Catalogue Query Results
Diaspis boisduvalii SignoretNOMENCLATURE:
Aspidiotus palmarum; Bouché, 1834: 17. Misidentification; discovered by Danzig, 1993: 377.
Diaspis Boisduvalii Signoret, 1869d: 432-433. Type data: FRANCE: Louxembourg Botanical Garden in Paris, on orchids, by M. Boisduval. Syntypes, female. Described: female. Illust. Notes: Types presumed lost.
Diaspis trinacis Colvée, 1881: 19-20. Type data: SPAIN: on Thrinax sp. Unknown type status. Notes: Types are probably lost. Although Borchsenius (1966) treats Diaspis trinacis as an incertae sedis, we here agree with Lindinger (1912b) who synonymized it with Diaspis boisduvalii.
Diaspis cymbidii McIntire, 1889: 355. Nomen nudum; discovered by Fernald, 1903b: 229. Notes: Fernald (1903b) placed Diaspis cymbidii as a placed nomen nudum of D. cattleyae which is now considered a junior synonym of D. boisduvalii.
Aulacaspis boisduvalii; Cockerell, 1893c: 180. Change of combination.
Aulacaspis cattleyae Cockerell, 1899n: 30. Type data: MEXICO: in quarantine at SanFrancisco, California, on Cattleya sp., 1899, by A. Craw. Syntypes, female. Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA. Described: female. Synonymy by Ferris, 1937: SI-32.
Diaspis cattleyae; Cockerell, 1902d: 59. Change of combination.
Aulacaspis cymbidii; Fernald, 1903b: 229. Change of combination.
Diaspis bromeliae; Bodenheimer, 1949: 87. Incorrect synonymy; discovered by Borchsenius, 1966: 169.
Diaspis boisduvalii; Borchsenius, 1966: 168. Justified emendation.
COMMON NAMES: Boisduval scale [Gill1982c]; cocoa-nut snow scale [Maxwel1903]; cocos scale [Borchs1966].
Foes: COLEOPTERA Coccinellidae: Lindorus lophanthae [HertinSi1972]. Nitidulidae: Cybocephalus sp. [HertinSi1972]. HYMENOPTERA Aphelinidae: Aspidiotiphagus citrinus [HertinSi1972], Aspidiotiphagus lounsburyi [Simmon1957], Encarsia citrina [HuangPo1998], Prospaltella sp. [HertinSi1972]. Encyrtidae: Arrhenophagus chionaspidis [Simmon1957], Coccidencyrtus malloi [PanisPi2001], Coccidencyrtus ochraceipes [Simmon1957], Encyrtus lecaniorum [HertinSi1972], Euaphycus tucumanus [HertinSi1972], Plagiomerus sp. [PanisPi2001a]. Thysanidae: Thysanus niger [Simmon1957].
Hosts: Agavaceae: Cordyline indivisa [CarnerPe1986]. Amaryllidaceae: Agave [Borchs1966]. Anacardiaceae: Mangifera indica [Watson2002a], Schinus sp. [Watson2002a]. Araliaceae: Hedera helix [Lepage1938]. Arecaceae: Areca sapida [Balach1954e], Areca sp. [MillerDa2005], Arecastrum romaxofalium [HodgesHo2002a], Astrocaryum sp. [MillerDa2005], Attalea sp. [MillerDa2005], Bactris [Borchs1966], Bactris sp. [MillerDa2005], Chamaedorea sp. [MillerDa2005], Chamaerops [Borchs1966], Chamaerops sp. [Seghat1977, MillerDa2005], Chamaerops tomentosa [CarnerPe1986], Chrysalidocarpus lutescens [Pelot1950], Chrysalidocarpus sp. [MillerDa2005], Cocos [Borchs1966], Cocos campestris [LepineMi1931], Cocos nucifera [Mamet1943a], Cocos plumosa [Balach1929], Cocos sp. [MillerDa2005], Cocos weddelliana [Balach1929], Copernicia [Watson2002a], Corozo sp. [MillerDa2005], Corypha [Borchs1966], Elaeis sp. [MillerDa2005], Euterpe [Borchs1966], Guilielma sp. [MillerDa2005], Howea sp. [Watson2002a], Kentia sp. [Amos1933, MillerDa2005], Latania [Borchs1966], Latania commersoni [Cocker1897g], Latania sp. [MillerDa2005], Livistona [Borchs1966], Livistona rotundiflora [Felt1901], Livistona sp. [Cocker1897g, MillerDa2005], Nannorrhops [Borchs1966], Nypa sp. [MillerDa2005], Oreodoxa regia [Lepage1938], Phoenix canariensis [Felt1901], Phoenix dactylineata [Felt1901], Phoenix reclivata [Felt1901], Phoenix roebellini [CarnerPe1986], Phoenix sp. [Balach1954e, MillerDa2005], Rhopalostylis sapida [CarnerPe1986], Roystonea sp. [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005], Seaforthia elegans [Felt1901], Thrinax sp. [Colvee1881], Trachycarpus fortunei [Tao1999], Trachycarpus sp. [MillerDa2005], Washingtonia [Borchs1966], Washingtonia sp. [MillerDa2005]. Asteraceae: Baccharis [Borchs1966]. Bromeliaceae: Aechmea [Borchs1966], Aechmea sp. [MillerDa2005], Ananas comosus [CarnerPe1986], Ananas sativus [DeLott1967a], Ananas sp. [MillerDa2005], Aregelia [Borchs1966], Billbergia sp. [MillerDa2005], Bromelia magdalenae [YunusHo1980], Bromelia pinguin [Cocker1897g], Catopsis sp. [MillerDa2005], Guzmania [Borchs1966], Neoglaziovia sp. [MillerDa2005], Nidularium sp. [MillerDa2005], Pitcairnia sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Puya sp. [MillerDa2005], Ronnbergia sp. [MillerDa2005], Tillandsia sp. [ColonFMe1998, MillerDa2005], Vriesia sp. [KozarzRe1975, MillerDa2005]. Cactaceae: Ferocactus sp. [MillerDa2005], Harrisia sp. [Watson2002a], Hylocereus sp. [MillerDa2005], Opuntia [Borchs1966], Opuntia sp. [MillerDa2005], Rhipsalis sp. [MillerDa2005]. Celastraceae: Maytenus sp. [Watson2002a]. Crassulaceae: Aeonium cuneatum [CarnerPe1986]. Cyperaceae: Cyperus alternifolia [Amos1933]. Euphorbiaceae: Codiaeum sp. [MillerDa2005]. Fabaceae: Acacia sp. [Balach1954e], Baikiaea insignis [Gowdey1917], Cassia sp. [Watson2002a], Leucaena sp. [MillerDa2005]. Flacourtiaceae: Casearia sp. [Watson2002a]. Guttiferae: Garcinia mangostana [YunusHo1980]. Heliconiaceae: Heliconia sp. [MillerDa2005]. Lauraceae: Persea americana [Watson2002a], Persea sp. [MillerDa2005]. Liliaceae: Phormium [Borchs1966]. Loranthaceae: Ligaria sp [Watson2002a], Loranthus [Borchs1966], Struthanthus urugensis [CorseuSi1971]. Marantaceae: Calathea sp. [MillerDa2005], Ctenanthe [Borchs1966], Maranta [Borchs1966], Maranta sp. [MillerDa2005]. Melastomaceae: Miconia sp. [Watson2002a], Pleiochiton ebracteatum [CostaL1936]. Meliaceae: Cedrela sp. [Watson2002a]. Moraceae: Ficus sp. [MillerDa2005]. Musaceae: Heliconia [Borchs1966], Musa acuminata [CarnerPe1986], Musa sepientium [Amos1933], Musa sp. [MillerDa2005], Strelitzia reginae [Colvee1881]. Myrsinaceae: Mirsine [Borchs1966], Myrsine umbellata [CorseuSi1971]. Orchidaceae: Acineta sp. [MillerDa2005], Angraecum sp. [MillerDa2005], Anguloa [Borchs1966], Bletia sp. [MillerDa2005], Brassavola sp. [MillerDa2005], Brassia sp. [HodgsoHi1990, MillerDa2005], Brassocattleya [Borchs1966], Broughtonia sanguinea [Cocker1893k], Broughtonia sp. [MillerDa2005], Bulbophyllum [Borchs1966], Catleya loddigesii [KozarzRe1975], Cattleya sp. [Amos1933, MillerDa2005], Caularthron sp. [MillerDa2005], Coelogyne [Borchs1966], Cycnoches sp. [MillerDa2005], Cymbidium sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Dendrobium sp. [YunusHo1980, MillerDa2005], Encyclia selligera [PicartMa2000], Epidendrum [Borchs1966], Epidendrum sp. [MillerDa2005], Epipremnum sp. [MillerDa2005], Laelia [Borchs1966], Laelia purpurata [CorseuSi1971], Laelia sp. [MillerDa2005], Lycaste sp. [MillerDa2005], Maxillaria sp. [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005], Miltonia sp. [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005], Neofinetia sp. [MillerDa2005], Odontoglossum [Borchs1966], Odontoglossum grande [KozarzRe1975], Odontoglossum sp. [MillerDa2005], Oncidium sp. [MillerDa2005], Oncidium tetrapetalum [Cocker1893k], Ornithidium [Borchs1966], Peristeria sp. [MillerDa2005], Pleurothallis sp. [MillerDa2005], Renanthera sp. [MillerDa2005], Rhynchostylis retusa [Tao1999], Schomburgkia sp. [MillerDa2005], Sophronitis sp. [MillerDa2005], Stanhopea sp. [MillerDa2005], Trichopilia sp. [MillerDa2005], Vanda [Borchs1966], Vanda sp. [MillerDa2005], Xylobium sp. [MillerDa2005]. Pandanaceae: Pandanus sp. [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005], Pandanus utilis [Balach1954e]. Potaliaceae: Fragraea sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Rosaceae: Eriobotrya sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Rosa sp. [Watson2002a]. Rubiaceae: Coffea robusta [DeLott1967a], Ravnia africana [Amos1933]. Ruscaceae: Dracaena sp. [MillerDa2005]. Rutaceae: Citrus sp. [Watson2002a]. Santalaceae: Jodina sp. [Watson2002a], Phorodendron sp. [Watson2002a]. Sapotaceae: Achras sp. [MillerDa2005]. Strelitziaceae: Ravenala madagascariensis [Cocker1897g], Ravenala sp. [MillerDa2005], Strelitzia reginae [Felt1901], Strelitzia reginia [Amos1933], Strelitzia sp. [MillerDa2005]. Symplocaceae: Symplocos sp. [MillerDa2005]. Thymelaeaceae: Nectandra sp. [Watson2002a]. Vitaceae: Vitis sp. [MillerDa2005]
DISTRIBUTION: Afrotropical: Cameroon [Vayssi1913]; Côte d'Ivoire (=Ivory Coast) [Balach1954e]; Guinea [Balach1954e]; Kenya [DeLott1967a]; Mauritius [Mamet1943a, WilliaWi1988]; Sierra Leone [Hargre1937]; South Africa [Brain1919]; Uganda [Gowdey1917]; Zaire [Balach1929]. Australasian: Australia (Tasmania [Hudson1967]); Cook Islands [WilliaWa1988]; Fiji [WilliaWa1988]; French Polynesia (Tahiti [WilliaWa1988]); Hawaiian Islands [Maxwel1902, MillerDa2005] (Hawaii [Heu2002] (First observed in 1966? (Heu 2001).), Kauai [Heu2002], Maui [Heu2002], Oahu [Heu2002]); New Zealand [Wise1977]; Palau [Beards1966]; Solomon Islands [WilliaWa1988]. Nearctic: Canada [Maxwel1902]; Mexico [Maxwel1902, MillerDa2005] (Tamaulipas [Cocker1897g]); United States of America (Alabama [MillerDa2005], Alaska [MillerDa2005], California [McKenz1956], Colorado [GilletBa1895, MillerDa2005], Connecticut [Britto1923, MillerDa2005], Delaware [MillerDa2005], District of Columbia [MillerDa2005], Florida [Butche1959, HodgesHo2002a, MillerDa2005], Georgia [BesheaTiHo1973, MillerDa2005], Illinois [MillerDa2005], Indiana [Amos1933], Iowa [MillerDa2005], Kansas [Hunter1902], Kentucky [MillerDa2005], Louisiana [MillerDa2005], Maryland [MillerDa2005], Massachusetts [King1899c, MillerDa2005], Mississippi [MillerDa2005], Missouri [Hollin1923, MillerDa2005], New Hampshire [MillerDa2005], New Jersey [MillerDa2005], New York [Felt1901], North Carolina [MillerDa2005], Ohio [Sander1904a, MillerDa2005], Oklahoma [MillerDa2005], Pennsylvania [MillerDa2005], Tennessee [LambdiWa1980, MillerDa2005], Texas [McDani1971, MillerDa2005], Virginia [MillerDa2005], Washington [MillerDa2005], Wisconsin [MillerDa2005]). Neotropical: Antigua and Barbuda (Antigua [Watson2002a]); Argentina (Buenos Aires [Watson2002a], Catamarca [Watson2002a], Cordoba [Watson2002a], Entre Rios [Watson2002a], Formosa [Watson2002a], Jujuy [Watson2002a], La Rioja [Watson2002a], Rio Negro [Watson2002a], Salta [Watson2002a], Santiago del Estero [Watson2002a], Tucuman [Watson2002a]); Bahamas [Watson2002a]; Barbados [Cocker1893j]; Belize [Watson2002a]; Bermuda [Simmon1957]; Brazil (Minas Gerais [CostaL1936], Parana [Watson2002a], Para [Watson2002a], Piaui [Watson2002a], Rio Grande do Sul [CostaL1936], Rio de Janeiro [CostaL1936], Sao Paulo [CostaL1936]); Colombia [Mosque1976]; Costa Rica [Watson2002a]; Cuba [Houser1918]; Dominica [Watson2002a]; Ecuador [Watson2002a]; El Salvador [Berry1959]; Grenada [Watson2002a]; Guyana [Cocker1897g]; Honduras [Watson2002a]; Jamaica [Cocker1893c]; Mexico (Tabasco [Cocker1899d]); Panama [Watson2002a]; Puerto Rico & Vieques Island (Puerto Rico [NakahaMi1981]); Saint Lucia [Watson2002a]; Trinidad and Tobago (Trinidad [Cocker1897g]); U.S. Virgin Islands [MiskimBo1970]. Oriental: China (Fujian (=Fukien) [Tao1999], Guangdong (=Kwangtung) [Hua2000], Hainan [Tao1999]); Malaysia [YunusHo1980]; Sri Lanka [Green1937]; Taiwan [Tao1978]. Palaearctic: Algeria [Balach1929]; Armenia [Borchs1949d]; Bulgaria [Tzalev1968]; Canary Islands [CarnerPe1986, MatileOr2001]; Denmark [KozarzRe1975]; Egypt [Hall1922]; France [KozarzRe1975]; Georgia [DanzigPe1998]; Germany [Bouche1834]; Iran [Seghat1977, KozarFoZa1996]; Italy (invasive) [KozarzRe1975, LongoMaPe1995] (Longo et al. (1995) lists this as an introduced and acclimatized species.); Japan (Honshu [Kuwana1926]); Madeira Islands [Balach1954e]; Morocco [LepineMi1931]; Portugal [KozarzRe1975]; Sicily (invasive) [LongoMaPe1995] (Longo et al. (1995) lists this as an introduced and acclimatized species.); South Korea [DanzigPe1998]; Spain [Colvee1881]; Sweden [KozarzRe1975]; Turkey [Bodenh1949]; United Kingdom (England [Maxwel1902]).
BIOLOGY: This species is known from all over the world in greenhouses, chiefly on palms, but also on other hosts like orchids and cacti (Ali, 1970). Detailed life history by Bohart (1942). The following information is taken from Bohart (1942). In the greenhouse on orchids the period from egg to egg laying females requires about 50 days; adult males require about 33 days. Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days after being laid. The crawler stage lasts about 9 days, the second instar female about 8 days. Adult males leave the scale cover about 15 days after the first molt. Adult females may live as long as 7 months, and each produces about 200 eggs. The ratio of males to females is about 1:1. Settling occurs on all aerial parts of the plant, but there appears to be a preference for the midrib and the part of the petiole that is covered by the sheath. (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
GENERAL REMARKS: Descriptions and illustrations by Signoret (1869d) and Williams & Watson (1988). Description and illustration of first instar by Hodges & Howell (2002a). Hodgson (2002) used this species in a phylogenetic analysis of non-margarodid Coocoidea. Watson (2002a) included this species in an expert system on a CD.
STRUCTURE: Prosoma usually with lateral lobes, main pygidial characters are the 6 macroducts on each side and 1 macroduct between median lobes. Median lobes forming a deep notch at apex; inner margins of each lobe diverging, serrate, and much longer than the outer margins (Williams & Watson, 1988).
SYSTEMATICS: Diaspis boisduvalii is sometimes found on palms and pineapple, where it can be confused with D. bromeliae (Williams & Watson, 1988). Although Diaspis boisduvalii is considered by some (Danzig, 1993) to be a senior synonym of Diaspis coccois they are here treated as separate valid taxa. Borchsenius (1966) lists Diaspis cymbidii as an incertae sedis.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND CONTROL: Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a serious and widespread pest. Diaspis boisduvalii is a serious pest of orchids in greenhouses in California (Gill, 1997). Boisduval scale is the most important insect pest of orchids in Florida (Dekle 1977). Bohart (1942) reports that only a few scales are necessary to cause damage. A few days after settling, a large chlorotic spot develops surrounding the body of the scale. Heavy infestations cause leaves to turn yellow and fall from the plant; entire plants are sometimes killed. Steinweden (1945) indicated that in 5 months 7 adult females on Cattleya produced 10,000 scales. The species also is reported as a minor pest of bananas, pineapple (Chua and Wood 1990), coffee (Balachowsky 1929), and coconuts (Munoz Ginarte 1937). Examples of countries or states where this species is considered to be a pest are as follows: California (Koehler 1964, Gill 1997); Colorado (Cockerell 1922); Hawaii (Kotinsky 1909); North Carolina (Baker 1994); Ohio (Steiner 1987); Zaire (Balachowsky 1929); West Indies (Ballou 1922); Argentina (Chiesa Molinari 1948); Spain and Portugal (Efimoff 1937); French West Africa and Togo (Mallamaire 1954); England (Miles and Miles 1935); Mauritius (Moutia and Mamet 1947); Bulgaria (Tzalev 1964); Trinidad (Urich 1893); Cuba (Munoz Ginarte 1937); France (Panis and Pinet 1998); Czechoslovakia (Zahradnik 1990a); Canary Island (Gomez-Menor Ortega 1958); and Sierra Leone (Hargreaves 1937). Panis and Pinet (1998) discuss the biological control of this pest in greenhouses using the parasite Coccidencyrtus malloi Blanchard. Beardsley and González (1975) consider this scale to be one of 43 serious armored scale pests, and Miller and Davidson (1990) consider it to be a serious world pest. (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
KEYS: Colón-Ferrer & Medina-Gaud 1998: 91 [Key to species of Diaspis of Puerto Rico]; Gill 1997: 125 (female) [Key to California species of Diaspis]; Wolff & Corseuil 1993a: 154 (female) [Diaspidid species on mango in Brazil]; Williams & Watson 1988: 100 (female) [Key to species of Diaspis in the tropical South Pacific Region]; Chou 1982: 118 (female) [Key to Chinese species of Diaspis]; Danzig 1971d: 845 (female) [Key to species of family Diaspididae]; Beardsley 1966: 531 (female) [Key to known Micronesian species of Diaspis]; Schmutterer 1959: 178 (female) [Bestimmungstabelle der deutschen Diaspis-Arten]; McKenzie 1956: 31 (female) [Key to the species of Diaspis Costa]; Balachowsky 1954e: 178 (female) [Tableau d'indentification des espèces du Diaspis Costa]; Hall 1946a: 515 (female) [Key to species of Diaspis]; Ferris 1942: SIV-446:53 (female) [Key to species of Diaspis]; Archangelskaya 1937: 82 (female) [Key to species of Diaspis]; Fullaway 1932: 95 (female) [Key to species of Hawaiian Diaspinae]; MacGillivray 1921: 319 (female) [Key to species of Diaspis]; Newstead 1901b: 152 (female) [Key to species of Diaspis].
CITATIONS: Ali1970 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 15-16]; Amos1933 [distribution, host: 207]; Archan1929 [taxonomy: 190]; Archan1937 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 82, 83-84]; Arnett1985 [economic importance: 241]; Balach1929 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 145]; Balach1954e [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 178-182]; Beards1966 [distribution, host: 531]; Beatty1944 [distribution, host: 126]; Berry1959 [distribution: 228]; BesheaTiHo1973 [distribution, host: 10]; Bodenh1949 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 87]; Bodenh1953 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 1-4]; Bohart1942 [chemical control, distribution, economic importance, life history, taxonomy: 365-368]; Borchs1937 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 103, 104]; Borchs1937a [distribution, host, taxonomy: 117]; Borchs1949d [distribution, taxonomy: 226]; Borchs1950b [distribution, taxonomy: 208]; Borchs1963a [distribution, illustration, taxonomy: 24, 223, 224, 277]; Borchs1966 [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 168, 170, 372]; Borchs1973 [distribution, taxonomy: 224, 277]; Bouche1834 [taxonomy: 17]; Brain1919 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 223]; Britto1923 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 366, 367]; Butche1959 [distribution, host: 363]; CarnerPe1986 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 36]; Chou1982 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 118-120]; Chou1986 [illustration: 522]; Cocker1893c [distribution, host, taxonomy: 180]; Cocker1893cc [distribution, host: 101]; Cocker1893j [distribution, taxonomy: 256]; Cocker1893k [description, distribution, host: 548]; Cocker1894 [taxonomy: 33]; Cocker1894d [distribution, taxonomy: 312]; Cocker1896b [taxonomy: 335]; Cocker1897g [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 107]; Cocker1898r [distribution: 240]; Cocker1899a [taxonomy: 398]; Cocker1899d [distribution: 167]; Cocker1899n [distribution, host: 29, 30]; Cocker1902d [taxonomy: 59]; Cocker1905b [taxonomy: 201]; ColonFMe1998 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 91-92]; Colvee1881 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 19-20]; Comsto1883 [taxonomy: 86]; Comsto1916 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 547-549]; CorseuSi1971 [distribution, host: 109]; CostaL1936 [distribution, host: 190]; Danzig1964 [distribution, taxonomy: 650]; Danzig1971d [taxonomy: 845]; Danzig1993 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 377-379]; DanzigPe1998 [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 244-245]; DeBachRo1976 [economic importance: 176]; Dekle1965c [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 10, 53]; DeLott1967a [distribution, host: 116]; DietzMo1916a [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 287-288]; Ezzat1958 [taxonomy: 245]; FDACSB1987 [distribution, economic importance, host: 5]; Felt1901 [distribution, host: 359]; Fernal1903b [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 228, 229, 232]; Ferris1937 [catalogue, description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: SI-32]; Ferris1942 [taxonomy: SIV-446:53]; Foldi2001 [distribution: 306]; Frogga1914 [description, distribution, host: 879]; Frogga1915 [description, distribution, host: 52]; Fullaw1932 [distribution, taxonomy: 95, 102]; Ghabbo1999 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 87-88]; GhabboMo1996 [description, distribution, host: 345]; Ghauri1962 [structure, taxonomy: 130, 212]; Gill1982c [distribution, host, illustration: 1]; Gill1997 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 125-126, 129]; GilletBa1895 [distribution, host: 129]; GomesC1958 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 114-115]; GomesCRe1947 [distribution, host: 123]; GomezM1937 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 185, 189-192]; Gowdey1917 [distribution, host: 189]; Gowdey1921 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 25]; GranarCl2003 [host, distribution: 630]; Green1937 [distribution, host: 315]; Hadzib1983 [distribution, host: 192, 193, 275]; Hall1922 [distribution, host: 33]; Hall1946a [distribution, host, taxonomy: 515, 548]; Hargre1937 [distribution, host: 516]; Haywar1944 [distribution, host: 7]; Hempel1900a [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 518]; Hempel1936 [taxonomy: 175]; Herric1911 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 36-37]; HertinSi1972 [biological control, distribution: 179]; Heu2002 [distribution, host: 21]; HodgesHo2002a [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 118-123]; HodgsoHi1990 [distribution, host: 4, 6, 8, 12, 14-17]; Hollin1923 [distribution, host: 32, 67]; Houser1918 [distribution, host: 161]; Hua2000 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 150]; HuangPo1998 [biological control: 1859]; Hudson1967 [distribution, taxonomy: 91]; Hunter1902 [distribution, host: 145]; Jarvis1911 [distribution, host: 72]; Kawai1980 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 263]; King1899c [distribution, host: 228]; King1901f [distribution, host: 199]; Kirkal1904b [distribution, host: 157]; KozarFoZa1996 [distribution: 67]; KozarWa1985 [distribution: 83]; Kozarz1974 [distribution, host: 19]; KozarzRe1975 [distribution, host: 32]; Kuwana1926 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 15-17]; LambdiWa1980 [distribution, host: 80]; Lawson1917 [distribution, host: 243]; Leonar1901a [distribution, host, taxonomy: 576]; Leonar1920 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 182, 186]; Lepage1938 [distribution, host: 403, 426]; LepageFi1947 [distribution, host: 37]; LepineMi1931 [distribution, host: 249]; Lindin1907a [taxonomy: 19]; Lindin1912b [taxonomy: 75, 360, 367]; Lindin1924 [taxonomy: 175]; Lindin1935 [taxonomy: 147]; Lindin1957 [taxonomy: 548]; LongoMaPe1995 [distribution: 126]; LongoMaPe1999a [distribution: 149]; Lupo1938 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 122, 138]; Lupo1957a [distribution, taxonomy: 427]; MacGil1921 [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 304, 319]; Mamet1943a [distribution, host: 158]; Mamet1949 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 34]; Martin1983 [distribution, taxonomy: 52]; MartorMe1974 [distribution, host: 113]; Maskel1879 [distribution, host: 200]; Maskel1887 [distribution, host: 46]; MatileOr2001 [distribution: 190]; Maxwel1902 [distribution, taxonomy: 248-249]; Maxwel1903 [description, distribution, illustration, host: 42]; MayneGh1934 [distribution, host: 35]; McDani1971 [distribution, host: 296]; McInti1889 [distribution, taxonomy: 355]; McKenz1956 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 31, 103]; Medler1980 [distribution: 88]; Merril1953 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 43]; MerrilCh1923 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 228]; Miller2005 [distribution]; MillerDa1990 [economic importance, taxonomy: 302]; MillerDa2005 [description, distribution, host, economic importance: 180]; MiskimBo1970 [distribution, host: 30]; Moghad2004 [distribution, host: 34]; MorseNo2006 [taxonomy, phylogeny: 3]; Mosque1976 [distribution, host: 33, 87]; MoutiaMa1947 [distribution, host: 9]; MunozG1937 [taxonomy: 9]; Nakaha1981a [taxonomy: 397]; Nakaha1982 [distribution, host: 30]; NakahaMi1981 [distribution, host: 33]; Newste1901b [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 152, 153]; Newste1914 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 310]; NikolsYa1966 [biological control, distribution: 260, 263]; Paik1978 [distribution, host: 319-321]; PanisPi2001 [biological control, distribution, host: 419-422]; PanisPi2001a [biological control, distribution: 423]; Pelot1950 [distribution, host: 17]; PerezGCa1985 [distribution: 316]; PicartMa2000 [distribution, host: 16]; PooleGe1997 [distribution: 348]; Ramakr1926 [distribution, host: 256]; Ruther1915a [distribution, host: 106]; Saakya1954 [economic importance: 29-31]; Sander1904a [distribution, host: 51]; Schmut1952 [distribution, host: 574]; Schmut1957a [distribution, host: 135]; Schmut1957b [distribution, host: 149]; Schmut1959 [distribution, host: 178, 186]; Scott1952 [distribution, host: 35]; Seghat1977 [distribution, host: 12]; Signor1869a [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 432-433]; SilvadGoGa1968 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 173]; Simmon1957 [biological control, distribution, host: 4]; SoriaMoVi2000 [distribution, host: 338]; Tang1986 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 285]; Tang2001 [taxonomy: 3]; Tao1978 [distribution, host: 98]; Tao1999 [distribution, host: 83]; TerGri1954 [distribution, host: 67]; Townse1896 [distribution, economic importance, host: 12, 13]; Tzalev1968 [distribution, host: 213]; Vayssi1913 [distribution, host: 430]; VieiraCaPi1983 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 119]; Watson2002 [taxonomy: 117]; Watson2002a [description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, life history, taxonomy]; Westco1973 [description, distribution, economic importance, host: 390]; WilliaWa1988 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 101, 103]; WilliaWi1988 [distribution, host: 64]; Wilson1917 [distribution, taxonomy: 7]; Wise1977 [distribution, taxonomy: 110]; WongChCh1999 [distribution, illustration: 22, 62]; Yasnos1978 [distribution, taxonomy: 497]; YunusHo1980 [distribution, host: 33]; Zahrad1990c [distribution, host: 16]; Zimmer1948 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 412].
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