone lined well are still present. A cistern and several privy depressions were also noted. Historic artifacts present on the ground surface include household items, farming implements, whiteware sherds, various glass fragments, and cut nails. Additionally, the current landowner indicated that some archival material regarding this homestead is in the family's possession and is available if needed by researchers.

The archeological integrity of this historic house site appears to be well intact.

25LC95 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The historic farmstead site, 25LC95, preserves a number of subsurface archeological features and quite possibly, an extensive artifact assemblage dating back as early as the 1880's. The site is located within the proposed SM-4 corridor and will undoubtedly be heavily impacted, or destroyed if construction proceeds along that route.

The locational information already collected at 25LC95 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC95. While this site meets the basic age requirement for eligibility, as detailed above, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

Site 25LC95 should not be considered for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation of this site is not recommended. Avoidance or protection of 25LC95 during construction along the proposed roadway is not required.

25LC96 (SOAP 97-6):

This site consists of cinder scatter located in an upland region. The scatter is estimated to cover about 400 m². In December of 1997, vegetation at this site consisted of plowed corn, and ground surface visibility was estimated at 70 percent.

The only artifacts observed at 25LC96 were cinders, waste left from burning coal. The site is most likely a location where late-19^th or early-20^th century steam-powered threshing activities were conducted. Threshing was typically done on upland areas where stronger and more constant winds assisted in separating the grain from the chaff.

25LC96 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This cinder scatter is the surface manifestation of activities associated with early modern agriculture and is representative of brief occupations well documented archivally. Although this scatter will be destroyed if construction of the westernmost alternate diagonal proceeds, locational information already collected, is adequate to address studies of historic human land-use patterns.

This site is not recommended eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation will yield no additional information and is not recommended. Avoidance of 25LC96 during construction along the proposed roadway is not required.

25LC97 (SOAP97-7):

This site also consists of cinder scatter located in an upland region and covers roughly 200 m². During December of 1997, vegetation at the site consisted of reduced-tillage plowed corn, and ground surface visibility was estimated at approximately 70 percent.

At 25LC97, several small sherds of whiteware and bottleglass were observed in addition to cinders. This site most likely represents a location where late-19^th or early-20^th century steam-powered threshing activities were conducted.

25LC97 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This cinder scatter is the surface manifestation of activities associated with early modern agriculture and is representative of brief occupations well documented archivally. Although this scatter will be destroyed if construction of the westernmost alternate diagonal proceeds, locational information already collected, is adequate to address studies of historic human land-use patterns.

This site is not recommended eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation will yield no additional information and is not recommended. Avoidance of 25LC97 during construction along the proposed roadway is not required.

SOAP97-2:

This field designation refers to a depression located in an unplowed wooded area near an intermittent stream adjacent to Salt Creek. Large, relatively old bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) trees surround the area of the depression feature suggesting this locale may never have been plowed. Surface ground-cover vegetation of this area was sparse, but the ground surface was littered with fallen leaves. Ground surface visibility was approximately 10-percent.

The depression is roughly circular in shape and is approximately 5 m in diameter. Near the center, it is about 1 m deep. No associated artifacts were observed on the ground surface, however, there is alluvial deposition estimated to be as recent as 1993.

Site testing included additional intensive surface survey of the area surrounding the depression, and production of a sketch site-map. Systematic subsurface testing consisted of a series of equally spaced shovel tests excavated at right angle across the depression, extending to 5 m (16 ft) outside of the depression. The shovel tests were approximately 30 cm in diameter by 50 cm deep. In addition, a 1 m x 1 m test unit was excavated at the margin of the depression to allow inspection of the stratigraphic profile. The test unit was excavated to 75 cm in depth. The soil from the shovel tests and excavation unit was screened through Ό inch quad screen.

The results of the archeological testing at SOAP97-2 were negative. No cultural materials were observed on the surface during the additional intensive survey, and none were encountered in either the shovel tests or test excavation unit. The inorganic soil matrix proved to be a rather uniform sandy loam with no clear distinction in stratigraphy. The surface is covered with 10-to-15 cm (4-6 in) of wholly organic leaf litter. The soil matrix also contains a very high organic content. As could be expected, the degree of organic decomposition increased with depth.

SOAP97-2 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The origin of the depression at SOAP97-2 was not determined with complete certainty. It does not appear to be a natural geologic feature, but rather, appears to be cultural in nature. The lack of artifacts on either the present surface, or in the excavations, though, suggests that it is not a significant cultural feature. The best explanation is that the feature represents the remnant of a small borrow pit where soil was removed for use elsewhere.

As a cultural feature, the research potential of SOAP97-2 is non-existent. Additional archeological investigation of this feature will not yield information that will contribute to meaningful research questions regarding historic lifeways of the region.

Site SOAP97-2 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigations of this feature are not recommended. Avoidance, protection, or other conservation measures during, or following construction of the proposed roadway is not required.

25LC112 (EBAP98-1):

This site is a lithic scatter located in an area of glacial till. In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing greater than 80 percent surface visibility at the time of survey.

The till outcrop has a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt cobbles. The presence of this glacial till complicated surface survey of this location and required intensive inspection of a larger amount of surface materials. Many cobbles reveal plow/disc scars, and some portion of the broken cobbles observed are undoubtedly due to impacts of historic cultivation. Intensive inspection, however, yielded evidence of a Native American lithic scatter intermixed in the outcrop of glacial till. Numerous tested cobbles were observed, along with decortication, secondary, and tertiary flakes, as well as fragments of percussion shatter. Flakes, shatter, and tested cobbles of several types of chert, and quartzite were observed in the scatter. Some flakes observed in the assemblage appear to have been heat treated.

Impacts at 25LC112 include cultivation, and wind and water erosion. Upon settlement, the removal of natural vegetation cover would have greatly increased the impacts of erosion. Such erosion continues as an ongoing impact. In 1998, clear evidence of water erosion was present, including transported soils and slope surface downcutting. Small pockets of secondarily deposited, size-sorted flakes indicate direct impact to the artifact assemblage.

25LC112 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This lithic scatter, characterized as a lithic procurement site is located within the EM-1 corridor. If this route is selected, this site may be impacted or destroyed.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, plowing, and most likely, wind and water erosion have impacted the site area. Given that site 25LC112 is a lithic procurement site where glacial till was utilized for stone tool material, there is little chance for subsurface cultural deposits. As such, this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data that can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC112 is not considered to be eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EM-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC113 (EBAP98-2):

Site 25LC113 is composed of a small, diffuse scatter of Euroamerican artifacts that covers roughly 100 m² (1,100 sq ft). In June 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, with surface visibility exceeding 75 percent at the time of survey.

Artifacts observed included crockery body sherds representing a minimum of two vessels, and various whiteware fragments representing an unknown number of vessels. A small amount of clear flatglass was also present at the site. Heavily patinated bottleglass fragments included green, brown, and sun-altered sherds. No bottles with manufacturer marks were observed. An intensive inspection of the area surrounding this scatter was conducted, but no additional artifacts or associated historic features were observed.

The archeological integrity of this site has been impacted by years of cultivation. In addition, water and wind erosion appears to have deflated this upland setting. In 1998, some precipitation runoff downcutting of surface soils was witnessed, and has probably occurred since the first plowing early in the historic period when the natural grassland vegetation was removed.

25LC113 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This is a small diffuse Euroamerican scatter located within the EM-1 corridor, and if this route is selected, the site may be impacted or destroyed.

Despite an intensive survey of the area, no diagnostic artifacts or historic features were observed. Furthermore, an association with significant events and people was not made.

The cultural resources at 25LC113 are limited and the information already collected is adequate to address issues of human land-use patterns. Additional archeological research is unlikely to yield new information that could contribute significantly to research questions regarding historic lifeways of the region.

Site 25LC113 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. No additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the EM-1 alternative is not required.

25LC114 (EBAP98-3):

This site consists of a Euroamerican farmstead and includes an assortment of associated artifacts and foundation rubble. Artifacts cover more than 4,000 m² (43,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 80 percent ground surface visibility.

The UNL Summer Field School, Stevens Creek Archeological Project (SCAP), originally documented this Euroamerican archeological site in 1987. Field notations and a non-systematic collection of artifacts were conducted in 1987 under the Field Number SCAP87-14. In 1987, UNL researchers did not request a formal site number for this site. Notes and artifacts from the 1987 Field School are located at the UNL Anthropology Department.

Artifacts observed, or collected in 1987, include common red brick and limestone fragments with lime mortar, suggesting they represent remnants of a structural foundation. Flatglass from windows, numerous ferrous cut-nails, cast iron stove parts, and a ferrous lock escutcheon were also observed or collected. Utilitarian wares include various stonewares with Albany, mocha, and Bristol slips. Some stoneware sherds collected in 1987 are salt-glazed. Other ceramics include a diverse assortment of whiteware and porcelain with flow-blue, hand-painted, and transfer print decorations. Bottleglass includes brown, clear, sun-altered, white, and green glass, as well as several sherds of milk-glass. Of the 12 bottle finishes collected in 1987, 11 were hand-finished. A 1903 Indian-Head penny, a piece of ornate cast-iron hardware, and a pair of 6-inch "hog-ring" pliers were also collected from the surface in 1987. Both cinder and unburned coal were observed on the site surface. An artifact assemblage similar to that reported in 1987 was observed on the surface in 1998, although no artifacts were collected in 1998.

Site disturbance at 25LC114 has been significant. The 1964 USGS Walton Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map does not show a structure at that location, indicating that the demolition of the farmstead structures occurred prior to that date. The location has apparently been cultivated since the removal of the structures. If any intact features or undisturbed archeological context remains, it will be the remnants of foundations, cellars, and/or privy(s) that extend below the plowzone.

25LC114 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This Euroamerican farmstead site is located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along the EM-1 corridor, this site could be heavily impacted or destroyed.

The locational information already collected at 25LC114 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC114. While this site does appear to meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligible, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

Site 25LC114 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. No additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the EM-1 alternative is not required.

25LC115 (EBAP98-4):

This is a lithic scatter covering more than 4,000 m² (43,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 80 percent ground surface.

This archeological site was originally documented in 1987 by the UNL Summer Field School's Stevens Creek Archeological Project (SCAP), and assigned the field number SCAP87-15. In 1987, UNL researchers did not request a formal site number. A non-systematic collection of artifacts was conducted in 1987. Field notes and artifacts from the 1987 Field School are curated at the UNL Anthropology Department.

Artifacts observed, or collected in 1987, include numerous types of chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter. In 1987, a retouched flake, and two nearly complete side-notched projectile points, 24 mm long by 13 mm wide by 2 mm thick, and 23 mm long by 16 mm wide by 2.5 mm thick were collected. These projectile points are representative of the Late Plains Village Period, or the Early Historic Period (ca. 500 - 150 BP). The distal end of third projectile point was also collected, and measures 22 mm long by 14 mm wide by 4 mm thick. This projectile point may be a fragment of a larger style point. Univalve and bivalve shells were also collected in 1987. In 1998, the artifact assemblage was similar to that reported in 1987, although no diagnostic tools were located in the recent survey.

Site disturbance at 25LC115 has been significant. A Euroamerican farmstead site (25LC114) is located immediately adjacent to this site, and some collecting of surface artifacts may have been conducted by the occupants of that farmstead. The location has also been cultivated for many years. In addition, a precipitation runoff wash runs downslope, southeast, across the area of surface artifacts. Some soil deflation and artifact disturbance in this area was evident in 1998.

A total of 39 shovel tests, were excavated at this site. A north-south grid system was established, and 33 shovel tests were excavated at varying intervals (7m to 30m) across the site. In addition, six randomly placed shovel tests were excavated at random near the southern extent of the artifact scatter. In total, seven shovel tests contained artifacts, three were positive with lithics, and four contained historic materials. These artifacts were recovered from the upper 10-40 cmbs, which comprises the current plowzone, and layers of historic alluvium. The plowzone depth at this site increased with tests located lower on the terrace slope due to alluvial deposition.

A 1 m x 0.5 m test unit was excavated near the center of the surface scatter along on the lower slope. A patchy and discontinuous alluvium deposited subsequent to the last cultivation is present across much of the surface of the lower slope. The upper few centimeters of soil in these alluvial areas is a very loose, gray-brown sandy-loam (10YR5/2) with horizonation visible in the profile. Below this level, the current cultivation zone is approximately 12 cm deep. This "reduced tillage" zone is a non-compacted, uniform gray-brown sandy-loam (10YR4/1) with a small amount of pea-sized gravel. From 12 cmbs to roughly 72 cmbs, the matrix gradually grades to a brown silty-clay-loam (10YR3/3), with the clay content increasing with depth. An irregular, but abrupt change in the soil matrix to a very dark-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR2/2) is present at 72 cmbs. This level appears to be the base of the original plowzone. The plowzone has been raised to its current level through erosion from upslope agrading in the lower area. This very dark-brown soil continued downward to 1 mbs where excavation was halted. No artifacts were recovered from this excavation unit.

A second test unit was excavated on up the terrace slope above the first test unit. This 1 m x 0.5 m unit was excavated in an area where three shovel tests proved positive and contained lithic material. The current reduced tillage plowzone comprises the upper 12 cmbs in this area, and consists of a non-compacted dark-grayish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR3/2). The soil matrix is a compact olive-brown silty-clay (10YR4/2) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/4) from 12 cmbs to 35 cmbs. Excavation was halted at 35 cmbs. No artifacts were recovered from this test unit.

25LC115 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site consists of a large scatter of cultural material, including projectile points which suggest a Late Plains Village Period, or an Early Historic Period (ca. 500 - 150 BP) affiliation. This site is located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction along this route proceeds, this site may be impacted.

Limited subsurface testing suggests that artifacts do not extend below the plowzone at this site. However, because this site covers such a large area, it was not possible to completely eliminate the possibility of subsurface features by conducting limited subsurface testing.

Site 25LC115 should be considered tentatively eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Should the EM-1 route be selected, additional research should include extensive archeological investigation including the removal of the plowzone to ascertain the presence of subsurface features.

25LC116 (Ebap98-5):

This lithic scatter is located at a glacial till outcrop. The outcrop covers approximately 1,000 m² (3,250 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing greater than 90 percent ground surface visibility.

This glacial till outcrop has a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt cobbles. Presence of glacial till complicated surface survey, requiring an intensive inspection of a large amount of surface materials. Many cobbles reveal plow/disc scars, and a portion of the broken cobbles observed are undoubtedly due to impacts of relatively recent cultivation.

Careful inspection of the surface assemblage, yielded evidence of a lithic scatter intermixed in the outcrop of glacial till. Tested cobbles, decortication, secondary, and tertiary flakes were observed, as were fragments of percussion shatter. Various types of chert, and quartzite flakes, shatter, and tested cobbles were observed in the scatter. Several flakes observed in the assemblage appear to have been heat treated.

Impacts at 25LC116 include cultivation, and probably both wind and water erosion. As stated, the number of broken cobbles has undoubtedly increased as a result of plowing. Upon settlement, the removal of natural vegetation cover greatly increased the impacts of surface erosion. Erosion continues to impact 25LC116. In 1998, clear evidence of water erosion was present and included transported soils and precipitation runoff downcutting. Small pockets of recently deposited alluvium, with secondary deposits of size-sorted flakes were observed, indicating a direct impact to the artifact assemblage.

25LC116 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This lithic scatter, a lithic procurement site, is located within a corridor created by a potential diagonal connection. If this diagonal is selected, this site could be impacted or destroyed.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, plowing, and most likely, wind and water erosion have impacted the site area. Given the site type of 25LC116, a lithic procurement site where glacial till was utilized for stone tool material, there is little chance for subsurface cultural deposits. As such, this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data that can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC116 is not recommended eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. No additional archeological investigation or conservation is required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along this diagonal is not necessary.

25LC117 (EBAP98-6):

This site consists of a lithic scatter covering approximately 2,000 m² (21,500 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in reduced tillage corn. At the time of survey, some portions of the field yielded less than ideal ground surface visibility of 10-to-20 percent. Other portions were much cleaner, providing an average of close to 70 percent ground surface visibility for the whole field.

The observed artifacts appear to be eroding from the face of the slope, roughly 0.5-to-0.75 m (1.5-2 ft) from the terrace top. Artifacts included various types of chert and quartzite flakes, chert and quartzite percussion shatter, tested cobbles of chert and quartzite, and 2 chert cores. Fire-cracked rock was also observed in the scatter. No patterned tools, or other identifying artifacts were observed.

Impacts at 25LC117 include cultivation, as well as probably both wind and water erosion. Some evidence of erosion, by way of both surface wash and downcutting of sloped surfaces was observed in 1998.

A shovel test grid was established across this artifact scatter, and a total of 30 tests were excavated along this grid at 5 m intervals. In addition, 20 shovel tests randomly placed across the site were also excavated. Each shovel test was excavated to a minimum of 45 cmbs. Three shovel tests were expanded to roughly 50 cm in diameter, and excavated to approximately 75 cmbs. Chert flakes were recovered from the plowzone level of four shovel tests. In addition, two tests contained historic artifacts including a short section (6 links) of light duty ferrous chain, and a fragment of a "Melmac" cup.

One test unit was excavated within the artifact scatter. The plowzone at this location comprises the upper 25 cmbs. This level is a dark-grayish-brown silty-clay (10YR4/1). The base of the plowzone is discernable only because of soil texture and organic content. This soil continues downward to 36 cmbs where yellowish-brown mottling (10YR4/3) appears. Intruding in this layer to a depth of 43 cm, is a dark-brown channel filling. At 43 cmbs, there is a gradual change in soil. At 60 cmbs the soil is a grayish-olive-brown silty-clay (2.5YR4/2) with brown and olive-gray (2.5YR3/3 and 2.5YR5/2) mottling. At 70 cmbs, small (<5mm), soft accumulations of a black substance appears in the soil. This soil continues to 80 cmbs where the excavation was halted. Two flakes, one chert, one quartzite, were recovered from the plowzone layer of this unit.

25LC117 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This site is a lithic scatter located within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route this site could be impacted or destroyed.

Archeological testing at this site revealed that the cultural material present on ground surface does not extend below the plowzone. Therefore, 25LC117 is recommended not eligible to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation of this site is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction of along the proposed EC-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC118 (EBAP98-7):

This site designation is a diffuse lithic scatter that covers approximately 3,000 m² (32,000 ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in reduced tillage corn with ground surface visibility of 20-to-30 percent in some portions the field. Other portions provided greater visibility, with an average of roughly 60 percent ground surface visibility.

The terrace where this site is located stands approximately 4 m (13 ft) above the surrounding Stevens Creek floodplain. The artifacts are eroding from the southern and southwestern face of the slope, roughly 0.5 - 0.75 m (1.5-2.5 ft) from the terrace top. Artifacts at this site include several types of chert and quartzite flakes, chert and quartzite non-diagnostic shatter, tested chert and quartzite cobbles, and 2 chert cores. Fragments of fire-cracked rock were also observed in the scatter. No patterned tools, or other diagnostic artifacts were observed.

Impacts at 25LC118 have included cultivation, as well as probably both wind and water erosion. The normal, deflating effects of wind and water on the terrace have undoubtedly increased following the removal of natural prairie grasses. In 1998, evidence of erosion was visible in runoff downcutting along the terrace slope.

Subsurface testing at this site included an east-west oriented series of nine shovel tests excavated at 10 m intervals. In addition, two east-west transects of five shovel tests placed at 20 m intervals were excavated across the artifact scatter downslope of the first transect. A fourth east-west transect located upslope of the surface manifestation consisted of five shovel tests placed at 20 m intervals. Finally, five shovel tests were randomly positioned across the bottomland and at the foot of the terrace remnant. All shovel tests were excavated to a minimum of 45 cmbs. Researchers expanded two shovel tests to approximately 50 cm in diameter, one was located near the top of the terrace, and other near the foot of the terrace. Each of these shovel tests were excavated to 80 cmbs. Only one shovel test, on the bottomland, was positive. Artifacts in this shovel test included a ferrous, course thread carriage bolt, 2 washers and a square nut (screwed together).

A test unit was excavated along the first transect, near the upper edge of the scatter. The plowzone at this location is roughly 23 cm deep, and composed of a very-dark-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR2/2). A matrix of dark-grayish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/2) begins at the abrupt, irregular base of the plowzone. This slowly grades to a lighter grayish-brown silty-clay (10YR4/4) with lighter gray-brown mottling (10YR5/3) at 43 cmbs. This soil continues, unchanged, downward to 65 cmbs where the mottling becomes more yellowish-brown (10YR6/6). Beginning just below the plowzone, and extending to a depth of 54 and 68 cm, are two dark-brown (10YR2/2) channel fillings. Excavation was halted at 70 cmbs.

A second test unit was positioned lower on the terrace slope. Again, the plowzone extended to around 23 cm in depth, and consisted of a dark-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR3/2). Below the plowzone, the soil matrix remains a dark-brown-silty-clay-loam (10YR3/3), but at roughly 38 cmbs, abruptly changes to a dark-yellowish-brown clay-loam (10YR4/6) with buff-brown mottling (10YR6/3). At 75 cmbs an abrupt change occurs, and the soil becomes a grayish-olive-brown silty-clay (2.5YR4/2) with brown and olive-gray (2.5YR3/3 and 2.5YR5/2) mottling. Small (<5mm), soft accumulations of a black substance appears in this soil matrix. Excavation of this test unit was halted at 80 cmbs. No artifacts were recovered from either test unit.

25LC118 Evaluation and Recommendation:

A lithic scatter, 25LC118, is located approximately within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site could be impacted or destroyed.

Several different types of artifacts were observed on the ground surface at this site, however, researchers did not discover any patterned tools. Subsurface testing indicates that the artifacts observed on the ground surface do not extend below the surface. Only one shovel test proved positive, and this test contained historic artifacts.

The lack of artifacts recovered through subsurface testing and the absence of patterned tools indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area beyond the locational information already recorded.

Site 25LC119 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EF-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC119 (EBAP98-8):

Site 25LC119 is a diffuse lithic scatter that covers approximately 400 m² (4,300 sq ft). In 1998, the field was planted in corn, providing 80 percent ground surface visibility. Artifacts observed on the ground surface include chert and quartzite flakes. Decortication and secondary flakes were present in the assemblage, as were several fragments of fire-cracked rock. No tools, or other diagnostic artifacts were observed.

Impacts to site 25LC119 include cultivation and the placement of a roadway, which runs east-to-west across the rise where 25LC119, is located. A significant amount of soil was removed to lower the roadway approximately 1 m (3 ft) below the natural surface level. In conjunction with the construction of the roadway, a considerable amount of landscaping has been conducted to create the drainage ditches running parallel along both edges of the roadway.

This site may have been bisected by the construction of the roadway. North of the roadway, a great deal of landscaping has been conducted, along with the construction of a house, and several outbuildings. In 1998, the ground surface around the buildings and driveway was heavily vegetated in lawn grasses. The resident of the house informed field crews that, prior to construction, approximately 1.5 m of soil was removed from the ridge top to spread along the slope to level the building site and lower it to slightly higher than the level of the current road. No artifacts were observed on the ground surface in this area.

A total of 26 shovel tests were excavated at site 25LC119. These include a series of 10 shovel tests excavated east-west across the area of the artifact scatter, and five shovel tests excavated at a right angle, extending south of the first transect. Eight additional shovel tests were placed at random locations along the edges and beyond the area of the surface scatter. In the area of the road ditch, researchers excavated 3 shovel tests. Shovel tests were excavated through the plowzone, into the subsoils to an average depth of 45 cmbs. Only one artifact was recovered from shovel tests. This gray-white chert flake was contained within the upper 10-15 cm of the plowzone.

An excavation unit was placed immediately south of the E-W transect. The bottom of the plowzone in this area extended to roughly 30 cmbs. The plowzone soil is a dark brown to black silty-loam (10YR2/2). The bottom of the plowzone is irregular, with a rather abrupt transformation to a lighter-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/3). This excavation unit extended to 75 cmbs with a gradual gradation of soil color to a yellowish-brown sandy-loam (10YR5/4) with gray-brown mottling (10YR5/2) at around 70cmbs. No artifacts were recovered from this excavation unit.

25LC119 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The site, 25LC119, is a lithic scatter located within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route this site could be impacted or destroyed.

Subsurface testing at this site indicates that the artifacts observed on the ground surface do not extend below the plowzone. In addition, many areas of the site are deflated, and the plowzone reaches into yellow loess. The proximity of the site to a road suggests that it was most likely bisected by construction of that road, which destroyed portions of the site. In addition, the amount of site lowering and landscaping that has occurred north of the roadway precludes the presence of artifacts in this area.

The lack of artifacts recovered through subsurface testing and the absence of patterned tools indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area beyond the locational information already recorded.

Site 25LC119 is considered not eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EF-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC120 (EBAP98-9):

This site is a lithic scatter located at a glacial till outcrop and covers approximately 500 m² (5,400 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing greater than 70 percent ground surface visibility.

This till outcrop has a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt cobbles. The presence of glacial till complicated surface survey of this location and required intensive inspection of a large amount of surface materials. Many cobbles reveal plow/disc scars, and some portion of the broken cobbles observed are undoubtedly due to impacts of cultivation. However, numerous tested cobbles, decortication, secondary, and tertiary flakes, as well as fragments of percussion shatter are intermixed within the glacial till. The material type at this site consisted of several types of chert, and quartzite.

Impacts at 25LC120 include plowing and water erosion. In 1998, clear evidence of water erosion was present, including recently deposited soils and slope surface downcutting. Small pockets of secondarily deposited, size-sorted flakes indicate direct impact to the artifact assemblage.

This scatter of artifacts appears to curve around foot of the terrace slope in a semi-circle, therefore, a series of shovel tests were excavated in an arc across the scatter. A total of 15 shovel tests were excavated through recent alluvium, through the plowzone, and into the subsurface to an average depth of 45-50 cmbs. Five of these shovel tests contained lithic flakes, all within the upper 10-to-15 cm of the plowzone. One shovel test contained a whiteware sherd. On some portions of the lower slope, the upper 2-to-6 cm of the surface is covered with recent alluvium, deposited subsequent to the last spring plowing.

Three shovel tests excavated upslope at 10 m intervals, revealed far fewer glacial cobbles contained within the fill. The upper slope plowzone is composed of a gray-brown silt-loam (10YR5/2), with a large amount of organic material. The two southernmost shovel tests revealed a distinct soil change at 25-to-30 cmbs, with the fill becoming a buff sandy-silt (10YR6/4). No flakes are present on the surface immediately surrounding these shovel tests, and no artifacts were recovered in these tests.

One shovel test located near the center of the scatter was expanded into a test unit measuring 1 m X 0.5 m. In this area, the recent alluvium deposition was somewhat deeper than other areas of the site. This test unit indicated that the upper 6 cm of alluvium is a non-compacted gray-brown sandy-silt-loam (10YR5/2) with fine banding of lighter gray silt loam (10YR6/2). This alluvium revealed semi-horizontal bedding, and contained no glacial cobbles and only small pea-gravel, indicating that it has accumulated since the most recent plowing. A large amount of undecayed organic matter is also included within this alluvium layer.

The modern plowzone 6-to-30 cmbs contains a large amount of glacial cobbles, pea-gravel, and organic material mixed in during plowing. The matrix is a gray-brown silt-clay-loam (10YR5/3). From 30-to-52 cmbs the matrix grades to a brown clay-loam (10YR4/2) with a large amount of glacial till cobbles. A ferrous drive-chain link was recovered from 46 cmbs. Combined with a whiteware sherd recovered from a shovel test at approximately 40 cmbs, these suggest this deeper level was once the plowzone, but ongoing erosion from upslope has aggraded on the surface at the foot of this slope, and the plows no longer reach this depth. There is a distinct transformation in the fill near 52-to-55 cmbs. Glacial cobbles are dominant at this level, contained in a buff-brown clay-loam matrix (10YR6/3).

25LC120 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The site 25LC120 is a lithic scatter contained within a glacial till outcrop. This site is located approximately within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC120 could be impacted or destroyed.

Subsurface testing indicates that very little cultural material is present below the ground surface, and what does exist is contained within the plowzone and is mixed with Euroamerican artifacts.

Site 25LC120 is recommended not eligible to the NRHP. Additional archeological work or conservation is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the proposed EF-1 corridor is not required.

25LC121 (EBAP98-10):

This site is a small, diffuse lithic scatter covering roughly 100 m² (1,100 sq ft) within a path of precipitation runoff overlooking an intermittent drainage on which a water-retention dam has been constructed. In 1998, the field was cultivated in beans, providing better than 80 percent ground surface visibility.

The site consists of a scatter of 2-or-3 chert flakes and 4-to-5 fragments of chert percussion shatter. Intensive investigation of the surrounding area yielded no other artifacts.

Several different factors have impacted the integrity of this archeological site. This field has been cultivated for many years. In addition, little or no topsoil is present across much of this slope, suggesting that it has eroded downslope, or that surface soils were mechanically removed, either as borrow during construction of the earthen dam, or to alter the shape of the slope to redirect precipitation runoff towards the dam. The water-retention dam is approximately 150 m (500 ft) downslope from the location of this scatter.

25LC121 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC121 is a lithic scatter located within the proposed EF-1 road corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC121 may be impacted.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, the site area has been impacted by plowing, wind and water erosion, and most likely, some mechanical movement of soil associated with the nearby dam. The paucity of artifacts observed on the ground surface combined with the unlikelihood of subsurface cultural deposition indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC121 is not recommended eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EF-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC122 (EBAP98-11):

This site is the former location of a Euroamerican farmstead and consists of an assortment of associated artifacts. Artifacts covered more than 7,000 m² (75,000 sq ft). The 1964 USGS Walton Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map indicates a house and several outbuildings at this location. All standing structures from this historic farmstead have been removed, and in 1998, the field was cultivated in soybeans, providing more than 70 percent ground surface visibility.

The artifact assemblage dates from the late 1800's through the mid 1900's. Artifacts include common red brick, sandstone, and dressed limestone. Lime mortar is adhered to many of the red brick and limestone pieces, suggesting that they represent remnants of a structural foundation. Many of the red bricks exhibited burned faces and heat spalling, suggesting either that they are remnants of the house fireplace and/or chimney, or perhaps that the structure itself may have burned. Both unburned coal and coal cinder were present in the surface scatter.

A large number of stoneware sherds were present, including Bristol, Albany, and Mocha slipped vessels. Vessel types were limited to basic utilitarian wares such as jugs, bowls, crocks, and a portion of a churn-lid. A wide range of whiteware vessel types included plates, saucers, bowls, cups, and a small cream pitcher. Whiteware decoration styles included gilt edged, pressed, hand-painted, and flow-blue designs. Other ceramic artifacts included several electric insulators, light fixtures, a brown glazed doorknob, and fragments of 4" clay tile pipe. Bottleglass included brown, blue, green, white, milk-glass, clear, and sun-altered. Complete bottles were not observed, but several finishes and bases were inspected, including both hand finished and machine made bottles. Flatglass from windows, and mirror plate glass were also observed in the assemblage. Metal items observed include numerous ferrous cut-nails, wire nails, cast iron stove parts, and a ferrous lock escutcheon. Both coal cinder and unburned coal were observed on the site surface.

Site disturbance at this site has been significant. The 1972 Photorevised USGS Walton Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map shows several structures at that location, indicating that the demolition of this farmstead occurred following that date. A newly constructed home now stands approximately 50 m (165 ft) west of the previous farmhouse. The site location has apparently been cultivated since the removal of the associated structures. If any intact features or undisturbed archeological context remains, it will be limited to the remnants of foundations, cellars, and/or privy(s) that extend below the plowzone.

25LC122 Recommendation and Evaluation:

The historic farmstead site, 25LC122, is located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along the EM-1 corridor, this site will be destroyed.

The locational information already collected at 25LC122 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC122. While this site does appear to meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligibility, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

Site 25LC122 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. No additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the EM-1 alternative is not required.

25LC123 (EBAP98-12):

This site is a large, but diffuse lithic scatter covering roughly 7500 m² (25,000 sq ft). In 1998, the field was cultivated in beans, providing better than 80 percent ground surface visibility.

The site consists of a diffuse scatter of chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter. Intensive investigation yielded no other artifacts.

This field has been cultivated for several years. In addition, little or no topsoil is present across this slope, suggesting that it has washed downslope, leaving no deposition in which to contain buried cultural materials. In 1998, ongoing erosion was observed, with downcutting along the slope and recent deposits of alluvium present at the foot of the slope.

25LC123 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC123 is a large, but diffuse prehistoric lithic scatter located within the corridor of a diagonal option along the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC123 may be impacted or destroyed.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, plowing, and most likely, wind and water erosion have impacted the site area. The paucity of artifacts observed on the ground surface combined with the fact that these artifacts rest on sterile yellowish-brown subsoil, the likelihood of subsurface cultural deposition is slim. These factors indicate that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data that can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC123 is not recommended eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. No additional archeological investigation or conservation is required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along this proposed diagonal is not necessary.

25LC124 (EBAP98-13):

This site consists of a diffuse lithic scatter covering approximately 2,500 m² (27,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 80 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts observed in the scatter include flakes and percussion shatter of various chert and quartzite materials. During this survey, two artifacts were collected. These were a complete gray-brown chert scraper measuring 47 mm long, by 18 mm wide, by 8 mm thick. Also collected was the distal portion of a Smoky Hill jasper, corner-notched projectile point. The remaining portion is 30 mm in length, by 31 mm wide, by 8 mm thick. The basally thinned, convex point base is 23 mm wide.

Site disturbance at the prehistoric 25LC124 includes cultivation and erosion. Several areas of precipitation runoff flow across this site, eroding the soil matrix containing the artifacts, and dislocating surface artifacts. Some soil deflation and artifact disturbance in this area was evident in 1998. In addition, the present landowner stated that he and others have collected a few artifacts from this surface. He indicated that this collecting activity has not been intensive, but has been occasionally occurring in everyday farming activities.

A total of 39 shovel tests were excavated across this site. These shovel tests averaged 40 cm in depth. A north-south oriented transect consisting of 10 shovel tests was excavated across the center of the scatter. A second north-south transect of 10 shovel tests was placed 20 meters west, and upslope, of the first transect, again crossing the site. A third north-south transect of 6 shovel tests was excavated 25 m east, and downslope, of the first transect. Five randomly placed shovel tests were excavated upslope of the defined lithic scatter. Finally, 8 randomly placed shovel tests were excavated near the center of the surface manifestation. Three shovel tests were expanded to approximately 50 cm in diameter, and were excavated to roughly 60 cmbs. The soil across this entire upland slope is uniform, with little topsoil present. No artifacts were recovered from these shovel tests.

A 1m X 0.5 m test unit was excavated near the center of the surface scatter. The upper 26 cm encompass the plowzone. Little topsoil exists on this surface, and the plowzone matrix is a brown silty clay-loam (10YR4/3). The color of the soil below the plowzone is virtually unchanged, making it necessary to rely on soil texture, uniformity, and content of undecayed organics to determine the plowzone depth. From 26 cmbs downward to roughly 35 cmbs the soil is a brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/3) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/4). At 35 cmbs the soil begins a gradual gradation to a yellowish-brown clay-loam (10YR5/3) with pale brown mottling (10YR7/4) at 50 cmbs. The soil then remains uniform to 75 cmbs where excavation was halted.

25LC124 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site, 25LC124, is a lithic scatter located within a corridor created by a possible diagonal along the proposed EM-1 road corridor. The site may be impacted or destroyed if construction proceeds along this route.

This lithic scatter, while diffuse, contained two patterned tools. One, a scraper is not diagnostic, however, the second, the distal portion of a corner-notched projectile point does offer relative dating information. This projectile point fragment dates to the late Archaic period (ca. 2,000 BP) and suggests that this site may be one of the oldest located during the course of this project.

Subsurface testing at this site indicates that the scatter of artifacts does not extend below the ground surface. The plowzone in this area is comprised of sterile yellow loess and is completely deflated.

Site 25LC124 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of this site should construction proceed along the proposed EM-1 route is not required.

25LC125 (EBAP98-14):

This site consists of a lithic scatter covering approximately 2,500 m² (26,900 sq ft). In 1998, the field was cultivated in soybeans, providing greater than 90 percent ground surface visibility.

Flakes and percussion shatter of chert and quartzite are present at this site, as are several retouched flakes and fire-cracked rocks. No patterned tools were observed.

The present owner of this property reportedly collected a projectile point and several other tools from this vicinity, and told researchers that a pipeline was installed several years ago across the field in the area of this scatter. At that time, he found a large projectile point and other worked stone in the back dirt from the trenching operation. In addition, he described several depressions, but believes these features have now been filled in. Researchers could find no evidence of depressions during field work, and believe that they have been obscured by alluvial deposition.

Cultivation and erosion of soils from upslope have impacted this site. This erosion, however, may have helped protect the archeological integrity of the site. Soils eroding from the relatively steep slope west of this site, were deposited across the surface of the site, burying, and protecting the site.

Subsurface testing, in the form of shovel tests was conducted across the site area identified by pedestrian survey. Three north-south transects were established, and 23 shovel tests were conducted at 10 m to 15 m intervals. In addition, three randomly placed shovel tests were excavated on the slope above the surface manifestation, while four shovel tests were randomly placed along the edge of Steven's Creek. These shovel tests were each excavated to a minimum of 50 cmbs. A total of nine shovel tests were positive and contained lithic artifacts. These artifacts were recovered from a range of depths, beginning near the ground surface and continuing to approximately 35 cmbs. A shovel test near the center of the artifact scatter was expanded to approximately 50 cm in diameter, and was excavated to 65 cmbs. A second shovel test was expanded into a 1 m x 0.5 m test unit to examine the stratigraphy.

The plowzone at this site is not easily recognizable, and it appears that this has been minimally plowed. At testing, the area was vegetated in grasses and alfalfa. A very dense root-zone is contained within the top 14 cmbs. The soil matrix surrounding the roots is a dark-brown clay-silt-loam (10YR3/3). As the density of roots lessen, the soil rapidly grades to a very dark-brown clay-silt-loam (10YR3/1) which continues to 34 cmbs. At that depth, there is a rather abrupt change in soil color and texture to a dark-brown sandy-clay-loam (10YR2/1) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR4/4). This soil gradually grades to a brown silt-clay-loam (10YR3/3) at 70 cmbs where excavation was discontinued. Several lithic artifacts, including chert flakes and one chert scraper, were recovered from this test unit, the deepest appearing at approximately 50 cmbs.

The success of locating subsurface artifacts encouraged researchers to test the terrace area located north of identified surface scatter. While few surface artifacts were observed in this vicinity during the original survey, an additional north-south transect of seven shovel tests, excavated at 10 m intervals, was established across the terrace. In addition to this transect, nine randomly placed shovel tests were also excavated in this area. This area was also vegetated in grasses and alfalfa, and subsurface testing revealed a dense root-zone in the upper 10-15 cm. Three shovel tests yielded artifacts from various levels throughout the top 20 cmbs.

A 1 m X 0.5 m test unit was excavated near the center of this terrace. Once again, if a plowzone exists in this area, it is not easily recognizable. The upper 12-to-15 cmbs contains a dense root-zone with a surrounding matrix of dark-brown clay-silt-loam (10YR3/4). As the density of roots lessen, the soil rapidly grades to a very dark-brown clay-silt-loam (10YR3/1). This soil continues to around 40 cmbs, where the soil changes color and texture abruptly and is a dark-brown sandy-clay-loam (10YR2/1) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR4/4). This soil gradually grades to a brown silt-clay-loam (10YR3/3) at 75 cmbs. Excavation was discontinued at 80 cmbs. No artifacts were recovered from this test unit.

25LC125 Recommendation and Evaluation:

The site, 25LC125, is a lithic scatter located within a corridor created by a diagonal option within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route this site could be impacted or destroyed.

The surface area of site 25LC125 was intensively surveyed but no diagnostic tools were located. However, the landowner did report collecting a projectile point from this vicinity, and in addition described several depressions in the area that have since been obscured through alluvial deposition.

Subsurface testing at this site confirms the presence of buried cultural material. The presence of this buried material suggests that this site may have the potential to answer numerous research questions regarding prehistoric lifeways in eastern Nebraska.

Site 25LC125 is recommended eligible to the NRHP. If the proposed EM-1 route is selected for future construction, geomorphological testing to assess stratigraphic sequencing and the possibility of deeply buried cultural horizons is recommended.

25LC126 (EBAP98-15):

This is a dense concentration of lithic debris covering approximately 500 m² (165 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in soybeans, providing more than 70 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts observed on the ground surface included several exhausted chert cores and many decortication and secondary flakes of the same material. The chert is Nehawka chert, a high quality bluish-gray chert occurring in large quantities approximately 30 miles east of this site location.

Site 25LC126 has been cultivated for many years, destroying any archeological feature or artifact association contained within the plowzone.

A shovel test grid was established across the artifact scatter, and 34 shovel tests were excavated. These shovel tests were placed at intervals that varied from 2 m to 4 m, and were excavated through the plowzone into the sterile subsoils to a minimum of 45 cmbs. Only one artifact, a chert flake, was recovered from these shovel tests. This artifact was recovered at approximately 10 cmbs, well within the plowzone.

A 1m x 0.5 m test unit was excavated near the center of the artifact scatter. In this test unit, the plowzone extended to 24 cmbs, and consisted of very-dark-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR2/2) with a high organic content. The bottom of the plowzone was irregular and abrupt. Immediately below the plowzone, the soil matrix is yellowish-brown clay-loam (10YR4/6) with lighter yellowish-brown mottling (10YR6/6). This matrix continues to 65 cmbs where excavation was discontinued. One artifact, a fragment of red brick, was recovered within the plowzone.

25LC126 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC126 consists of a dense concentration of lithic material and is located within the proposed EM-1 road corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site will be destroyed.

The artifacts observed at this site are all fashioned from the same lithic material, Nehawka chert, and include numerous artifact classes, although no patterned tools were located.

Site 25LC126 is recommended not eligible to the NRHP. The artifact scatter present on the ground surface does not extend below the plowzone. No additional archeological research or conservation is required. Avoidance of this site is not required should construction proceed along the proposed EM-1 corridor.

25LC127 (EBAP98-16):

This site is a small lithic scatter and covers approximately 100 m² (1,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 60 percent ground surface visibility.

This lithic scatter was located in the vicinity of a small glacial till outcrop with a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt cobbles. The presence of glacial till complicated surface survey of this location, requiring a more intensive inspection of the surface materials. Some portion of the broken cobbles observed is undoubtedly due to impacts of historic cultivation. Evidence of prehistoric lithic debitage intermixed in the till outcrop is present at this site. Tested cobbles were observed, along with decortication, secondary, and tertiary flakes, as well as fragments of percussion shatter. Material types at this site included several types of chert and quartzite.

A major site impact at 25LC127 is plowing which has undoubtedly increased the number of broken cobbles. In addition, upon settlement, the removal of natural vegetation cover would have also increased the impacts of erosion. Such erosion continues as an ongoing impact, and in 1998, clear evidence of water erosion was present in several washes that drain the slope. Small pockets of secondarily deposited, size-sorted flakes indicate direct impact to the artifact assemblage.

A series of systematic shovel tests were excavated across this site. A total of 22 shovel tests were excavated extending through the plowzone, which contained a large amount of glacial till, and into the undisturbed glacial till subsurface. Only three of these shovel tests contained artifacts. These artifacts consisted of two quartzite flakes, and one chert flake found within the top 10-15 cm of the shovel tests. Two shovel tests excavated near the intermittent stream show indication of recent, ongoing erosion from upslope. In these tests, the upper 3-5 cm is composed of dark-brown sandy loam with small gravel, but no cobbles. These tests were located in an area of cultivation, indicating this deposition has occurred since the last plowing of the field.

One 1 m x 0.5 m test unit was excavated near the center of the scatter to reveal the stratigraphy of the site. Glacial cobbles, ranging in size to 15 cm in diameter, litter the present surface. The plowzone contains a large amount of glacial till cobbles in a matrix of very dark-brown sandy-silt clay-loam (10YR3/1). This site is deflated, and the plowzone and associated cultivated field contains no silt or loam topsoil. The plowzone extends to approximately 25 cmbs, and has a high content of undecayed organic matter. The horizon between the plowzone and subsoils is irregular but distinctive only because of the high content of organic material that has been plowed into this layer. The matrix below the plowzone is composed of light-brown silty-clay loam (10YR4/4). Between 25 and 40 cmbs the predominate material contained in the fill is glacial cobbles.

Two shovel tests excavated 20 m southwest and upslope 3 m higher in elevation from the lithic scatter revealed a similar plowzone of dark-brown sandy-silt loam (10YR4/2) with less clay than the lower slope area. Beneath the plowzone, the fill contained far less glacial till material and the fill was a buff-brown silt-loam (10YR5/3).

25LC127 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC127 is a lithic scatter located within a corridor created by a diagonal within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction along this route proceeds, this site will be destroyed.

This small lithic scatter is intermixed with a glacial till outcrop. The site area was intensively surveyed, but no diagnostic tools were located on the ground surface. In addition, no artifacts were contained below the current plowzone.

Site 25LC127 is not recommended eligible to the NRHP. The lack of diagnostic or subsurface artifacts severely limits the research potential of this site. No additional archeological work or conservation is necessary. Avoidance or protection of this site is not required should construction proceed along the proposed EF-1 route.

25LC128 (EBAP98-17):

This site is a lithic scatter located in a glacial till outcrop and covers more than 20,000 m² (215,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing greater than 70 percent ground surface visibility.

The expansive outcrop of glacial till has a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt cobbles. The presence of this glacial till complicated surface survey of this location, requiring an intensive inspection of a large amount of materials. Many cobbles on the surface reveal plow/disc scars, and some portion of the broken cobbles observed are undoubtedly due to impacts of historic cultivation. Intensive inspection, however, yielded evidence of a lithic scatter intermixed in the glacial till. Numerous tested cobbles of several types of chert, and quartzite were observed, along with decortification, and secondary flakes, as well as fragments of percussion shatter. Several abandoned and expended cores were also observed. Some flakes in the assemblage appear to have been heat treated.

Impacts at 25LC128 include cultivation and erosion. Upon settlement, the removal of natural vegetation cover would have greatly increased the impacts of erosion, and probably increased the extent of the glacial till outcrop. Such erosion continues as an ongoing impact. In 1998, clear evidence of water erosion was present, including transported soils and sloped surface downcutting. Small pockets of secondarily deposited, size-sorted flakes further indicate recent, direct impact to the artifact assemblage.

25LC128 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This site is a lithic procurement site located within a corridor created by a proposed diagonal within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If this route is selected, this site would be destroyed.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, plowing, and most likely, wind and water erosion have impacted the site area. Given the site type of 25LC128, a lithic procurement site where glacial till was utilized for stone tool material, there is little chance for subsurface cultural deposits. As such, this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data that can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC128 is recommended not eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. No additional archeological investigation or conservation is required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along this diagonal alternative is not necessary.

25LC129 (EBAP98-18):

This site is a scatter of artifacts which includes both lithic material and pottery, and covers more than 20,000 m² (215,200 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing roughly 40 percent ground surface visibility.

This archeological site was originally documented in 1987 by the UNL Summer Field School's Stevens Creek Archeological Project (SCAP), and assigned the field number SCAP87-5. UNL researchers did not request a formal site number in 1987. A non-systematic collection of artifacts was conducted in 1987. Artifacts were noted both north, and south of a modern roadway. Fields notes and artifacts from the 1987 Field School are curated at the UNL Anthropology Department.

Lithics collected in 1987, include patterned tools, flakes and percussion shatter from a multitude of chert types, several colors and textures of quartzite, and Smoky Hill jasper. Finished tools include a gray chert, thumb-scraper measuring 32 mm in diameter, and several chert biface fragments. Several retouched flakes, a bifacial preform and four chert cores were also collected. A large amount of fire-cracked rock was observed on the site surface in 1987, and a number of these fragments were collected.

Collected projectile points from 1987, include the basal portions of two gray chert points, a point mid-section, and a nearly complete projectile point. The two basal portions are gray chert, much like Nehawka materials, and represent the bases of corner-notched points. Both base portions measure 17 mm in width and are basally thinned, one with a concave base, the other base is convex. The bifacially flaked mid-section is manufactured from a brown chert, and appears to represent a more lanceolate point style of unknown finished length. The fragment is 29 mm wide by 9 mm thick. A nearly complete projectile point collected in 1987, is a triangular, corner-notched, basally thinned point manufactured from a reddish-brown chert. It is missing only approximately 4 mm of the distal end, the remainder measuring 34 mm long by 20 mm wide by 6 mm thick.

Numerous pottery body sherds were also collected in 1987. The majority of sherds measured between 7 and 9 mm thick, were grit tempered, and cord marked, although a few fragments were less than 5 mm thick with a smooth exterior finish. No rims or necks were collected, and it has not yet been determined if the cord-marked exteriors are regularized, with diagnostic, identifiable patterning. None of the sherds collected in 1987 measured larger than 10 mm in diameter, however, making any such pattern analysis difficult.

During the 1998 field investigation, researchers observed pottery, a large amount of fire-cracked rock, as well as flakes and percussion shatter of various chert and quartzite material. Only one patterned artifact, the proximal end of a dark-gray chert projectile point, was collected. This projectile point is corner-notched, and is basally thinned. The edges of the remaining point portion are parallel, indicating that, when complete, the point was somewhat lanceolate in form. The remaining point fragment is 26 mm in length by 23 mm in width. It is 7 mm thick, and the corner-notching narrows the basal end to 12 mm in width.

Cultivation, and wind and water erosion have impacted the archeological integrity of 25LC129. In addition, artifacts are present along both sides of the existing roadway. This indicates that the construction of the existing road through that terrace impacted, and probably destroyed, a portion of the site across the center of site 25LC129.

A series of systematic shovel tests was excavated along a grid system across this site, both north and south of the roadway. North of roadway, an east-west transect of seven shovel tests, spaced at 20 m intervals, and extended from the bottomland, upslope to the west and ending at the top of the stream terrace, and out of the proposed EM-1 survey corridor. Ten more shovel tests were excavated along north-south transects in the area of the artifact scatter. The depth of these shovel tests extended to at least 45 cmbs. Three shovel tests within the corridor contained lithic artifacts. These artifacts included chert and quartzite flakes, and fire-cracked rock fragments. Two shovel tests located on the terrace, but outside the proposed EM-1 corridor, also contained lithic flakes.

An east-west oriented transect of five shovel tests, spaced at 20 m intervals, was excavated approximately 50 m south of the roadway. These tests extended from the bottomland, west, upslope onto the terrace slope. Again, these shovel tests were excavated to approximately 45 cmbs. Two of these shovel tests were positive with lithic materials and artifacts included fire-cracked rock, and reworked/utilized chert flake. Also, a third shovel test was positive and contained several historic items, including wire nails and burned glass, and coal cinders.

Approximately 200 m south of the roadway, two north-south oriented transects of shovel tests were conducted spaced at 20 m intervals. Six more tests were excavated on the lower edge of the terrace within the proposed EM-1 corridor. Five of these shovel tests contained historic artifacts within the plowzone. These included both wire and cut ferrous nails, flatglass, ferrous metal fragments, and several whiteware sherds. One shovel test contained fire-cracked rock in the lower portion of the test (>30cmbs). This shovel test was expanded to approximately 50 cm in diameter, and was excavated to 75 cmbs, but no other artifacts were encountered.

A test unit was excavated on the eastern slope of the portion of stream terrace located north of the roadway. The plowzone in this area extends to 24 cmbs and consists of a non-compacted dark-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR2/2). Three fragments of fire-cracked rock and two chert flakes were recovered from the plowzone of this test unit. At roughly 24 cmbs, there is an irregular, but rather abrupt change in soil to a brown silty-clay-loam (10YR 4/2). At 36 cmbs, a thin lens of buff-yellow (10YR7/4) sand, extends into the unit within this level. Two chert flakes were recovered from the surface of this sand layer, and a fragment of fire-cracked rock was present within the sand layer, indicating that intact subsurface material and features appear to be present at this site. It was not determined whether this sand layer was a natural or cultural feature, but the presence of these artifacts at the sand level suggests the possibility of an occupation surface. Below this sand level, the soil gradually grades to a yellowish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR5/4), with no well defined break in soil color. At 80-to-84 cmbs, lighter yellow-brown mottling appears in the soil. From that depth, the soil continues to grade to an even lighter yellowish-brown silty-clay (10YR6/4) at 1 m in depth. Excavation was halted at 1 m.

A second test unit, a 1 m x 0.5 m excavation, was located south of the roadway, within an area of an artifact scatter, and near a positive shovel test. The plowzone, roughly 26 cm in depth, consists of a very-dark-brown silty-loam (10YR2/2). The soil matrix is a dark-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR3/3) from 26-to-47 cm. A chert flake, and the distal end of a Smoky Hill Jasper biface, possibly a projectile point or knife fragment, were recovered within this level. This indicates that intact, subsurface artifacts appear to exist at this site. At 51 cmbs, a gradual transformation in soil texture and color was encountered, and soils changed to a yellowish-brown silty-clay (10YR5/3) with lighter yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/6). Excavation was halted at 70 cmbs.

25LC129 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC129, an artifact scatter which includes both lithic material and pottery, is located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site may be impacted or destroyed.

Numerous projectile points were located at this site, as well as grit-tempered, cord-marked pottery and fire-cracked rock. The projectile points suggest that this site dates to the Central Plains Tradition (AD 1000 - 1400).

Subsurface testing at this site confirms the presence of buried cultural material, and also suggests the presence of buried features.

Site 25LC129 is recommended eligible to the NRHP. If the proposed EM-1 route is selected for future construction, geomorphological testing to assess stratigraphic sequencing and the possibility of deeply buried cultural horizons is recommended.

25LC130 (EBAP98-19):

This site is a Euroamerican farmstead consisting of a diffuse scatter of artifacts and one structure. Artifacts covered more than 2,500 m² (27,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing approximately 30 percent ground surface visibility.

An abandoned, dilapidated wood-framed corn crib, remains standing at this site. This structure appears on the 1972 Photorevised USGS Waverly Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map, but no other structures are illustrated. The 1964 USGS Walton Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map does not show a structure at this location either, indicating that the demolition of the majority of farmstead structures occurred prior to 1964.

Artifacts observed include common red brick and limestone fragments with lime mortar, suggesting they represent remnants of a structural foundation. Flatglass from windows, and numerous ferrous cut-nails were also observed. Ceramics included a small assortment of whiteware and earthenware, representing various utilitarian vessels. Bottleglass included brown, clear, sun-altered, white, and green glass. Both cinder and unburned coal were observed on the site surface.

Site disturbance at the historic 25LC130 has been significant. The site area has apparently been cultivated since the farmstead structures were removed. If any intact features or undisturbed archeological context remains, it will be the remnants of foundations, cellars, and/or privy(s) that extend below the plowzone.

25LC130 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The Euroamerican farmstead site is located within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along the EF-1 corridor, this site would be destroyed.

The locational information already collected at 25LC130 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC130. While this site does appear to meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligibility, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

Site 25LC130 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the EF-1 alternative is not required.

25LC131 (EBAP98-20):

Site 25LC131 is a diffuse lithic scatter that covers approximately 3,000 m² (10,000 sq ft). In 1998, the field was planted in corn, providing 50 percent ground surface visibility.

Chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter were observed on the surface of this site. The scatter spreads across the top of a rise, extending northward from the fence line along a roadway. Several artifacts were also observed south of the road. Intensive survey of the areas yielded no tools, or other patterned artifacts.

Impacts to the 25LC131 site include cultivation and wind and water erosion. In addition, construction of the roadway and the adjacent drainage ditches appear to have bisected 25LC131, impacting and probably destroying a major portion of this site. In fact, the portion of the site located south of the roadway is approximately 3 m higher than the area north of roadway, indicating substantial earth movement and removal associated with the construction of the road.

A total of 29 shovel tests were excavated at this site. These included 15 placed south of the road and 14 placed north of the road. These shovel tests were excavated through the plowzone and into subsoils to an average depth of 40 cmbs. The first transect placed south of the road, consisted of seven shovel tests, and was oriented in an east-west direction, spaced approximately 4 m apart. Five tests were excavated at right angles to this transect, and three additional shovel tests were randomly placed according to the amount of cultural material observed on the ground surface.

North of the road, an east-west transect of eight shovel tests was established and excavated at 4 m intervals. Two short transects were excavated north from this east-west grid for a total of 14 shovel tests.

An test unit was excavated on either side of the road, and the first was placed along the east-west transect south of the roadway. The bottom of the plowzone in this area extended to roughly 28 cmbs. The plowzone soil was a dark brown clayey-loam (10YR2/2). The bottom of the plowzone was irregular, with an abrupt transformation to a lighter-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/3). This excavation unit extended to 75 cmbs with a gradation of soil color to a gray-brown sandy-loam (10YR5/2) at around 70cmbs.

On the north side of the roadway, a shovel test was expanded into a test unit measuring 1 m X 0.5 m. Glacial cobbles measuring up to 12 cm in diameter were scattered across the surface in this area. The plowzone extended to approximately 30 cmbs. The plowzone matrix is a brown sandy-loam (10YR4/2) with gravel and a moderate amount of small glacial till cobbles. Below the plowzone, the gravel and till mixture continues and is contained in a matrix of yellowish-brown sandy-loam (10YR5/4). This soil remained uniform down to 70 cmbs where the test unit excavation was halted.

No artifacts were recovered as a result of shovel testing at this site. Subsurface testing confirmed that this site is heavily deflated, and almost devoid of topsoil. In addition, other than the artifacts located on the surface, no artifacts were present in the test units.

25LC131 Evaluation and Recommendation:

The site, 25LC131, is a lithic scatter located within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route this site could be impacted or destroyed.

The surface area of site 25LC131 was intensively surveyed, but no diagnostic tools were located. Subsurface testing at this site indicates that cultural material does not extend below the ground surface. The absence of subsurface material severely limits the research potential of this site beyond the locational information already recorded.

Site 25LC131 is recommended not eligible to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site should construction proceed along the proposed EF-1 corridor is not necessary.

25LC132 (EBAP98-21):

This site is a lithic scatter that covers approximately 3,000 m² (32,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated and ground surface visibility consisted of 10-to-20 percent throughout most of the field.

Artifacts present at this site included several types of chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter. Several retouched flakes were also observed. A small, side-notched chert projectile point measuring 28 mm long, by 14 mm wide, by 4 mm thick was collected from the surface of 25LC132.

Impacts at 25LC132 include cultivation and water erosion, as well as earth moving activities. In 1998, evidence of soil erosion was visible in runoff downcutting along the terrace slope. In addition, mechanized soil movement aimed at reducing, or controlling precipitation runoff may have impacted the southern edge of this site. A clearly artificial drainage, leading to a small water retention dam abuts the southern edge of the terrace.

A north-south oriented transect of seven shovel tests was excavated at 10 m intervals across the center of the terrace and the artifact scatter. A second transect consisting of five shovel tests was then excavated at a right angle, east-west across the terrace. Seven shovel tests were randomly placed along the top of the terrace. Finally, five shovel tests were positioned on the bottomland near the foot of the terrace. Each shovel test was excavated to a minimum depth of 45 cmbs. Researchers expanded two of these shovel tests to approximately 50 cm in diameter, and 75 cm in depth. All shovel tests excavated at this site tested negative for cultural material.

A 1m x 0.5 m test unit was excavated near the center of the terrace. The surface soil is a dark gray-brown sandy-clay-loam (10YR4/2). The crop was "drilled-in", (a special planting method) and no typical plowzone is present on the terrace. The upper 12-to-15 cm is a dense root zone in a soil matrix of dark-gray-brown sandy-clay-loam (10YR4/2). Below this dense root zone, to approximately 38 cmbs, the soil is a yellowish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/6). At 38 cmbs, the soil begins a gradual gradation, becoming a lighter yellowish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR5/4) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/7) at 55 cmbs. The color remains relatively constant to the bottom of the test unit, but at around 95 cmbs, a few small (< 5 mm) reddish-brown concretions (2.5YR3/4) appear in the soil. Excavation was halted at 1 m.

A second, rather crude 1.5 m x 0.5 m test unit was placed at the upper edge of the stream terrace. Once again, the surface was heavily vegetated with a dense root zone. A small portion of the profile contained a thin surface layer of dark-brown silty-loam (10YR3/2). Making up the sloped surface across the remainder of the profile and extending to roughly 15 cmbs is a soil matrix of dark-gray-brown sandy-clay-loam (10YR4/2). At roughly 42 cm from the top of the sloped profile, and running horizontally across the unit was a band of yellowish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/6). Again, this soil gradually grades to a lighter yellowish-brown silty-clay-loam (10YR5/4) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/7) near 60 cmbs. At 94 cmbs, the soil color and texture remains constant, but small (< 5 mm) reddish-brown concretions (2.5YR3/4) appear in the soil. Excavation was halted at 1 m.

A shovel test on the bottomland below the terrace edge was expanded, first to around 50 cm in diameter and 75-80 cm in depth, then further expanded to a crude test unit measuring roughly 1 m x 0.5 m. The upper 12 cmbs is a dense root-zone contained in a matrix of yellowish-brown clay-loam (10YR5/3). Two colors of soil appear immediately below the root zone. Part of the unit contains a brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/2). The profile indicates this brown soil has been laid over a deposit of yellowish-brown clay-loam (10YR5/6). A thin, 2-to-3 cm layer of sandy pea gravel angles across the unit below these two soils. Below this gravel, along one-half of the unit, is a deposit of dark-brown silty-loam (10YR3/3) mixed with pea-gravel. The base of this feature reveals a regularized pattern of impressions left by a tracked vehicle. Immediately below this is a layer of yellowish-brown clay-loam (10YR5/4) extending to 55 cmbs. At this level there is an abrupt transformation to a black silty-clay-loam (10YR2/1). This level contains a large amount of organics, including undecayed cornstalks. At approximately 86 cmbs an irregular line runs across the unit. This appears to be the remnant of the bottom of a plowzone. There is no easily discernable color change, and the line is definable only because of soil texture and organic content. Below this layer, a black-to-very dark brown silty-clay-loam (10YR2/2) continues downward to 1 m where excavation was discontinued.

The irregularity and pattern of these deposits, along with the mechanized vehicle tracks indicate that deposits of various soils have been deposited to raise this surface, possibly to fill a wetland or wet-meadow, thereby making a cultivatable surface. The presence of deeply buried, undecayed corn stalks, suggests that this soil movement has occurred within recent times, probably at the same time the drainage and water retention structures were completed.

25LC132 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site is a lithic scatter located within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site will be destroyed.

A small side-notched projectile point recovered at this site suggests a cultural affiliation with the Central Plains Tradition (AD 1000 - 1400). However, subsurface testing indicates that the artifacts present on the ground surface do not extend below the ground surface. In addition, it appears that mechanical earth movement has heavily impacted this site.

This site, 25LC132, is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the proposed EC-1 route is not necessary.

25LC133 (EBAP98-22):

This is a small lithic scatter that covers approximately 400 m² (4,300 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated and less than ideal ground surface visibility of 10-to-20 percent was present throughout much of the field.

Artifacts observed on the ground surface included several types of chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter. An expended brown chert core was also observed.

The site is located in a field that has been cultivated for many years. In addition, an agricultural access road runs roughly north-south across this site. Some tire-track rutting was evident along this road near the artifact scatter.

25LC133 Evaluation and Recommendation:

Site 25LC133 is a small lithic scatter located adjacent within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC133 will be destroyed.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, the site area has been impacted by plowing, the presence of an access road, and most likely, wind and water erosion. The paucity of artifacts observed on the ground surface combined with the unlikelihood of subsurface cultural deposition indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC133 is not recommended eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EC-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC134 (EBAP98-23):

This is a very sparse lithic scatter covering 25 m² (270 sq ft) of upland divide. In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 80 percent ground surface visibility.

Only three chert flakes were observed on the surface of 25LC134. An intensive inspection of the surrounding area yielded no other artifacts.

This site locale has been cultivated for many years. In addition, erosion, with some soil deflation and artifact disturbance in this area, was evident in 1998.

25LC134 Evaluation and Recommendation:

Site 25LC134 is a very small lithic scatter located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC134 may be impacted or destroyed.

Despite an intensive inventory of the area, only a small number of artifacts were located, and none were temporally or functionally diagnostic. In addition, plowing, and most likely, wind and water erosion have impacted the site area. The paucity of artifacts observed on the ground surface combined with the unlikelihood of subsurface cultural deposition indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC134 is recommended not eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EM-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC135 (EBAP98-24):

This site is a Euroamerican cemetery located on an upland area overlooking the Stevens Creek valley. This cemetery covers approximately 500 m² (5,400 sq ft). Site 25LC135 is actually located outside the one-quarter mile-wide corridor of EC-1, but was encountered as crews crossed a field to reach the survey area. The cemetery was recorded because it dates to quite early in the settlement period, and because it is not shown on the USGS Walton Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map. The cemetery surface is vegetated in heavy prairie grasses, which provided no ground surface visibility.

Only two gravestones stand above the native grasses. One stone, a white granite spire, approximately 90 cm (3 ft) tall, is engraved "Louisa ….?, Born in St. ….?, died 1870." The second stone is tabular, approximately 76 cm (2.5 ft) tall, and is engraved "Corp. James Cattern, Co. 1, 8 IA Inf. 1817-1890" and "Elizabeth his wife, 1813-1890, A War Mother." Along each side of this large stone is a small surface-flush stone. The stone on the right is engraved "Mother" and the stone on the left is engraved "Father." While these are the only stones visible on the surface, numerous surface irregularities indicate that other, unmarked graves undoubtedly exist in this area.

Impacts at 25LC135 are few. The heavy, natural vegetation suggests this is an area of virgin prairie, with an early dedication as a cemetery, and perhaps has never been cultivated. As such, it is unlikely that erosion has significantly deflated the surface of this site.

25LC135 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site is a Euroamerican cemetery located west of the proposed EC-1 corridor. The earliest date located for this cemetery is 1870, and is certainly one of the earliest Euroamerican cemeteries in the region.

While this cemetery is certainly one of the oldest in Lancaster County, no association with persons of transcendent importance could be made. In addition, this cemetery preserves no distinctive design features, nor could it be associated with an important historical event. Therefore, 25LC135 is recommended not eligible to the NRHP.

As currently defined, this cemetery is located outside the proposed EC-1 corridor and does not appear to be threatened by possible construction of this alignment.

25LC136 (EBAP98-25):

This site is a lithic scatter covering roughly 100 m² (1,000 sq ft). In 1998, the field was planted in corn, providing roughly 60 percent ground surface visibility.

Several chert flakes and fragments of percussion shatter were observed at this location. An intensive inspection of the surrounding area yielded no finished tools or other artifacts.

Impacts at 25LC136 include plowing, water erosion, and construction of a water retention dam. There is virtually no topsoil in the area of this scatter. It is unknown if this absence of topsoil is due to erosion washing the plowed soils downslope, or if the soil was mechanically removed during construction of the earthen dam located approximately 20 m (65 ft) up slope from the scatter.

25LC136 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC136 is a small lithic scatter located approximately within the proposed EC-1 road corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC136 may be impacted.

Despite an intensive inspection of the survey area, no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. The site area has been impacted by plowing, wind and water erosion, and the construction of the nearby conservation dam. The small number of artifacts observed on the ground surface, combined with the unlikelihood of subsurface cultural deposition indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC136 is recommended not eligible for inclusion to NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the EC-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC137 (EBAP98-26):

This site is the former location of a Euroamerican schoolhouse. A scatter of historic artifacts covers approximately 8,000 m² (86,000 sq ft), but no structural materials were observed in situ. In 1998, this field was cultivated in soybeans, providing greater than 90 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts observed at 25LC137 include several types of whiteware vessel fragments, ceramic electrical insulators, and a ceramic electrical turn-switch faceplate embossed with "P&S 660W 250V." Fragments of flatglass and bottleglass were also located. No complete bottle, or diagnostic bottle base or finish was observed. Both cut nails and wire nails were present. Other metal artifacts include several wood screws, a 5" butt hinge, a window lock, a possible flag-stand mount, and half the cab of a cast-iron toy truck.

Researchers did observe additional artifacts and structural debris deposited in a small intermittent drainage located approximately 200 m west of 25LC137, material which may have been cleared from the schoolhouse area upon its demolition.

Since the demolition of this schoolhouse, the field has been cultivated. If any intact features remain at this site, they will be limited to foundation structures and privys extending below the plowzone.

25LC137 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC137 is the former location of an Euroamerican schoolhouse and is located within the proposed EC-1 route. If construction proceeds along this route, this site will be destroyed.

Archival research indicates that this structure was standing in the early 1900's, but the structure was removed shortly thereafter, as it does not appear on later maps. The current landowner estimates that they have cultivated the site area for about 50 years, with no recollection of a historic school on site.

The locational information already collected at 25LC137 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC137. While this site does appear to meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligibility, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

Site 25LC137 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the proposed EC-1 alternative is not required.

25LC138 (EBAP98-27):

This site is consists of a very diffuse scatter of lithics encompassing approximately 10,000 m² (110,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in beans, providing greater than 90 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts at this site include various types of chert and quartzite flakes, and chert and quartzite percussion shatter. Several fragments of fire-cracked rock were also observed in the scatter. Few lithic artifacts were observed on the top of the terrace. The majority of prehistoric artifacts are eroding from the southern face of the slope, although the diffuse nature and broad area over which artifacts were observed make it difficult to identify the actual point of origin. No patterned tools, or other identifying artifacts were observed.

The archeological integrity of this site has been impacted by cultivation. In addition, evidence of some water runoff erosion was apparent in 1998. Both surface wash across the slope and some topsoil downcutting was observed during survey.

Subsurface testing at this site included three transects of shovel tests excavated at 10 m intervals. These transects were placed to cross the site terrace at the top, near the middle and at the bottom. A total of 27 shovel tests were excavated through the plowzone, roughly 23 cm deep, to a minimum of 40 cmbs. A total of 8 shovel tests proved positive. Three of these tests yielded one chert flake, each contained within the plowzone. Within the plowzone, historic debris was found in five shovel additional tests. These artifacts included ferrous wire and cut nails, glass, two types of ceramic electric insulators, ferrous metal fragments, wood screws, and fragments of burned wood.

The surface soils on this cultivated terrace remnant indicate severe erosional deflation. The plowzone portion of shovel tests near the top of the terrace is composed of a dark-grayish-brown silty-clay (10YR4/2) to approximately 20-23 cmbs. This soil matrix continues downward, in places beyond the 40-45 cm depth of the shovel tests, but in other places graded to a grayish-brown silty-clay-loam (2.5Y5/2) near the bottom of the shovel tests. On the lower slopes of the terrace, the surface soils are grayish-brown silty-clays (2.5YR4/2), which extend to the bottom of the tests.

Although the southern terrace remnant and the lowland that separates the two terraces were outside of the Ό mile corridor of the proposed EC-1 route, shovel tests were placed across these landforms to better define the extent of the site. Lithic debitage is present on the ground surface of the southern terrace, and artifact density is greater on this terrace than on the northern terrace. A series of six shovel tests were excavated mid-slope and three shovel tests were placed near the top of the southern terrace. As on the northern terrace, the surface soils are grayish-brown silty-clays (2.5YR4/2), which extend to the bottoms of the tests at 40-to-45 cmbs. Lithic material was recovered from two shovel tests although again, it was contained within the plowzone.

In addition to the shovel tests described above, twelve shovel tests were excavated in a lowland area between the two terraces. This lowland was very moist when previously surveyed, was still moist when subsurface tests were conducted in October of 1998. It was not determined if the moisture is from natural sub-irrigation, or if the lowland acts as a precipitation runoff basin. One of these tests was expanded to 50 cm diameter, and excavated to 80 cm in depth. The plowzone in this area is approximately 23 cmbs and is a dark-drayish-brown silty-clay-loam (7.5YR3/0). An abrupt change, to a black silty-clay (10YR2/1) occurs immediately below the plowzone. This black, clayey matrix continues downward, unchanged, to at least 80 cmbs where excavation was halted.

In this series of 12 shovel tests, five proved positive for artifacts. A shovel test excavated near the foot of the southern terrace remnant contained a quartzite flake in the plowzone portion of the soil matrix. Historic artifacts were uncovered in four shovel tests excavated. These artifacts included flatglass, ferrous nails, a 4" butt-hinge, a wad of small-gauge copper wire, whiteware sherds, and cinder. These artifacts are similar in nature to the historic artifacts contained in the tests on the terrace, and are undoubtedly related to the historic schoolhouse that once sat on the NE corner of this section.

A test unit was excavated about midway up the terrace slope. The plowzone in this area is a grayish-brown silty-clay (2.5YR4/2). This matrix extends below the plowzone to approximately 35 cmbs where the soil rapidly grades to a grayish-brown silty-clay (10YR5/3) with distinct brown mottling (10YR6/8) and small (<4 mm) lime concretions. This soil continued to 60 cmbs where excavation was halted.

25LC138 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site 25LC138 is located within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route this site could be impacted or destroyed.

Subsurface testing at this site indicates that the artifact scatter present on the ground surface does not extend below the plowzone, and the plowzone level is mixed with both lithic artifacts and historic (Euroamerican) artifacts. Beyond the locational information already recorded, this site offers no archeological research potential.

Site 25LC138 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological testing or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the proposed EC-1 corridor is not necessary.

25LC139 (EBAP98-28):

This site is a Euroamerican farmstead, and consists of historic artifacts and structural debris. Cultural material covers approximately 500 m² (1,600 sq ft). The 1964 USGS Waverly Quadrangle 7.5 Minute Topographic Map does not show a house at this site location, indicating that it was demolished prior to that date. All standing structures from this farmstead have been removed. In 1998, the field was cultivated in soybeans, providing more than 70 percent ground surface visibility.

A large number of stoneware sherds were present at this site, including Bristol, Albany slipped vessels. Vessel types were limited to basic utilitarian wares such as jugs, bowls, and crocks. A wide range of whiteware vessel types included plates, saucers, bowls, and cups. Whiteware decoration styles included pressed, hand-painted, and flow-blue designs. Assorted bottleglass was observed, but no complete bottle, or diagnostic portion was located. Flatglass and numerous red brick fragments were also noted on the ground surface. Metal items observed include numerous ferrous cut-nails and wire nails.

Site disturbance at the historic 25LC139 has been significant. As stated, the structures were demolished sometime prior to 1964. Since that time, the field has apparently been cultivated. If any intact features or undisturbed archeological context remains, it will be limited to the remnants of foundations, cellars, and/or privy(s) extending below the plowzone.

25LC139 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site is located within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along the EC-1 corridor, this site may be impacted or destroyed.

The locational information already collected at 25LC139 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC139. While this site does appear to meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligibility, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

Site 25LC139 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the proposed EC-1 alternative is not required.

25LC140 (EBAP98-29):

This is a very sparse lithic scatter covering over 5,000 m² (54,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was planted in "drilled" beans, providing roughly 30 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts at this site are limited, and despite an intensive survey of the area, only three or four chert flakes were observed, and these flakes were widely separated. The current landowners reported that projectile points and other tools have been collected from the surface of this field, by at least three generations of the family, but the location of these finds is unknown.

Site disturbance at 25LC140 has been significant. A Euroamerican farmstead (originally settled in the late 1800's) is located immediately west of this site. Active collecting activities have been conducted for at least three generations. In addition, the field has been cultivated for many years.

25LC140 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC140 is a small lithic scatter located within the proposed EF-1 road corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC140 may be impacted.

Plowing, and erosion have impacted the site area. Most notably, water erosion, but also including wind erosion. The paucity of artifacts observed on the ground surface combined with the unlikelihood of subsurface cultural deposition indicates that this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data which can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC140 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the proposed EF-1 alternative is not required.

25LC141 (EBAP98-30):

This site is a steam engine located in a stream and covers approximately 20 m² (200 sq ft). The stream banks and surrounding vicinity of this site are in a natural setting, vegetated in floodplain forest and scrub-thicket undergrowth.

This site is a steam engine farm tractor resting on the streambed, and partially buried in the south stream bank. The water tank is visible, extending outward from the bank. According to historic accounts (personal communication, Raymond Kettlehut, relaying the story told to him by his father) the steam engine fell from a bridge in the early 1900's while trying to cross from the south to the north side of the stream, rupturing the pressure tank. The owner then hired a crew of men who worked several days trying, unsuccessfully, to recover the engine. All the visible individual pieces that could be unbolted from the water tank, such as the smokestack and tank front cover have been removed, and it is not known how complete the buried portion of the tractor is. It is probable that all the salvageable parts were removed from the tractor once it was determined that the tractor could not be recovered.

Impacts at 25LC141 are difficult to evaluate. It appears that erosion, bank slumping, and deposition have buried the larger part of the tractor in the stream's southern bank. The natural acidic nature of the local soils, combined with the constant moisture of the stream, may have precipitated the oxidation of the buried ferrous metals. In addition, the freeze-thaw cycle of winters may have further deformed the tank and other related pieces.

25LC141 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site, 25LC141, consists of a steam engine from a farm tractor which inadvertently slid off a bridge while crossing a stream. The steam engine is located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site will be destroyed.

This site dates to the early 1900's and contains no research value beyond the locational information already recorded.

Site 25LC141 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the proposed EM-1 alternative is not required.

25LC142 (EBAP98-31):

This site is a lithic scatter covering roughly 1000 m² (11,000 sq ft). In 1998, the field was cultivated in corn, providing roughly 60 percent ground surface visibility.

This glacial till outcrop has a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt stream-worn cobbles. The presence of this glacial till complicated survey of this location, requiring intensive inspection of a large amount of surface materials. Many cobbles reveal plow/disc scars, and some portion of the broken cobbles observed are undoubtedly due to impacts of historic cultivation. Careful inspection in one area of the outcrop, however, yielded evidence of a lithic scatter intermixed in the outcrop of glacial till. Numerous tested cobbles were observed, along with decortication and secondary flakes, as well as fragments of percussion shatter. Flakes, shatter, and tested cobbles of several types of chert, and quartzite were observed in the scatter.

Impacts at 25LC142 include plowing and water erosion. The removal of the natural vegetation cover, followed by years of plowing and the impacts of erosion, has undoubtedly increased the extent of the glacial till outcrop. Only a relatively small section of the outcrop, contained evidence of artifact manufacture. Precipitation runoff erosion continues as an ongoing impact. In 1998, clear evidence of water erosion was present, including transported soils and slope surface downcutting.

25LC142 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site, characterized as a lithic procurement site is located within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If this route is selected, this site could be impacted or destroyed.

The site area was intensively surveyed, and no temporally or functionally diagnostic artifacts were observed. In addition, plowing, and most likely, wind and water erosion have impacted the site area. Given the site type of 25LC142, a lithic procurement site where glacial till was utilized for stone tool material, there is little chance for subsurface cultural deposits. As such, this site offers little potential for yielding significant cultural data that can contribute to archeological research of the area.

Site 25LC142 is recommended not eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the proposed EC-1 alternative is not necessary.

25LC143 (EBAP98-32):

This is a lithic scatter estimated to cover approximately 5,000 m² (54,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 90 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts include a scatter of chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter. A projectile point and one small fragment of pottery were recovered from the surface. The projectile point is made of tan quartzite, and is side-notched, and basally thinned, measuring 16 mm long, by 12 wide, by 8 thick. The small pottery body sherd measures approximately 16 mm square, by 8 mm in thickness. An intensive inspection of the site area yielded no other pottery or finished tools.

The field where 25LC143 is located has been cultivated for several years. In 1998, evidence of precipitation runoff erosion was observed in the area of the artifact scatter.

A total of 25 shovel tests were excavated across the site area. These shovel tests were excavated in a systematic series of north-south and east-west transects. One shovel test proved positive, and was located in a grassy area separating two parcels of land. This shovel test contained two chert flakes in the upper 10-20 cmbs.

Shovel tests across the grassed property boundary revealed a layer of dark grayish-brown silty loam (10YR3/2) with heavy grass root vegetation. The surface of the grassed area stands approximately 20-25 cm higher than the cultivated surfaces on either side of the grass. This would suggest that the surfaces of the cultivated fields have been deflated at least 20-25 cm, perhaps removing the entire A horizon.

A test unit, measuring 50cm x 1m was excavated in the area where the projectile point was located during survey. This test unit revealed that the plowzone at this locale extends to 15-22 cmbs and is a matrix of dark-brown silty-clay loam (10YR3/3) with large amounts of undecayed organics. Below the plowzone, the soil is a dark reddish-brown clay-loam that lightens with depth (5YR3/2 at 28cmbs grading to 5YR4/4 at approximately 45 cmbs). Several small lime concretions were found at the deepest point of the test unit excavation (50cmbs). No cultural materials were found in the test unit.

25LC143 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC143 is a site which includes both lithic material and pottery and is located within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site will be destroyed.

One projectile point was located at this site, as well as grit-tempered, cord-marked pottery. The projectile point is Archaic-like (ca. 2,500 BP). The association of pottery with an Archaic projectile point is unusual and indicates two separate use periods at this locale. However, limited subsurface testing at this site suggests that the cultural material observed on the ground surface does not extend below the plowzone. However, because this site covers such a large area, it was not possible to completely eliminate the possibility of subsurface features through limited subsurface testing.

Site 25LC143 should be considered tentatively eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Should the EF-1 route be selected, additional research should include extensive archeological investigation including the removal of the plowzone to ascertain the presence of subsurface features.

25LC144 (EBAP98-33):

This is a large lithic scatter estimated to cover approximately 40,000 m² (430,000 sq ft). In 1998, this field was cultivated in corn, providing more than 90 percent ground surface visibility.

The 25LC144 site is a very diffuse scatter of chert and quartzite flakes and percussion shatter. Artifacts were relatively evenly spread across the entire slope face. Intensive survey yielded no clear concentrations of increased artifact density and no areas that are devoid of surface artifacts. No finished, patterned tools were observed.

The field where 25LC144 is located has been cultivated for several years. In 1998, evidence of precipitation runoff erosion was observed in the area of the artifact scatter.

Shovel tests were excavated across this site using a north-south, east-west grid system, beginning in an area where the flakes appeared to be most dense on the ground surface. These shovel tests were excavated in a systematic manner at 20 m intervals. A total of 24 shovel tests were excavated along this grid. An additional 8 shovel tests were excavated extending east-west from the outer limits of the north-south transect.

The surface of this site is littered with small glacial cobbles, most measuring smaller than 8 cm in diameter. Shovel tests were excavated through the plowzone, into the subsoils, which averaged approximately 40 cmbs. The plowzone at this locale is highly organic, and contains glacial cobbles throughout. A total of four shovel tests contained lithic artifacts, all were within the upper 20 cm plowzone.

One shovel test near the center of the test grid was expanded into a test unit measuring 50 cm x 1 m and was excavated to 75 cmbs. A second randomly placed test unit was excavated near the southern extent of the site and excavated to 85 cmbs. The stratigraphy of both units was very similar. In each test unit, the plowzone soil is a brown silty-clay-loam (10YR4/3) mixed with gravel, glacial cobbles and undecayed organics. The plowzone extends to approximately 25 cmbs. Below the plowzone is a layer of grayish-brown silty-loam (10YR4/2) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/4). This soil gradually grades to a yellowish-brown sandy-silt-loam (10YR5/4). Numerous small, soft accumulations of lime are present in this level. Beyond those artifacts present on the surface of these test units, no additional artifacts were recovered from these test units.

25LC144 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site is a large, diffuse prehistoric lithic scatter and is located within the proposed EF-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site will be destroyed.

Limited subsurface testing at this site suggests that artifacts present on the ground surface do not extend below the current plowzone. However, because this site covers such a large area, it was not possible to completely eliminate the possibility of subsurface features by conducting limited subsurface testing.

Site 25LC144 should be considered tentatively eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Should the EF-1 route be selected, additional research should include extensive archeological investigation including the removal of the plowzone to ascertain the presence of subsurface features.

25LC145 (EBAP98-34):

Site 25LC145 consists of three depressions distributed across approximately 5,000 m² (54,000 sq ft). In 1998, the field was planted in corn, providing 80 percent ground surface visibility.

Artifacts were not observed on the surface of this site. However, three rather indistinct depressions were evident across the terrace. Each depression measures approximately 5 m (16 ft) in diameter and are approximately 75 cm deep. Several other less distinct surface irregularities were also observed. The present landowner reports that stone tool artifacts have been collected from the surface of that field.

Impacts to the 25LC145 site include years of cultivation, and wind and water erosion. Erosion from upslope, north of the terrace, may have added alluvium to the surface of the site, thereby increasing the overburden.

A total of 22 shovel test were excavated across this site. An east-west transect of 10 shovel tests was established to bisect the area of the depressions. Three short transects were excavated at right angles to the east-west transect, each consisting of four shovel tests. In addition, eight shovel tests were excavated along what appeared to be the edges of the depressions. These shovel tests were excavated through the plowzone, into subsoil to an average depth of 40 cmbs. One shovel test placed near the edge of a depression was expanded to roughly 75 cm in diameter, by 70 cm in depth. No artifacts were recovered, and no features were defined in these shovel tests.

A test unit measuring 1 m X 1 m was excavated along the edge of one depression to enable an inspection of site stratigraphy, and to determine whether the sidewall of a depression feature could be identified. The plowzone extends to 30 cmbs and is composed of a dark-gray sandy-silt-loam (10YR3/1). The bottom of the plowzone is difficult to ascertain, and would not be discernible without the organic material mixed into the plowzone matrix. Below the plowzone, the soil remains a dark-gray sandy-silt-loam to 58 cmbs where there was a rapid transformation to a very dark-brown-to-black silty-clay-loam (10YR2/1). Excavation of this unit was halted at 90 cmbs and no other soil color or texture change was apparent. Artifacts or features were not encountered in this excavation, and the depression sidewall was not identified.

25LC145 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC145 consists of a series of small depressions scattered across what is now a cornfield. These depressions are located approximately 100 m (325 ft) west of the centerline of the proposed EF-1 centerline. If construction proceeds along this route, this site may be impacted or destroyed.

After test excavations and inspection of stratigraphy, no cultural explanations could be found, and these depressions were determined to be natural erosional features.

As such, this site is not eligible for nomination to the NRHP, and is not considered to have cultural origins. Additional archeological investigation is not necessary, and avoidance of this area if construction proceeds along the proposed EF-1 is not required.

25LC146 (EBAP98-35):

This site consists of a lithic scatter within a small outcrop of glacial till, and a series of small depressions. This site covers roughly 1,200 m² (13,000 sq ft). In 1998, the field where the lithic scatter is located was cultivated in soybeans, providing greater than 90 percent ground surface visibility

Site 25LC146 appears to extend southward, across a roadway. In 1998, the ground surface south of the road was heavily vegetated with prairie grasses, providing no surface visibility. Surface irregularities and three relatively evenly spaced depressions 5-to-8 m (16-26 ft) in diameter were observed, suggesting possible cultural features.

The glacial till outcrop located north of the roadway contains a locally typical makeup of granite, quartzite, chert, and basalt cobbles. The presence of the glacial till complicated surface survey, and an intensive inspection of a large amount of surface materials was necessary. Many cobbles have plow/disc scars, and some broken cobbles observed at this location are undoubtedly due to impacts of historic cultivation. However, evidence of a lithic scatter intermixed in the outcrop of glacial till was apparent. Numerous tested cobbles were observed, along with decortication, and secondary flakes, as well as fragments of percussion shatter. Flakes, shatter, and tested cobbles of several types of chert, and quartzite were observed in the scatter.

The portion of 25LC146 located north of the roadway has been impacted by cultivation. In addition, construction of the road bisected the terrace remnant, removing a significant section across the terrace, undoubtedly destroying a major portion across the center of this site.

Heavy, tall mixed-grass vegetation covers the ground surface of this site, obscuring the depressions located during pedestrian survey. As these depressions were re-defined in preparation for testing, it became clear that only one depression, Depression 1, was clearly defined and flagged around the entire circumference. Two other, apparently smaller depressions were less well defined. Depression 2, extends northward, and is bisected by the road. Only a small portion of Depression 3 could be identified.

A series of eight shovel tests were excavated along an east-west transect crossing Depression 1, and extending into Depression 3. In addition, two shovel tests were placed at the edge of Depression 1. Three more shovel tests were placed just outside Depression 1, and an additional shovel test was placed near the centers of Depression 2 and 3. The shovel tests were excavated to an average of 45 cmbs, although the test in the center of the main depression was enlarged and excavated to 65 cmbs. Several historic artifacts, including glass, nails, and metal were recovered from these shovel tests.

One shovel test, located along the edge of Depression 1, was expanded into a test unit measuring 1 m X 1 m. The upper 10-to-12 cmbs contains a dense grass root zone, and the soil is a uniform grayish-brown sandy-loam with a small amount of pea-gravel (10YR4/1). Below this level, from around 12-to-20 cmbs a layer of dark gray-brown sandy-loam (10YR3/1) with pea-gravel is present. Contained within the depression, from 20-to-42 cmbs, a series of different matrix types is present and is mixed with historic artifacts. The stratigraphy indicates separate dumping events. One dumping event left a dark-brown sandy-loam (10YR3/2) with milled wood, wire nails, flatglass, and ferrous "Schlitz" beer cans. A second dumping event left a soil matrix of reddish-brown, very-sandy-loam (2.5YR3/4). This soil contains screw-top bottleglass, tin cans, a small ferrous hasp, a 4" ferrous T-hinge, small-gauge ferrous wire, wire nails, and redbrick fragments. The color of the soil seemed to be due to red brick dust, rather than to a natural cause. Below this feature, a small lens of light-gray ash (7.5YR7/1) is apparent, and contains ferrous nails, and burned glass. On the outer edge of the depression, from 12-to-34 cmbs a layer of soil that appears to be an old plowzone is visible. This soil is very dark-brown sandy-clay-loam (10YR2/2) with small cobbles and pea-gravel mixed throughout. The bottom of this depression is irregular and rather abrupt. Below the feature, and extending across the entire unit, is a subsoil matrix of gray-brown clay-loam (10YR5/3) with yellowish-brown mottling (10YR5/6) and carbonate concretions. Excavation was halted at 60 cmbs.

The second portion of this site, located north of the roadway, was also tested. A series of 14 shovel tests were excavated in transects across the lithic scatter at 5 m intervals. Two randomly placed shovel tests were also excavated. Shovel tests were excavated to an average of 40 cmbs. One of the random tests was expanded to approximately 60 cm in diameter, and extended to 60 cmbs. While this did not provide a clean profile, it did provide an opportunity to inspect stratigraphy. The ground surface north of the road is densely littered with glacial till outcrop gravels and cobbles up to 15 cm in diameter. The plowzone, which is difficult to define, appears to extend to approximately 30 cmbs, and consists primarily of gravel and cobbles, with a small amount of gray-brown clay-loam (10YR5/2) matrix. This soil composition continues downward to 60 cmbs, where excavation of this test was halted. Lithic artifacts were recovered from the upper 10-15 cmbs of three shovel tests.

25LC146 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site, 25LC146, consists of a lithic scatter and several depressions. The site is located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, the site may be impacted or destroyed.

A series of three depressions are visible on the south side of the roadway. Subsurface testing indicates that these depressions are historic in origin and they are probably remnants of borrow pits subsequently used to deposit historic debris. On the north side of the roadway, the site contains glacial till mixed with a scatter of lithic artifacts. Subsurface testing indicates that the lithic artifacts present on the ground surface do not extend below the plowzone, and the site area is heavily deflated.

Both components of site 25LC146 are recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Beyond the locational information already recorded, this site offers no research potential. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction of the proposed EM-1 route is not necessary.

25LC147 (EBAP98-36):

This site number was assigned to an area where wagon ruts are visible. The area where the tracks are visible is heavily vegetated in native grasses, and appears to be a small section of virgin prairie.

The ruts proceed up-slope from the west edge of a stream, to near the summit of a hill. The ruts are vaguely, and discontinuously discernible over a length of approximately Ό mile. This historic trail may be related to the operation of the Shirley Road Ranch, which was in operation from ca. 1866 to 1880. In addition, the location of these ruts is also in the vicinity of the 1866 Road Number 324 as shown on Nebraska State Historical Society maps. Determining the exact association of these ruts is not possible due to the relatively short segment visible. West of the summit of the hill, the area is cultivated, and the ruts are not visible.

The site appears to be relatively intact through the area of what is assumed to be virgin prairie. The greatest impact to portions of this linear site 25LC147 is plowing. The field east of the stream, where the road would presumably continue after crossing the stream ford, is cultivated, as is the field west of summit of the hill. Plowing has obliterated any evidence of ruts, or a historic roadway that may have once crossed those fields.

25LC147 Recommendation and Evaluation:

This site, 25LC147, is an historic trail remnant. This linear site is located within the proposed EC-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, portions of this site will be impacted and destroyed.

The trail, which consists of ephemeral wheel ruts and a differentiation of associated vegetation. This trail may be related to an early road ranch, or may be the remnants of a historic road. In either case, this historic trail dates to circa 1860 - 1880.

While only a small portion of this early historic trail is preserved, it dates to the earliest settlement period of Lancaster County. This site does meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligibility, and may offer unique research opportunities.

Site 25LC147 is recommended eligible for nomination to the NRHP. If the EC-1 alternative is chosen, every effort should be made to avoid this site. If avoidance during construction is not possible, mitigation should include detailed mapping and photo documentation.

25LC148 (EBAP98-37):

This is a buried trash dump observed in a cutbank along an intermittent tributary drainage and is estimated to cover 5 m² (55 sq ft). In 1998, vegetation in this field was mixed pasture, reducing ground surface visibility to approximately 10 percent.

Refuse was observed buried in the cutbank, 30-to-50 cm (15-20 in) below the present ground surface. Artifacts included glass bottles, automotive/machinery parts, wire fencing, and tin cans. Based on the identifiable, diagnostic bottles, the refuse seems to represent a depression era (1930's) time period.

A small section of the cutbank was scraped to reveal the stratigraphic profile. This inspection revealed layering of horizontal bands, less that 5 mm (< Ό in) thick, of alluvial deposition immediately over the historic refuse. This type of layered stratigraphy is caused by repeated, low intensity depositional events, with each event leaving a thin deposit of material. The lack of bioturbation, which would obscure the horizontal alluvial banding, indicates the deposition occurred over a relatively brief time period. The upper 15-to-20 cm (6-8 in) of profile contained no layering, indicating that the present surface has been stable long enough for pedoturbation to obscure the alluvial deposition sequence.

Erosion continues as an ongoing impact at this location. Previously, the site was buried by alluvium that aggraded downslope. The deposition has stopped, or significantly slowed, and the runoff is now downcutting through the easily erodable matrix, creating an intermittent stream drainage with steep cutbank walls that reveal this buried site.

25LC148 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site 25LC148 consists of a buried trash dump along a small tributary. The site is located approximately within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, 25LC148 may be impacted or destroyed.

Historic material, such as glass bottles, tin cans and automotive related parts were observed eroding out of the creek bank. No diagnostic materials were observed, and this dumping episode appears to be recent and of relatively short duration.

The locational information already collected at 25LC148 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of 25LC148.

Site 25LC148 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the proposed EM-1 alternative is not required.

EBAP98-38:

This site is a small lithic scatter and is estimated to cover 100 m². In 1998, the site area was cultivated in soybeans, which were harvested at the time of survey. Crop litter was present, limiting ground surface visibility to approximately 40 percent.

Artifacts at this site consisted of several chert flakes and percussion shatter, whose color ranged from light to dark. In all, fewer than 20 flakes were noted.

Impacts at this site include cultivation and wind and water erosion. Evidence of downcutting and deflation was noted along the terrace margins.

EBAP98-38 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site EBAP98-38 is a small lithic scatter within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site may be impacted or destroyed.

This site is a small artifact scatter, and despite intensive survey, no patterned tools were observed. The artifacts do not appear to be eroding out of a localized area, and subsoils exposed through downcutting indicate that there is little deposition left which could contain cultural materials before sterile soil is reached.

Site EBAP98-38 is recommended not eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. This site offers little research potential, beyond the locational information already recorded. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the proposed EM-1 alternative is not necessary.

EBAP98-39:

This site is a Euroamerican dump and is estimated to cover 100 m². In 1998, the site area was cultivated in corn, and ground surface visibility was approximately 90 percent.

This site is a small scatter of Euroamerican artifacts, including non-diagnostic whiteware, and sun-altered and aqua colored bottleglass. Only one bottleglass finish was observed, and it was hand-finished. Miscellaneous ferrous metal fragments were also observed. These items were heavily deteriorated, and were unidentifiable.

This site has been minimally impacted by cultivation and by wind and water erosion.

EBAP98-39 Recommendation and Evaluation:

Site EBAP98-39 is a small Euroamerican dump located within the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along this route, this site may be impacted or destroyed.

This site is a very small artifact scatter, and appears to represent a single dumping episode and is recommended not eligible for inclusion to the NRHP. This site offers little research potential, beyond the locational information already recorded. Additional archeological investigation or conservation is not required. Avoidance or protection of this site during construction along the proposed EM-1 alternative is not necessary.

EBAP98-40:

This artifact scatter is situated in an upland setting and covers approximately 10 m². This site is located outside the EM-1 archeological survey corridor as currently defined, but was discovered in route to other survey corridors. When this area was surveyed in 1998, the corn had recently been harvested, and the field was then plowed. This offered 100 percent ground surface visibility.

The artifacts located at this site consisted of several bone beads and a scatter of clam shells. Despite an intensive survey of the area, no additional artifacts were observed. The bone beads are smooth, elongated tubes and are approximately 2 mm in diameter and 8 mm long.

The primary impact to this site is cultivation. The recent plowing of this field indicates that this area still possesses a rich, dark brown soil extending to approximately 30 cmbs. There appears to be very little water or wind erosion occurring at this site.

EBAP98-40 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This artifact scatter is located outside the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction of the roadway proceeds along the current centerline, or west of the centerline, this site will not be impacted.

Possible explanations for the presence of these artifact types include an association with a house structure, as in the Wallace Site (Bamforth, field notes on file, UNL Department of Anthropology; Bozell 1998, personal communication), or possibly, in this upland setting, a Native American burial.

Eligibility to the NRHP could not be determined based on field work conducted in 1998. Since this site is located outside the corridor boundaries, no testing was done. As previously stated, this site does not appear to be threatened by possible construction of the EM-1 alternative as currently defined. If the EM-1 route is shifted east, archeological research should be completed to determine the nature of this site and its eligibility to the NRHP.

EBAP98-41:

This site is a Euroamerican farmstead and includes both standing and non-standing remnants of a late-19^th or early 20^th century occupation. Artifacts covered more than 2,500 m² (27,000 sq ft). The farmstead sits along the bank of a stream, and a historic ford crossing this stream is present approximately 200 m south of the farmstead area. In 1998, this field was cultivated in milo, providing approximately 30 percent ground surface visibility. This farmstead was recorded at the request of the landowner, who was reluctant to allow researchers access to the property unless the farmstead was officially documented.

A corn crib, with a concrete block foundation is still standing at this site, as is a windmill. A house foundation of poured Portland Concrete is still visible, and historic artifacts are present in and around the foundation. These artifacts included tin cans, cinders, wire nails, red brick, and flatglass. A collapsed barn with a foundation comprised of both limestone and concrete block, is located approximately 20 m north of the house foundation. A series of depressions are located across this farmstead, and may represent privys or burn pits. A wooden stock tank, approximately 3 m in diameter and 1 m deep is located along the southern edge of the farmyard.

Site disturbances at this site include a farm road used to gain access to nearby farm fields, and a small amount of erosion, by both wind and water.

EBAP98-41 Evaluation and Recommendation:

This site is located outside the proposed EM-1 corridor. If construction proceeds along the EM-1 corridor, this site will not be adversely affected.

The locational information already collected at EBAP98-41 is adequate to address issues of human land-use and historic settlement patterns. Additional archeological investigation is unlikely to yield information regarding local or regional history that is not already available in an archival format. These factors, combined with the absence of significant events or people associated with this site limit the research potential of EBAP98-41. While this site does appear to meet minimum age requirements for NRHP eligibility, it currently fails to meet the additional criteria necessary to recommend its protection.

EBAP98-41 is recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP. Additional archeological investigation or conservation at this site is not necessary. Avoidance or protection of the site during construction along the EM-1 alternative is not required.

Conclusions:

In the course of this project, 46 previously unrecorded archeological sites (25LC93, -25LC97; 25LC112 - 25LC148; EBAP98-38 - EBAP98-41) were documented. These sites include four lithic procurement sites 25 lithic scatters, the archeological remnants of seven Euroamerican farmsteads, two cinder scatters representing brief agricultural use, two Euroamerican scatters, one Euroamerican dump, one Euroamerican cemetery, a steam engine, a Euroamerican school, a segment of a Euroamerican trail and an unclassified artifact scatter. In addition, one depression feature (SOAP97-2), determined to be non-cultural was investigated. Of these newly documented sites, 25LC125, 25LC129, 25LC147 are recommended eligible for nomination to the NRHP; 25LC115, 25LC143, 25LC144 would require additional archeological work should the nearby roadway alternative be selected; and 40 are recommended not eligible for nomination to the NRHP.

Geomorphological investigations of the preferred alignment are recommended for the SEB Project, and are outlined below.

Recommendations for Geologic Investigations:

The Salt Creek and Stevens Creek valleys are complex settings where landform-sediment assemblages have been produced by fluvial, eolian, and gravitational processes. The region has been subject to periods of stability, evidenced by buried soil development, and periods of instability, evidenced by floodplain aggradation, both of which can be seen in cross-sections visible in stream cutbanks and road cuts. In addition, downcutting combined with lateral stream meandering has resulted in stepped terrace sequences, and alluvial fan and colluvial apron development.

Deposits of fine-grained Holocene alluvium blanket all stream valleys and low terraces in eastern Nebraska (Dillon 1992; Mandel 1994a; Mandel and Bettis 1995). The floodplains of Salt Creek, Stevens Creek, and their major tributaries, likewise, represent portions of the valley floors that are currently under construction. As active floodplains, they are flooded frequently and at fairly regular recurrent intervals, receiving deposits of alluvium with each flood cycle.

Many studies (e.g., Artz 1985; Bettis and Benn 1984; Bettis and Thompson 1982; Mandel 1992a, 1995a; Mandel et al. 1991; Thompson and Bettis 1980) have shown that the presence of archeological materials on the surface of an alluvial landscape is dependent on variables in that fluvial system. Prehistoric archeological materials will be found only where there are deposits old enough to contain them, however, where sufficiently thick deposits postdating an archeological site are present, evidence of that site will not be found on the modern land surface (Bettis and Hoyer 1986).

The absolute ages of the surface deposits on the floodplains, or mantling the lower terraces in the SEB Study Area are unknown. Many parts of these valleys were underwater as recently as 1993 (Lower Platte South NRD 1997). At several cutbank localities along the main Salt Creek channel, south of Saltillo Road, historic debris was observed throughout approximately 1.5 m (3 ft.) of upper extent of the unit. Historic debris was also observed beneath 50-75 cm (1.5-2.5 ft.) of alluvium in cutbanks of upper tributary drainages. These suggest that post settlement deposition may cover most of the stream crossings and lower terraces, thereby concealing buried prehistoric, or early historic cultural resources that may be present.

It is recommended that a limited geomorphological investigation of the Salt Creek and Stevens Creek valleys be conducted once routes are finalized. The specific objectives of that investigation should be to:

(1) identify Holocene and late Wisconsinian landform-sediment assemblages;

(2) determine the relative ages of alluvial deposits and buried soils in stream valleys;

(3) determine the geologic potential for buried archeological deposits within the project impact zones.

Recognition of different landforms, combined with some subsurface examination and possibly radiocarbon dating of the deposits composing them will permit a more complete assessment of the geological potential for the preservation of archeological deposits (Bettis and Hoyer 1986:10; Mandel 1992a, 1995a; Thompson and Bettis 1980:10-11).

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