|
Biological Characteristics
Species |
Tachycineta bicolor is 14 cm in length, with an average mass of 20 grams (Robertson et al., 1992). Upper parts of male and older females are iridescent greenish blue. Upper parts of younger birds are brownish. Underside is uniformly white (Robertson et al., 1992). |
Status in Estuaries |
A cavity nester, tree swallows will often nest in loose colonies. A common inhabitant of nest boxes, tree swallows prefer open habitat near water, including fields, marshes, shorelines, and wooded swamps (Robertson et al., 1992). Nests consist of 4-6 white eggs in a cup of grass and loose feathers. Young are altricial (Ehrlich et al., 1988). The maximum age of a tree swallow recorded in nature is 11 years (Robertson et al., 1992). |
Abundance and Range |
Tree swallows breed throughout central and northern North America, with localized populations in the west. Wintering populations occur in Florida, along the Gulf of Mexico and south to the Carribean. Population density is difficult to estimate, but populations are abundant and a 25 year increase has been documented (Robertson et al., 1992). |
Site Fidelity |
Tree swallows often return to the previous year’s breeding site, with males showing stronger breeding site fidelity than females. Winter site fidelity is unknown (Robertson et al., 1992). |
Ease of Census |
Moderate. Abundance and high visibility make for easy counting, but patchy distribution of breeding pairs makes estimation of density difficult (Robertson et al., 1992). |
Feeding Habits |
Feeds by catching insects on the wing. Occasionally gleans insects from the foliage or ground. Berries are eaten when insect abundance is low (Ehrlich et al., 1988). |
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|
I. |
Organochlorine Contaminants |
1. |
Eggs
and nestlings were collected from several locations in Alberta, Canada
in 1978 and 1979 (Shaw, 1984). In 1978, mean DDE
concentration was 1.01 mg/g
wet weight in viable eggs, 2.23 mg/g
in unhatched eggs, and 0.31 mg/g
in nestlings. In 1979, mean DDE
concentration was 0.94 mg/g
in viable eggs, and 0.86 mg/g
in unhatched eggs. In 1978, mean heptachlor
epoxide concentration was 0.09 mg/g
in viable eggs, 0.07 mg/g
in unhatched eggs, and 0.02 mg/g
in nestlings. In 1978, mean PCB
concentration was 0.43 mg/g
in viable eggs, 0.45 mg/g
in unhatched eggs, and 0.07 mg/g
in nestlings. |
2. |
Eggs
from attended nests, eggs from abandoned nests, carcasses of nestlings,
live breeding females, and carcasses of dead breeding females were
collected from nest boxes near Denver, Colorado between 1977 and 1980 (DeWeese
et al., 1985). Geometric mean residue of DDE
was 1.30 and 2.80 mg/g wet weight in attended and abandoned eggs,
respectively, 0.36 mg/g
in dead nestlings, 4.40 and 7.90 mg/g in carcasses of live and dead females,
respectively, and 0.76 and 1.3 mg/g in brains of live and dead females, respectively.
Geometric mean residue of
PCBs was 0.25 and 0.33 mg/g
in attended and abandoned eggs respectively, ND in dead nestlings, 0.30
and 0.37 mg/g
in carcasses of live and dead females, respectively, and ND in any
brains. Geometric mean residue of other organochlorines
was 0.06 and 0.07 mg/g
in attended and abandoned eggs respectively, ND in dead nestlings, 0.11
and 0.57 mg/g
in carcasses of live and dead females, respectively, and 0.11 mg/g
and ND in brains of live and dead females, respectively.
Geometric mean residue of total organochlorines was 1.80 and 3.30 mg/g
in attended and abandoned eggs respectively, 0.36 mg/g
in dead nestlings, 5.30 and 9.30 mg/g
in carcasses of live and dead females, respectively, and 1.30 mg/g
in brains of both live and dead females. |
3. |
Carcasses
were collected from Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, Utah,
Colorado, and New Mexico in 1980 (Deweese et al., 1986). Mean
contaminant concentrations were 14.3 mg/g
wet weight DDE,
0.04 mg/g
DDT + metabolites,
0.42 mg/g PCB, 0.12
mg/g oxychlordane, and 0.26 mg/g heptachlor epoxide. Hexachlorocyclohexane
was not detected. Tree
swallows had higher mean organochlorine contaminants than birds in other
foraging niches. Male tree swallows had higher mean organochlorine
contaminants than females. |
4. |
Eggs
and nestlings were collected from a dredge disposal site and a reference
site on the Fox River, Wisconsin in 1988 (Ankley et al., 1993). Mean
residue of total PCBs was
4.12 and 2.49 mg/g
wet weight respectively in eggs and nestlings from the reference site,
and 2.97 mg/g
in nestlings from the disposal site. Mean concentrations of PCB congeners in eggs at the reference site were 42,500 pg/g congener
77, 116,000 pg/g congener
105, 1,050 pg/g congener
126, and 78.7 pg/g congener
169. Mean concentrations of PCB
congeners in nestlings from the reference site were 41,200
pg/g congener 77, 47,200
pg/g congener 105, 752 pg/g
congener 126, and 18.0 pg/g congener
169. Mean concentrations of PCB
congeners in eggs from the disposal site were 22,500 pg/g congener 77, 66,900 pg/g congener
105, 1,180 pg/g congener
126, and 54.0 pg/g congener
169. The range of PCDD residues
was ND-140 pg/g in eggs from the reference site, 2.3-56.1 pg/g in
nestlings from the reference site, and ND-71.4 pg/g in nestlings from
the disposal site. The range of PCDF residues
was ND-39.9 pg/g in eggs
from the reference site, ND-26.4 pg/g in nestlings from the reference
site, and ND- 23.7 pg/g in nestlings from the disposal site. |
5. |
Between 1988 and 1994, tree swallow eggs were collected from southern Ontario, Canada (Bishop et al., 2000). DDE concentrations in pooled tree swallow eggs from 9 orchards and 1 pasture (a total of 2,598 eggs) were: 2.56, 0.38, 0.45, 0.78, 2.06, 0.66, 0.43, 0.54, 1.86, and 0.59 mg/g wet weight. Total organochlorine (1245- and 1234-tetrachlorobenzene, pentachlorobenzene, α-, β-, and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane, heptachlor epoxide, oxychlordane, trans- and cis-chlordane, dieldrin, photomirex, mirex, DDE, DDD, DDT, o,p’-DDE, o,p’-DDD, o,p’-DDT, endosulfan, cis-nonachlor, and total PCBs) concentrations from the same ten locations were, respectively: 3.47, 0.74, 0.86, 1.34, 2.51, 1.36, 1.21, 0.91, 2.38, and 0.98 mg/g. PCB concentrations were between 0.27 and 0.71 mg/g. |
6. |
Eggs
and nestlings from the Fox River area and Green Bay, Wisconsin were
analyzed for total PCBs and
bioassayed for TCDD-EQ in
1989 (Jones et al., 1993). In
addition, TCDD-EQs were also calculated for each sample based on three
different toxic equivalency factors.
Residue of total PCBs in a
composite egg sample was 10.8 mg/g
wet weight, TCDD-EQ determined
by H4IIE bioassay for this sample was 170 ng/kg, and the calculated TCDD-EQs were 692, 30.3, and 67.3 ng/kg. Residue of total
PCBs in a composite nestling sample was 11.3 mg/g,
TCDD-EQ determined by H4IIE
bioassay for this sample was 116 ng/kg, and the calculated TCDD-EQs
were 430, 299, and 45.0 ng/kg. Residue of total
PCBs in a carcass of an older chick was 13.1 mg/g, TCDD-EQ determined
by H4IIE bioassay for this sample was 28.2 ng/kg, and the calculated TCDD-EQs
were 552, 20.1, and 33.6 ng/kg. |
7. |
Eggs
were collected from birds nesting in boxes in orchards and non-orchard
forest sites in British Columbia 1990 and 1991 (Elliott et al., 1994).
Mean residues of DDE ranged
from 6.61 to 11.2 mg/g
wet weight in orchard habitats, and from 1.09 to 5.61 mg/g
in non-orchard habitats. Mean residues of PCBs
ranged from 0.16 to 0.25 in orchard habitats, and from 0.13 to 0.20 mg/g
in non-orchard habitats. Mean residues of all other organochlorines were
lower than 0.10 mg/g
in both habitats. |
8. |
Eggs
were collected from Wye Marsh, Lake Huron, Ontario in 1991 (Martin et
al., 1995). Mean residue of DDE was
0.46 mg/g
wet weight. Mean residue of total PCBs
was 0.26 mg/g.
Mean residue of oxychlordane, OCS, HCB,
dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide, b-HCH,
mirex, and trans-nonachlor were 0.02 mg/g.
|
9. |
Eggs
and nestlings were collected from 4 sites on the Saginaw River, Michigan
in 1991 (Nichols et al., 1995). The ranges of mean residues of PCBs
in eggs and nestlings respectively were 1,707-4,600 and 445-5,850 pg/g PCB
congener 77, 19,390- 39,660 and 5,810-32,160 pg/g PCB
congener 101, 14,755-37,437 and 5,703-36,204 pg/g PCB
congener 118, 309-685
and 87-516 pg/g PCB 126,
33,550-73,555 and 5,133-36,298 pg/g PCB
congener 180, and 563-1,373 and 171-1,027 ng/g total
PCBs. |
10. |
Eggs
and nestlings were collected from several sites in the Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence River basin in
1991 (Bishop et al., 1995). The ranges of mean organochlorine residues
in eggs and nestlings respectively were
0.46-4.4 and 0.02-0.56 mg/g
wet weight
DDE,
0.01-0.06 and 0.004- 0.21 mg/g
dieldrin, 0.01-0.04 and
0.002-0.12 mg/g
heptachlor epoxide,
0.02-0.06 and 0.004- 0.11 mg/g
oxychlordane, 0.01-0.04 and
ND-0.003 mg/g
mirex, and 0.25-4.0 and
0.01-0.75 mg/g
total PCBs. |
11. |
Tree
swallow eggs and nestlings were collected in 1992 from nests within the
Saginaw Bay watershed in Michigan (Froese et al., 1998).
Mean PCB
concentrations (summed) were similar in eggs (15.0 µg/g lipid weight,
N=8) and nestlings (16.0 µg/g, N=14), and about one order of magnitude
greater than total organic carbon-normalized PCB
in sediments. Concentrations
of 14 individual PCB congeners
were determined in both tissues. Concentrations
of PCB 136 and 138 were highest in both eggs (2500 and 730 ng/g,
respectively) and nestlings (920 and 980 ng/g). Concentrations of other PCB
congeners ranged from 9-560 ng/g in eggs and 10-870 ng/g in
nestlings. Mean TEQs
were 0.09 ng/g lipid weight in eggs and 0.11 ng/g in nestlings.
Results indicate that patterns of relative concentrations of PCB
congeners change from eggs to nestlings, but if
biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAF) are based only on non-
and mono-ortho-substituted
PCB congeners or TEQs,
calculated BSAFs are similar to those predicted by fugacity theory. |
12. |
Tree
swallow eggs and nestlings were collected from seven sites along the St.
Lawrence River and lower Great Lakes from 1992-1995 (Bishop et al.,
1999). Concentrations of organochlorine
and chlorobenzene compounds
were very low or below detection limits at all sites, with the exception
of PCBs and DDE. Mean
concentrations in nestlings ranged from 0.0376-5.469 µg/g wet weight
for PCBs and 0.0272-1.484
µg/g for DDE.
In eggs, mean concentrations ranged from 0.256-11.168 µg/g for PCBs
and 0.625-2.567 µg/g for DDE. |
13. |
Eggs
were collected from 4 sites on the upper Hudson River, New York in 1994
and 1995, analyzed for organochlorine residues, and TEQs were calculated based on three different toxic
equivalency factors (Secord and McCarty, 1997). Mean total
PCBs ranged from 4.60 to as much as 44.0 mg/g
wet weight. Organochlorine pesticides were ND. Mean PCDD
ranged from 0.20-38.0 pg/g, depending on sample site and
congener. Mean PCDF ranged
from 0.20-29.0 pg/g, depending on sample site and congener. The 3 TEQs ranged from 13-1,390 ng/g, 48-9,060 ng/g, and 36-11,100
ng/g respectively, depending on sample site.
|
14. |
Eggs,
nestlings, and adults were collected along the Hudson River, New York,
between 1994-95 (Secord et al., 1999).
Mean total PCBs, at
contaminated sites and at a references site on the Champlain Canal,
respectively, were 9.32-29.5 µg/g wet weight and 5.94 µg/g in eggs,
3.71-62.2 µg/g and 0.72 µg/g in nestlings and 114 and 22.2 µg/g
in one adult. Mean TEQs in
contaminated sites and references sites, respectively, were 1,730-12,700
pg/g and 3,060 pg/g in eggs, 1,370-25,400 pg/g and 410 pg/g in
nestlings, and 57,400 and 13,200 pg/g in
adults. PCB congeners 77, 81, 126,
169, 105, 118, and 156
were detected at all sites in eggs, nestlings, and adults.
Concentrations of these congeners were lower in nestlings and
adults from the reference site than from the study sites, and were
similar in eggs from the reference site and one study site, but lower
than at two other study sites. PCB
118 occurred at the highest mean concentration of any
congener at 656 ng/g at one study site and 254 ng/g at the reference
site in eggs, 1,630 ng/g at one study site and 43.1 ng/g at the
reference site for nestlings, and 6,670 ng/g at one study site, and ng/g
at the reference site for adults. |
15. |
Pipping
embryos and nestlings were collected from artificial nest boxes at two
polluted sites in the Fox River and Green Bay areas of Wisconsin, and
from two reference sites between 1994-95 (Custer et al., 1998).
Mean DDE, at
polluted and reference sites, respectively, ranged from 0.19-0.20 and
0.11-0.15 µg/g wet weight in embryos and 0.07 µg/g and 0.02-0.03 µg/g
in nestlings. Mean
total PCBs ranged from 3.10-3.24 and 0.29-0.77 µg/g in
embryos and from 1.87-3.29 and 0.19-0.20 µg/g in nestlings.
PCB congeners 77, 105, 114, 118/106, 126, 128, 138, 156, 157, 158, 166,
167, 169, 170, and 189 were detected in embryos and nestlings from both sites.
Mean concentrations of almost all congeners were higher in
embryos and pooled nestling samples from the polluted sites. PCB
congener 118/106 was found in the highest mean
concentrations, ranging from 68-98 and 9.24-18.6 ng/g in embryos from
the polluted and reference sites respectively, and from 42-95 and
3.35-10.9 ng/g in pooled nestlings.
Mean TEQ (Kennedy)
ranged from 332-589 and 85-106 ng/g in embryos and from 163-460 and
23-92 µg/g in pooled nestlings. Mean
TEQ (Safe) ranged from 127-214 and 29-36 ng/g in embryos and
from 62-172 and 8-31 ng/g in pooled nestlings. |
16. |
Tree
swallow eggs were collected from pesticide-treated (4 sites) and
unsprayed (3 sites) apple orchards in southern Ontario, Canada, between
1994-1997 (Bishop et al., 1998a). Mean
concentrations of DDE and total
PCBs ranged from 0.36-2.29 µg/g wet weight and 0.27-2.29
µg/g, respectively, and did not vary significantly among
sites. Concentrations of
all other pesticides were low (<0.06 µg/g) and did not vary among
sites. |
17. |
From
1995-97, tree swallow eggs (4-8 per location) and nestlings (3-37 per
location) were collected from six sites in Pennsylvania, two sites in
Indiana, one site on the Hudson River, and a reference site in Maryland
(Yorks, 1999). Mean PCB
concentrations in eggs and nestlings, respectively, were 0.9483 and
0.169 ug/g at Blue Marsh Lake, PA; 2.6 and 2.183 ug/g at the Texas
Eastern Transmission Corporation in Bechtelsville, 1.8875 and 0.911 ug/g
at Valley Forge National Historic Park, PA; 2.8667 and 0.743 ug/g at
John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge, PA; 4.600 and 1.446 ug/g at Fort
Mifflin, PA; and 0.6950 and 0.294 ug/g at the reference site at the
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center.
One egg collected from the Texas Eastern Transmission Corporation
in Bernville contained 9.7 ug/g PCBs.
Nestlings only were collected from other locations, with mean PCB
values of 0.1305 ug/g at Goose Pond, IN; 18.46 ug/g Winston-Thomas
sewage treatment plant near Bloomfield, IN; and 13.27 ug/g near Fort
Edward on the Hudson River. |
18. |
In
April 1993 and 1994 tree swallow nest boxes were set up above and below
bleached kraft pulp mills that had ceased using Cl bleach in the 1990s
at two locations in British Columbia, Canada: on the Fraser River and
its tributaries, and on the Thompson and South Thompson Rivers (Harris
and Elliott, 2000). Nestlings
(16-days-old) were collected, pooled, and homogenized (minus feathers,
beaks, and feet) for each of the 4 sites.
The I-TEQs (ng/kg wet weight) for downstream and upstream
nestling pools, respectively, were 11.9 and 1.9 on the Fraser River, and
15.2 and 5.3, Thompson River. Concentrations
of other contaminants, for downstream and upstream nestling pools in the
Thompson River, and downstream and upstream pools in the Fraser River,
respectively, were: DDD 0.9
and 1.9, <0.5 and <0.5 μg/kg; DDE
87.2 and 178.3, 164.9 and 90.2 μg/kg; dieldrin
1.2 and 0.8, 0.3 and 0.4 μg/kg; heptachlor
epoxide <0.1 and 0.7, 1.1 and 0.4 μg/kg; HCB
<0.5 and <0.5, <0.5 and 2.2 μg/kg; α-HCH
1.5 and 3, 1.6 and 3.1 μg/kg; γ-
HCH 0.6 and <0.1, <0.1 and <0.1 μg/kg; cis-nonachlor 0.4 and 0.4, <0.1 and
<0.1 μg/kg; oxychlordane
1.5 and 1.4, 1.5 and 1.3 μg/kg; tris(4-chlorophenyl)-methanol
0.6 and <0.05, <0/05 and <0.05 μg/kg; Aroclor 1260 27.7 and <0.1, 40.2 and <0.1 μg/kg;
total PCBs 31.6 and
<0.1,16 and <0.1 μg/kg;
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD 1.93 and 2.2, 36.24 and 1.67 ng/kg;
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF <1.46 and <1.87, 10.19 and <0.93
ng/kg; OCDD 2.37 and 2.69,
4.21 and 2.11 ng/kg; pentachlorophenol
<1.0 and ND, 3.6 and <1.0 μg/kg; 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD
<0.69 and <0.84, 1.78 and <0.55 ng/kg; HxCDD 1.17 and <4.21, 11.14 and <1.8 ng/kg; 2,3,7,8-TCDF
3.17 and 1.29, 1.1 and 0.58 ng/kg; 1,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDF
<0.73 and <0.72, 0.81 and <1.87 ng/kg; OCDF <1.51 and <2.55, 1.98 and <1.14 ng/kg;
PCB-37 45.58 and 6.9, 5.64 and <2.81 ng/kg;
PCB-81 3.06 and 0.92, 1.24 and <1.72 ng/kg;
PCB-77 162.57 and 58.61, 79.82 and 17.67 ng/kg; PCB-126
35.44 and 9.49, 42.05 and 4.57 ng/kg; PCB-169
1.98 and 0.82, 2.81 and 1.04 ng/kg.
Of the 42 PCB
congeners analyzed for total PCBs,
only 101, 118,
138, 153, and 180
were detected. |
19. |
In
1998, tree swallow eggs (2-3 per clutch, pooled) and nestlings (12-16
days old) were collected from nest boxes on the Upper Mississippi River,
Iowa (river miles 484-491), at Pigeon Creek (upriver reference site),
Duck Creek (historic PCB source), and Lindsey Harbor (downstream of
historic PCB source) (Custer et al., 2000).
Alpha-BHC, β-BHC, o,p’-DDD,
o,p’-DDE, o,p’-DDT,
and toxaphene
were not detected in eggs or nestlings.
Alpha-chlordane, cis-nonachlor,
mirex, p,p’-DDD, and
p,p’-DDT were
detected in fewer than 50% of samples, and all concentrations were <
0.07 µg/g wet weight. Mean
concentrations of total PCBs
(0.28-0.54 µg/g wet weight), p,p’-DDE
(0.11-0.17µg/g), and
dieldrin, oxychlordane, heptachlor epoxide, and
trans-nonachlor
(#0.07
µg/g for all 4) were at background levels in eggs. Mean concentrations in eggs from Pigeon Creek and Lindsey
Harbor, respectively, were 0.026 and 0.012 ng/g for 2,3,7,8-TCDD;
and 0.14 and 0.22 ng/g for 2,3,7,8-TCDF. Mean concentrations of total
PCBs, p,p’-DDE,
dieldrin, and heptachlor
epoxide in nestlings were at or near background levels (#0.14µg/g). |
20. |
Nestlings
from New York (N=178) and Wisconsin (N=35) were collected in 1998
(Stapleton et al., 2001). Total PCB
concentration ranged from 7,600 –12,000 ng/g wet weight of body tissue
in Hudson River sites. Two nestlings in Wisconsin had total PCB levels of 42 and 56 ng/g, proofing reference site.
No differences were found in swallow mutation rates in areas of
relatively high or low PCB
contamination. |
II. |
Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticides |
|
No
direct exposure data available |
III. |
Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids |
1. |
Eggshells
and embryos, and organs of pre-fledgling birds were collected from the
Hackensack Meadowlands, New Jersey (Kraus, 1989). Mean concentrations of
Cr, Ni, Cu, and Pb in eggshell were 174, 31.4, 2.40, 90.9, and 1.80 µg/g
wet weight, respectively. Mean concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, and Pb
in embryos were 42.2, 22.1, 54.0, 5.90 µg/g, and ND, respectively. Mean
Cr in brain, liver, muscle,
gizzard, and feathers was 212, 102, 56.1, 84.4, and 25.5 µg/g,
respectively. Mean Ni in
brain, liver, muscle, gizzard, and feathers was 27.6, 23.8, 7.60, 9.4,
and 4.3 µg/g, respectively. Mean Cu in
brain, liver, muscle, gizzard, and feathers was ND, ND, 1.60, 6.00, and
4.70, respectively. Mean Pb
in brain, liver, muscle, gizzard, and feathers were ND, 63.6, ND, 12.5,
and 4.30 µg/g, respectively. |
2. |
Liver
and kidney of nestlings from acidified lakes and reference lakes in
northwestern Ontario were collected between 1986 and 1989 (St. Louis et
al., 1993). Mean Cd in
nestlings from acidified lakes ranged from 0.20 to 0.36 µg/g dry weight
in liver, and from 0.14 to 0.48 µg/g in kidney. Mean Cd
in nestlings from reference lakes was 0.20 µg/g in liver and
0.16 µg/g in kidney. Mean Cu
in nestlings from acidified lakes ranged from 12.1 to 42.6 µg/g in
liver, and from 10.3 to 12.8 µg/g in kidney. Mean Cu
in nestlings from reference lakes was 17.3 µg/g in liver and
10.4 µg/g in kidney. Mean Zn
in nestlings from acidified lakes ranged from 70.8 to 108 µg/g in
liver, and from 73.1 to 87.8 µg/g in kidney. Mean Zn
in nestlings from reference lakes was 70.5 µg/g in liver and
77.1 µg/g in kidney. |
3. |
Eggs
were collected from several sites in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River
basin in 1991 (Bishop et al., 1995). Mean Hg
ranged from 0.04 to 0.08 µg/g wet weight. |
4. |
Nestlings
were collected from contaminated and reference sites on the Cour
d’Alene river in northern Idaho in 1987 (Blus et al., 1995). Geometric
mean blood Pb was 0.19 and
0.29 µg/g wet weight at the contaminated and reference sites
respectively. Geometric mean hepatic Pb
was 0.15 and ND at the contaminated and reference sites respectively.
Mean kidney Cd was 0.07 and ND at the contaminated and reference sites
respectively. |
5. |
Tree
swallow embryos, nestling bodies and feathers, and dead adults were
collected from northwestern Ontario, Canada at the Experimental Lakes
Reservior Project and nearby reference lakes (Gerrard and St. Louis,
2001). The experimental
reservior was monitored in 1992 and 1993 prior to flooding and from 1994
to 1999 postflooding. The
reference lakes were monitored from 1992 to 1999. Between
1992 and 1999, nine dead adult tree swallows were found at the
experimental reservior. Mean (range) Hg
body and feather concentrations were 517 (214 to 1110) and 1690 (843 to
2740) ng/g dry weight, respectively. Total Hg
body burden was 2760 to 8540 ng (mean=4760 ng). In
embryos, the mean MeHg concentration at the experimental reservior was 365±35
ng/g and was significantly higher in preflood year 1992 (518±25.9 ng/g).
At the reference lakes, the mean MeHg
concentration was 270±18 ng/g, with no differences between years.
Embryo body burdens ranged from 44 to 111 ng MeHg
but were not significantly different between years for the
experimental reservoir or the reference lakes. In
nestling bodies, mean MeHg concentrations increased 36.3% postflooding at the
experimental reservoir from 82.8±2.2 to 130±11 ng/g.
The mean concentration of MeHg
among nestling bodies for 1992-1999 was 81.6±5.1 ng/g at the reference
lakes. Nestling feather MeHg concentrations increased postflooding from 872±75 to 1210±53 ng/g at the experimental reservior. The mean MeHg concentration in nestling feathers at the reference lakes was 747±43 ng/g, and there was no significant difference between years. |
6. |
Eggs
were collected from 4 sites on the Upper Hudson River, New York in 1994
and 1995 (Secord and McCarty, 1997). Mean contaminants concentrations at
the 4 sites ranged from 0.55 to 0.82 mg/g
wet weight As, ND to 2.55 mg/g B, ND to 0.87 mg/g Ba, 0.44
to 0.48 mg/g
Cu, 16.9 to 25.9 mg/g Fe, ND to 0.095 mg/g Hg, 71.6
to 72.6 mg/g
Mg, 0.63 to 1.35 mg/g
Mn, 1.08 to 1.83 mg/g Sr, and 14.6 to
15.6 mg/g
Zn. All other metal
concentrations were below detection limits. |
7. |
Tree
swallows were collected from pesticide-treated and unsprayed apple
orchards in Ontario, Canada, between 1995-96 (Bishop et al., 1998b).
Mean concentrations of Pb
and As ranged from
<0.03-0.1 and 0.20-0.25 µg/g
dry weight, respectively, and did not vary significantly
among sites. |
8. |
In
1998, nest boxes were placed along the North Platte River, WY (Custer et
al., 2001). Eggs and nestling livers were collected from 2 sites, a
refinery locale (contaminated) and 10 km further down the river
(reference). Mean concentrations are recorded in µg/g
dry weight. Eggs (n=7): Ba
4, B 58, Cu
2, Fe 140, Mg
330, Mn 3, Hg
0.3, Se 7, Sr
14, Zn 57.
Livers (n=6): B 16, Cu
26, Fe 990, Mg
800, Mn 5, Hg
0.2, Mo 2, Se
21, Sr 0.4, Zn
88. All other metal concentrations were below detection limits. |
IV. |
Petroleum |
|
No
residue data available |
|
Tree
Swallow Contaminant Response Data
|
I. |
Organochlorine Contaminants |
1. |
Length,
breadth, and weight of eggs collected in 1980 and 1981 in Colorado were
compared among attended nests, abandoned nests, and pre-DDT
era museum specimens (DeWeese et al., 1985). Mean length and breadth for
pre-DDT era eggs from
Colorado were 1.87 and 1.32 cm respectively. Mean weight of pre-DDT
era eggs from Colorado was 0.096 g. Mean length and breadth of
unattended eggs collected in 1980 ranged from 1.82 to 1.93 cm. Mean
breadth of unattended eggs collected in 1980 was 1.33 cm. Mean weight of
unattended eggs collected in 1980 ranged from 0.09 to 0.10 g. Mean
length and breadth of attended eggs collected in 1981 were 1.80 and 1.30
cm. Mean weight of attended eggs collected in 1981 was 0.09 g. Mean
length and breadth of unattended eggs collected in 1981 were 1.88 and
1.34 cm. Mean weight of unattended eggs collected in 1981 was 0.10 g.
Thus, significant eggshell thinning was not observed. |
2. |
Between 1988 and 1994, tree swallow eggs were collected from orchards and a pasture in southern Ontario, Canada (Bishop et al., 2000). Reproduction declined in tree swallows as egg survival decreased with increased pesticide exposure. |
3. |
Clutch
size, nest success, hatching success, and fledgling success in British
Columbia in 1991 were compared between orchard habitats where
organochlorine pesticides were in use, and non-orchard forest habitats
(Elliott et al., 1994). No significant differences in any parameters
were found between the two habitat types. |
4. |
Reproductive
success and biochemical parameters (measured in nestlings) were
monitored in tree swallows on seven sites along the St. Lawrence River
and lower Great Lakes from 1991-1994 (Bishop et al., 1999).
Hatching success ranged from 50-95% and fledging success from
60-100%; neither parameter show significant differences between sites.
Hepatic porphyrins were consistently highest at Toronto Island.
Mean values ranged from 28.1-171.8 pmol/g total porphyrins,
15.7-158.0 pmol/g uroporphyrin, 2.2-18.2 pmol/g heptaporphyrin, and
3.3-26.2 hexaporphyrin, and did not differ among sites due to high
individual variability. Pentaporphyrin
was detected at Toronto Island only at 9.7 pmol/g.
Concentrations of uroporphyrin and PCB
118 were positively correlated.
Retinol concentrations ranged from 0.5-2.4 µg/g in kidney and
0.6-5.3 µg/g in liver. Retinyl
palmitate ranged from 1.0-3.0 µg/g in kidney and 6.4-197.6 µg/g in
liver. Kidney retinol
concentrations were negatively correlated with heptachlor
epoxide in eggs. Hepatic
EROD activity was significantly higher at Cornwall Island (22.0 pmol/min/mg
protein) than all other sites (1.4-13.3 pmol/min/mg), and was negatively
correlated with liver retinol concentrations. |
5. |
During
1993-1996, tree swallows nesting in boxes located upstream and
downstream from two kraft pulp mills and sewage sites in western Canada
(near Grande Prairie, Alberta, and Prince Albert, Saskatchewan) were
examined for dietary exposure to and effects of effluent on
physiological and reproductive parameters (Wayland et al., 1998).
Aquatic insects accounted for approximately 50-60% of the diet.
Physiological responses, including EROD activity, liver somatic
indices, steroid hormones levels and porphyrins did not differ between
upstream and downstream locations in a manner consistent with effluent
exposure with two exceptions. In
one downstream site (Grande Prairie), 17 -estradiol was lower in
incubating females than the upstream site in one of two years measured.
At Prince Albert, highly carboxylated porphyrins were
significantly elevated at the downstream site.
At the sewage site at Prince Albert, incubating females exhibited
significantly greater androgen levels than those from the upstream site,
and liver somatic indices were lower in nestlings from the downstream
site compared to the upstream or sewage site, exhibiting a pattern
opposite to that of fish exposed to pulp mill effluent. At
Grand Prairie, downstream nestlings had lower liver somatic indices than
those upstream, but higher than those at the sewage site.
Reproduction did not differ significantly between upstream and
downstream sites, though a trend existed towards enhanced reproduction
at downstream sites. |
6. |
Comparison
of nest mass at laying, nest mass at hatching, number of nest-lining
feathers at first egg, number of nest-lining feathers at last egg, and
number of nest-lining feathers at hatching was made among sites in
upstate New York with varying levels of PCBs
in the eggs in 1994 and 1995 (McCarty and Secord, 1999a). Nest mass at
laying, number of feathers at first egg, and number of feathers at last
egg were significantly higher at uncontaminated sites than contaminated
sites. Nest mass at hatching was significantly higher at a moderately
contaminated site than at highly contaminated sites. |
7. |
Mean
clutch size, hatching success, nestling mortality, egg abandonment and
burial, and nestling mass were compared among sites in upstate New York
with varying levels of PCBs
in the eggs 1994 and 1995 (McCarty and Secord, 1999b). Mean clutch size
did not vary significantly among locations. Hatching success and
nestling mortality were lower at an uncontaminated site than at
contaminated sites. Nestlings from contaminated sites had significantly
higher mass than nestlings from uncontaminated sites. |
8. |
Pipping
embryos and nestlings were collected from artificial nest boxes at two
polluted sites in the Fox River and Green Bay areas of Wisconsin, and
from two reference sites between 1994-95 (Custer et al., 1998).
Mean hepatic EROD activity in samples from polluted and reference sites,
respectively, ranged from 78-99 and 32-53 pmol/min/mg in embryos and
from 89-109 and 32-36 pmol/min/mg of nestlings.
Mean hepatic BROD
activity ranged from 54-66 and 20-37 pmol/min/mg in embryos and from
53-65 and 16-20 pmol/min/mg in nestlings.
There was no significant difference in hatching success among
polluted and reference sites. Furthermore,
clutches in which all eggs, some eggs, or no eggs hatched did not differ
in mean concentrations of DDE or
PCBs in sample eggs. |
9. |
Plumage
color of female tree swallows nesting along the Hudson River, New York,
near Hudson Falls and the Champlain Canal was monitored during the
breeding seasons of 1994 and 1995 for possible alterations due to PCB
contamination (McCarty and Secord, 2000).
Compared to museum specimens, sub-adult females had significantly
more adult-type blue-green plumage.
No significant relationships were found between female color and
reproductive parameters. |
10. |
Tree
swallows were collected from pesticide-treated (4 sites) and unsprayed
(3 sites) apple orchards in southern Ontario, Canada, between 1994-1997
(Bishop et al., 1998a). Swallows
were exposed to thiodan at
4kg/ hectare among many other pesticides.
Hepatic EROD activity ranged between 10.7 and 34.9 pg/min/mg
protein and did not differ among sites.
Cell proliferation in the cortex and delayed thymic involution
were positively correlated with increasing spray exposure.
Increased blastogenic response to pokeweed mitogen was found in
birds from sprayed orchards. Birds
from sprayed orchards were also slightly anemic, and had smaller bursal
masses and an increase in relative heterophil concentrations.
There were no significant differences in body or organ mass
between sprayed and unsprayed sites.
|
11. |
Tree
swallows were collected from pesticide-treated and unsprayed apple
orchards in Ontario, Canada, between 1995-96 (Bishop et al., 1998b).
No correlations were found among DDE
concentration in eggs (concentrations not reported) and testis
histology, body or organ masses, or concentrations of estradiol,
testosterone, or thyroid hormone (T3). |
12. |
From
1995-97, 12-day old tree swallow nestlings (3-49 per location) were
collected from six sites in Pennsylvania, two sites in Indiana, one site
on the Hudson River, and a reference site in Maryland (Yorks, 1999).
Mean BROD and EROD activity (pmol/min/mg), respectively, was
16.02 and 29.56 at Blue Marsh Lake, PA; 17.33 and 41.42 at the Texas
Eastern Transmission Corporation in Bechtelsville, PA; 30.08 and 43.34
at Valley Forge National Historic Park, PA; 33.25 and 55.49 at John
Heinz National Wildlife Refuge, PA; 53.58 and 92.19 at Fort Mifflin, PA;
13.00 and 37.51 near Fort Edward on the Hudson River, NY; 22.35 and
28.36 at Goose Pond, IN; 21.31 (1995 BROD), 61.72 (1996 BROD) and 60.91
(EROD) at the Winston-Thomas sewage treatment plant near Bloomfield, IN;
and 21.80 (BROD), 39.14 (1995 EROD) and 28.23 (1996, 1997 EROD) at the
reference site at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, MD.
Both BROD and EROD were positively correlated with PCB
concentrations in nestlings in all sites except for the Hudson River,
where no significant correlations were found.
No dramatic effects on gross and histological morphology were
observed due to PCB exposure, and phenotypic gonadal morphology matched
genotypic sex. |
13. |
In
April 1993 and 1994 tree swallow nest boxes were set up above and below
bleached kraft pulp mills that had ceased using Cl bleach in the 1990s
at two locations in British Columbia, Canada: on the Fraser River and
its tributaries, and on the Thompson and South Thompson Rivers (Harris
and Elliott, 2000). Nest
success for downstream and upstream boxes, respectively was 75% and 100%
on the Thompson River, and 40% and 100% on the Fraser River.
Low nest success was atrributed to nest abandonment, which may be
related to contaminants, though the lack of consistency in differences
in reproductive parameters associated with upstream or downstream sites
makes this conclusion unlikely. |
II. |
Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticides |
1. |
Brain
and plasma ChE activity of nestlings and plasma ChE activity of adults
were measured in tree swallows collected from nest boxes in apple
orchards in Canada in 1988-89, following application of azinphos-methyl
at 2.1kg/ha or phosmet
at 3.75 kg/ha (Burgess et al., 1999). Plasma ChE activity in adults was
depressed by 41% compared to controls after two applications of azinphos-methyl.
Plasma ChE activity in adults was depressed by 21% and 19% after
a first and second application of phosmet,
respectively. Of the
nestlings, only those 3-5 days old exhibited brain ChE inhibition
>20%. No significant ChE
inhibition was noted in plasma of nestlings after application of either
organophosphorus insecticide, although one individual from the azinphos-methyl-treated
orchard and one individual from the phosmet-treated
orchard exhibited 55 and 29% inhibition, respectively.
No effects on survival due to application of these pesticides
were noted. |
2. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in apple orchards in southern Ontario, Canada
were exposed to azinphos-methyl
at 2.0 kg/ha, diazinon at
3.75 kg/ha, or carbaryl at
2.0-3.0 kg/ha (as well as many other pesticides) between 1995-96 (Bishop
et al., 1998a). Hepatic
EROD activity ranged between 10.7 and 34.9 pg/min/mg protein and did not
differ among sites. Cell
proliferation in the cortex and delayed thymic involution were
positively correlated with increasing spray exposure.
Increased blastogenic response to pokeweed mitogen was found in
birds from sprayed orchards. Birds
from sprayed orchards were also slightly anemic, and had smaller bursal
masses and an increase in relative heterophil concentrations.
There were no significant differences in body or organ mass
between sprayed and unsprayed sites.
|
3. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in apple orchards in southern Ontario, Canada
were exposed to azinphos-methyl
at 2.0 kg/ha, diazinon at
3.75 kg/ha, or carbaryl at
2.0-3.0 kg/ha (as well as many other pesticides) between 1995-96 (Bishop
et al., 1998b). Histology
of testes did not vary consistently among sprayed fields and control
fields except for a higher percentage of testes in control field in
which Sertoli cells formed a contiguous layer over the basement
membrane. In male chicks, thyroid hormone (T3) concentration
were positively correlated with increasing pesticide exposure.
No effects were found on estradiol or testosterone levels. |
III. |
Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids |
1. |
Hepatic
metallothionein induction was compared between nestlings from acidified
lakes and reference lakes between 1986 and 1989 (St. Louis et al.,
1993). Metallothionein levels were higher in livers of nestling from
acidified lakes than from reference lakes. Metallothionein levels were
correlated with hepatic
Cu and Zn
concentrations. |
2. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in pesticide-treated apple orchards in
southern Ontario, Canada were collected between 1995-96 (Bishop et al.,
1998b). Orchards
were treated with Zn at 3.6
kg/1,000 L tank water/ha, B
at 0.41 L/ha, Ca at 5.0
L/ha, and N at 5.0L/1,000 L
tank water/ha. Histology of
testes did not vary consistently among sprayed fields and control fields
except for a higher percentage of testes in control field in which
Sertoli cells formed a contiguous layer over the basement membrane. In male chicks, thyroid hormone (T3) concentration
was positively correlated with increasing pesticide exposure.
No effects were found on estradiol or testosterone levels. |
IV. |
Petroleum |
1. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in pesticide-treated apple orchards in
southern Ontario, Canada were collected between 1994-1997 (Bishop et
al., 1998a). Orchards were
treated with oil at
20L/1,000L tank water/ha (among many other pesticides) as an
insecticide. Hepatic
EROD activity ranged between 10.7 and 34.9 pg/min/mg protein and did not
differ among sites. Cell
proliferation in the cortex and delayed thymic involution were
positively correlated with increasing spray exposure.
Increased blastogenic response to pokeweed mitogen was found in
birds from sprayed orchards. Birds
from sprayed orchards were also slightly anemic, and had smaller bursal
masses and an increase in relative heterophil concentrations. There were no significant differences in body or organ mass
between sprayed and unsprayed sites.
|
2. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in pesticide-treated apple orchards in
southern Ontario, Canada were collected between 1995-96 (Bishop et al.,
1998b). Orchards were
treated with oil at
20L/1,000L tank water/ha (among many other pesticides) as an
insecticide. Histology of
testes did not vary consistently among sprayed fields and control fields
except for a higher percentage of testes in control field in which
Sertoli cells formed a contiguous layer over the basement membrane.
In male chicks, thyroid hormone (T3) concentration was positively
correlated with increasing pesticide exposure.
No effects were found on estradiol or testosterone levels. |
3. |
In
1997 and 1998, reproductive and growth parameters were measured in tree
swallows nesting in reclaimed wetlands in the Athabasca River basin in
Alberta, Canada, receiving oil sands mine tailings (Smits et al., 2000).
Alkylated PAHs and napathalic
acid were present in the sediments.
Contaminated sites were Demonstration Pond, Shallow Wetland,
Natural Wetland, and reference sites were Crane Lake (1997 only), Ruth
Lake (1997 only), Poplar Creek Reservoir, and Horseshoe Lake (1998
only). In 1997, N=62 pairs,
mean nestling mass was lower at Natural Wetland than at one reference
site, though there were no differences among sites for clutch size,
hatching success, or nestling size, and growth and fledging success were
not compromised on contaminated sites.
In 1998, N=83 pairs, swallows at Natural Wetland showed decreased
hatching success, fledging rate, and nestling mass, though there were no
differences among sites for clutch size, clutch mass, or nestling size.
Immune response in 9 day old nestlings (measured by change in
skin thickness 24 hours after injection with phytohemagglutinin) was
significantly greater in nestlings at Demonstration Pond than Natural
Pond in 1997, yet no differences were detected in1998. Mean hepatic EROD
activity was significantly higher in16 day old nestlings from Natural
Wetland and Horseshoe Lake (52.6 and 44.8 pmol/min/mg protein,
respectively) than Demonstration Pond and Poplar Creek (26.6 and 28.5
pmol/min/mg protein, respectively). |
4. |
In
1998, nest boxes were placed along the North Platte River, WY (Custer et
al., 2001). Tree swallow and house wren eggs and nestling livers were
collected from 2 sites, a refinery locale (contaminated) and 10 km
further down the river (reference). Twelve different PAHs
were detected in tree swallow and wren carcasses and diet samples at the
refinery site, while only 1 PAH (1,2-benzanthracene)
was detected in one wren carcass at the reference site. Except for 2-methylnapthalene detected in the swallow diet, all PAHs
in carcasses, diet, and sediment were not methylated. Total
PAHs were significantly higher at the refinery than
reference, and odd-numbered aliphatic hydrocarbons were more predominant
than even-numbered aliphatic hydrocarbons at the refinery and reference
sites. In measuring monooxygenase activity, mean EROD (p=0.04) and BROD
(p=0.048) activities in tree swallow livers were significantly higher
(each more than 9 times) at the refinery than at the reference site. |
V. |
Other |
1. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in pesticide-treated apple orchards in
southern Ontario, Canada were collected between 1994-97 (Bishop et al.,
1998a). Orchards were
treated with fungicides (metiram
at 6.0 kg/ha, mancozeb at
3.0-6.0 kg/ha, myclobutanil
at 340 g/ha), synthetic pyrethroids (deltamethrin
at 250 ml/ha, cypermethrin
at 250 ml/ha), acaricides (clofentezine
at 300 ml/ha), herbicides (glyphosate
at 0.8-1.2 kg/ha), and growth regulators (naphthalene
acetic acid at 5-20 ppm, 1,2,-dihydro-3,6-perdazinedione
at 4.5 L/ha, Accel
at 5-20 ppm). Hepatic EROD
activity ranged between 10.7 and 34.9 pg/min/mg protein and did not
differ among sites. Cell
proliferation in the cortex and delayed thymic involution were
positively correlated with increasing spray exposure.
Increased blastogenic response to pokeweed mitogen was found in
birds from sprayed orchards. Birds
from sprayed orchards were also slightly anemic, and had smaller bursal
masses and an increase in relative heterophil concentrations.
There were no significant differences in body or organ mass
between sprayed and unsprayed sites.
|
2. |
Tree
swallows nesting in boxes in pesticide-treated apple orchards in
southern Ontario, Canada were collected between 1995-96 (Bishop et al.,
1998b). Orchards were
treated with fungicides (metiram
at 6.0 kg/ha, mancozeb at
3.0-6.0 kg/ha, myclobutanil
at 340 g/ha), synthetic pyrethroids (deltamethrin
at 250 ml/ha, cypermethrin
at 250 ml/ha), acaricides (clofentezine
at 300 ml/ha), herbicides (glyphosate
at 0.8-1.2 kg/ha), and growth regulators (naphthalene
acetic acid at 5-20 ppm, 1,2,-dihydro-3,6-perdazinedione
at 4.5 L/ha, Accel
at 5-20 ppm). Histology of
testes did not vary consistently among sprayed fields and control fields
except for a higher percentage of testes in control field in which
Sertoli cells formed a contiguous layer over the basement membrane. In male chicks, thyroid hormone (T3) concentration
was positively correlated with increasing pesticide exposure.
No effects were found on estradiol or testosterone levels. |
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