ITEMS FROM PAKISTAN

REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Bahawalpur, India.

 

Wheat research and development in Punjab (1911-00). [p. 122-129]

Lal Hussain Akhtar, Sabir Zameer Siddiqi, and Altaf Hussain Tariq.

Introduction. About 93 % of the food to feed the people of the world comes from plants, two-thirds of which is contributed by the cereals (wheat, maize, barley, sorghum, and millet). These cereals are the major source of calories and protein for the most of the world. About 80 % of the global cereal production comes from wheat, maize, and rice. Among the cereals, wheat is the largest. Of the two principal types of wheat, 90 % of the world's wheat is bread wheat, which accounts for 94 % of the production. Wheat is grown in 27 countries in the developing world. Pakistan is the eighth largest producer after the Russian Federation, China, the U.S., India, Canada, Australia, and Turkey. Durum wheat is grown in North Africa, the Near and Middle East, Russian Federation, India, Italy, France, the Northern U.S., and some areas of Canada (Stubbs et al. 1986).

In Pakistan, wheat is grown in all provinces, but the majority is grown in Punjab. The wheat share in cereal crops is between 70.7 and 80.0 % in terms of area and production in Punjab and 65.3 and 72.1 % in Pakistan (Anonymous 1999). Continued reliance on wheat as a mainstay of nutrition necessitates an increase in stability and production (yield/ha) in order to combat the food shortage. To achieve this goal, we will present various aspects of wheat research and development in the Punjab.

Population and food requirements. Increased food production continues to be a high priority in the face of continued population increase. In Pakistan, an agricultural country with 134.51 million people, the population is increasing very rapidly. Among the four provinces of Pakistan, Punjab is the most highly populated (354 people/sq km) province having a population of 72.585 million (Anonymous 1999). About 69.7 % of the people live in rural areas that still make a living from agriculture characterized by unstable production. An annual population growth rate of 3.1 % faces the government with the challenge of feeding an increasing population. The growth rate of agricultural production is slower than the population growth rate. The population by 2003, 2013, and 2023 could be as high as 168, 231, and 315 million, respectively. Food-grain requirements of 27, 37, and 51 million tons are expected during 2003, 2013, and 2023, respectively. A yield gap of 72 % has been reported between the potential (6.4 tons/ha) and the average wheat yield (1.8 tons/ha) in Pakistan (Anonymous 1996).

Expenditures on agriculture. Agriculture contributes 25.3 % (Rs. 156.69 billion) to the total GDP of Pakistan (Rs. 619.56 billion). Major crops contributed about 10.3 % (Rs. 63.87 billion) towards the GDP in 1998-99 (Anonymous 1999). Expenditures in agriculture have decreased from 2.89 % during 1992-93 to 0.1 % in 1999-00. In Punjab, a sum of Rs. 0.12 billion were spent on agricultural research during 1999-00, which is 0.5 % less than that in 1998-99. This trend necessitates that the Government must increase funding for agricultural research.

Area, production, and yield of wheat. Pakistan is the 8th largest wheat producer, accounting for 3.17 % of the world wheat production from only 3.72 % of the wheat-growing area (Anonymous 1999). Punjab is the main wheat producer in Pakistan. During 1998­99, Punjab's share of the total production in Pakistan (17.86 million ton) came to 73.97 % or 13.212 million tons from 72.11 % (5.935 million ha) of the total national area (8.23 million ha). The average yield/ha in Punjab (2,226) is 2.58 % higher than the Pakistani average (2,170). The irrigated area of Punjab (5.226 million ha) produces 12.165 million tons of wheat, and the nonirrigated area (0.709 million ha) produces 1.047 million tons. The average yield (kg/ha) in irrigated areas of Punjab is 2,318 (57.62 % higher) as compared to 1,477 in nonirrigated areas. Over the last 20 years, the area under wheat in Punjab has expanded to 28.54 % (1.165 million ha) in irrigated areas but has declined to 22.8 % (0.208 million ha) in the rainfed production zones.

From 1999­00, a target of 19.9 million tons was fixed. But a bumper crop of wheat resulted in a record production of 22 million tons from an area of 8.443 million hectares, and contributed about 60 billion rupees to the national economy. Pakistan is now self-sufficient in wheat (Anonymous 2000a). According to a National Wheat Survey conducted by the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (Anonymous 2000b), several factors played a major role in harvesting of a record production during 1999­00 including early sowing, increased use of inputs such as weedicides and fertilizers, favorable weather conditions, easy access to institutional credit, and a better wheat procurement price. Previously, irregular and reduced supplies of canal water, low rainfall, and high temperature had been limiting factors.

Targets for 2000-01. Initially, the targets for the year 2000-01 were fixed at 22 million tons, but the Federal Committee of Agriculture (FCA) revised the targets downward by 2 million tons mainly due to 31 % water storage and high prices of DAP fertilizer (Anonymous 2000b). The targets for the year 2000-01 for Pakistan, Punjab, Sind, NWFP, Baluchistan, and AJK are 20.0, 14.8, 3.0, 1.4, 0.7, and 0.1 million tons, respectively, from an area of 8.43 million ha. These targets have been fixed keeping in mind the growth rate, production targets in the 5-year plan, domestic requirements, and the last 3 years targets and achievements. To achieve the target for 2000-01, wheat production strategy envisions timely sowing of wheat, supply of quality seed, proper seeding rate, balance, adequate and timely use of fertilizer, effective weed control, village level training programs for the farmers, and proper use of electronic media (Anonymous 2000c).

Wheat share of Rabi crops. The share of Rabi crops (winter and spring crops) from wheat comes to 73 %, compared to 7 % from pulses, and 20 % from other crops in Pakistan (Anonymous 1999).

Common rotations. In the wheat producing areas of the Punjab, mainly cotton-wheat and rice-wheat rotations are followed. Maize-wheat, coarse grains-wheat, sugarcane-wheat, and groundnut-wheat rotations also are important in Central and Northern Punjab.

Uses, availability, and consumption of wheat. Wheat is the staple food of the people of Punjab and Pakistan supplying 72 % of the calories and protein in the average diet (CIMMYT 1989). White and amber colored wheat with high gluten strength is preferred. Wheat is mainly used for chapati and Nan. Wheat flour is the basis of all breads, biscuits, pastry, and macaroni products. Wheat provides the starch that is used in a wide range of industries from food processing to paper manufacturing and from laundering to oil well drilling (Stubbs et al. 1986). The wheat flour also is used to prepare a wide range of sweets, vermicelli, semolina, jawrey (hand made small vermicelli), chillreys, and tikreys (especially in Southern Punjab). About 5-10 % of the wheat harvest (usually low-quality grains) also is used as animal feed (CIMMYT 1989) needed for an increased demand for poultry, meats, and eggs.

The per capita availability of wheat in 1998-99 had been 140.87 kg/annum (Anonymous 1999) compared to a per capita consumption of wheat of 124.44 kg/annum in 1993-94. Per capita wheat consumption is higher in rural areas (132.48 kg/annum) compared to urban areas (103.92 kg/annum). These figures clearly demonstrate that wheat production in Pakistan was greater than required. Unfortunately, wheat has been imported yearly (except during 2000) to fulfill demand. Local wheat may be smuggled into neighboring countries because of higher prices. This practice requires formulating and implementation policies that will be effective in controlling smuggling to other countries.

Value, support prices, procurement, and storage of wheat. The value of wheat comes to 103.60 billion rupees of the total gross value (Rs. 386.23 billion) and of the total crop value (Rs. 347.40 billion) in 1998-99 (Anonymous 1999). The bhoosa (wheat straw) is used as fodder for the cattle in addition to its use by the paper industry. The value of wheat bhoosa accounted for Rs. 15.22 billion in 1998-99. The total number of agronomy-based industries was 2,913 in 1990-91, 259 of which were wheat based accounting for 8.89 %. The value of production was 5.26 % (Rs. 11.79 billion) of the total (Rs. 224.27 billion).

The support price of wheat increased from Rs. 58/40 kg in 1980-81 to Rs. 240/40 kg during 1998-99. The present government has increased the support price to Rs. 300/40 kgs. The farmers were encouraged to sow more wheat, and the country attained self-sufficiency in food.

In Punjab, 3.47 million tons of wheat were procured in 1998-99, which accounted for 85.41 % of the total wheat procured in Pakistan (4.07 million tons). The storage capacity for wheat in Punjab is not enough to meet the requirements. The total capacity is 2.542 million tons. In 1998-99, 3.476 million tons of wheat were procured (Anonymous 1999) necessitating the building of new stores for wheat to avoid losses due to bad weather and stored grains insect pests.

Distribution of improved seed. The Punjab Agricultural Development and Supplies Corporation assumed control of the seed industry activities after the independence of Bangladesh in 1970. This seed producer had greater success than Agricultural Development Corporation of West Pakistan did (CIMMYT 1989). The Punjab Seed Corporation (PSC) was established in 1976 as a part of a project with World Bank. PSC produces, procures, and distributes seed of various crops in the Punjab. In 1998­99, 0.092 million tons of improved wheat seed was distributed in Punjab, which is 87.4 % of the total seed distributed in Pakistan (0.105 million tons) or 66.9 % more than the seed distributed during 1997­98.

Fertilizer use during the Rabi season. The use of artificial/chemical fertilizers during the Rabi season when wheat is the major crop has increased many fold in the last 20 years. There was an increase of 110.63 or 33.07 % in fertilizer use in 1998-99 compared with 1980-81 and 1990-91, but a decrease was seen between 1998-99 and 1997-98. Even so, the consumption of chemical fertilizer in Pakistan is far less than that of advanced wheat producing countries (Anonymous 1999). This low use of fertilizer may be one of the reasons of low productivity of wheat in the country.

Wheat imports. The importing of wheat has increased tremendously since 1980-81. This trend necessitates an increase in wheat production in Pakistan. Because of a record production of wheat (22 million tons) in the previous Rabi season, Pakistan has became self sufficient in wheat (Anonymous, 2000a).

Wheat research and development. 1911-44. The Punjab Department of Agriculture and Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute (PAC & RI) at Lyallpur (now Faisalabad) were established in 1905 and 1906, respectively. As a result of the efforts of the Punjab Agricultural Research Board and research scientists, three varieties of wheat, T9, T11, and 8A were released in 1911, 1913, and 1919, respectively. A complete list of all the important varieties released up to 1944 is given in Table 1.

1947-2000. The two, tall, bread wheat varieties C271 and C273 were released during 1957 for commercial cultivation. Because of their low yield potential, a gain of only 125 kg/ha was achieved (2,400 to 2,525 kg/ha) in 40 years (Khan 1987).

M.A. Bajwa, M. Nur, and two coworkers visited Mexico for training in 1961-63. A medium to hard, white grain line was selected from segregating generations of the cross 8156 (Penjamo/Gabo) and brought to Pakistan. This line had the preferred color and high-gluten strength needed to make good chapati. The line also had a higher yield and was resistant to rust and powdery mildew. After yield testing, it was released in the name of Mexipak for general cultivation in 1965. This variety launched the Green Revolution in the Pakistan.

In 1970, the semidwarf variety Chenab-70 was released as a result of a cross between C271 and a Mexican genotype. This variety possessed excellent grain quality, was resistant to a new race of rusts that were virulent on Mexipak, and had 10-15 % more yield potential than Mexipak. Barani-70 was released for the Barani conditions in 1970, whereas SA-42 and Blue Silver (Sonalika) were released as short-season varieties during 1971. In 1972-73, the commercial varieties Chenab-70, Mexipak, Barani-70, and SA-42 became susceptible to rust. By that time, newer varieties, Blue Silver, Lyallpur-73, Sandal-73, and Pari-73, had been released but seed availability was not enough to meet the nations requirement.

By the end of the year 1980, released varieties included SA-75, Punjab-76, LU-26, Indus-79, Chenab-79, and Bahawalpur-79. Since 1980, several high-yielding wheat varieties have been released and are listed in Table 2.

The role of the Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad. The Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad (AARI), is headed by a Director-General Agriculture (Research). The AARI has been the most productive crop science and research establishment in the province of Punjab. The institute has contributed materially to the transformation of agriculture, the green revolution, and the improvement of the living standard of the people. AARI has 63 monocrop/single discipline research institutes/stations, about 37 substations, and 104 research farms for a total area of 13,033 acres (5,274.38 ha) throughout Punjab. AARI has 1,029 scientists in grades 17-20 and approximately 2,913 supporting and 952 administrative staff (Anonymous 1996). Approximately 60-70 scientists are engaged in wheat research throughout Punjab. Institute scientists also conduct research on soil fertility, soil chemistry, food technology, agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant protection, agricultural economics, pulses, sugarcane, tobacco, vegetables, cotton, oilseed, post-harvest technology of fruits and vegetables, and agricultural biotechnology.

Since the establishment of AARI, a number of high-yielding, disease-resistant wheat varieties have been developed (see Table 2). The following institutes are entrusted with wheat research program: Wheat Research Institute, Faisalabad; Barani Agricultural Research Institute, Chakwal; Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Bahawalpur; Soil Salinity Research Institute, Pindi Bhattian; and Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute, Faisalabad

Wheat Research Institute, Faisalabad (WRI). The WRI is the main wheat research point in Punjab with about 39 research scientists headed by a director. Scientists conduct research on bread wheat, durum wheat, barley, and Triticale. A very good crossing block has been maintained at the WRI for future use in the breeding program.

Cotton-wheat and rice-wheat rotations are followed in about 75 % of the province's irrigated area. This cropping pattern results in a later-than-optimal planting time and, ultimately, reduced yields (Bajwa 1986). This problem necessitates the breeding of early maturing varieties with high-yield potential, disease resistance, and increased heat tolerance in late maturing varieties.

As a result of the devoted and continuous research efforts of the Research Scientists of WRI, a number of excellent wheat varieties have been released for general cultivation. Inqlab-91 is the most popular variety, planted over a vast area throughout Pakistan.

Germ plasm is received from CIMMYT and ICARDA for durum wheat, barley, and Triticale research at WRI. The WRI released the durum wheat Wadhanak-85 in collaboration with ICARDA (ICARDA 2000) and a variety of barely Jau-86 for general cultivation. WRI, with an area of 27.92, ha has no substation.

Barani Agricultural Research Institute, Chakwal (BARI). BARI has 66 research scientists. A multicrop institute working on wheat, pulses, oilseeds, fodder, plant pathology and entomology, research at BARI is aimed at breeding crop varieties for the Barani areas of Punjab. A top priority are genotypes that are early maturing, so that the residual monsoon moisture can be used, tolerant to drought stress, and resistant to shattering. The pathology section is searching for resistance to leaf and stripe rusts and loose and flag smuts. Varieties of wheat developed at BARI for Barani area are in Table 2. BARI has three stations, three substations, and four farms with an area of 106.84 ha.

Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Bahawalpur (RARI). A multicrop Institute, RARI has 32 research staff headed by the director of agriculture. RARI has no substation. Wheat research is by the Economic Botany Section a botanist, an economics, and four assistants (two out of these four are vacant). This team is not sufficiently able to handle the research activities, but still has maintained two sets of crossing blocks (one local and one from Faisalabad). Between 800-1,000 crosses are attempted yearly. Subsequently, various generations (from F1-F7) are raised and selections are made regularly to develop material for preliminary trials (A Trials). After this, selected or desirable lines are tested for yield potential and other agronomic characters in B and C trials, zonal trials, the Micro-Wheat Yield Trial, and the National Uniform Wheat Yield Trials (NUYT). As a result of the untiring efforts of the researchers at RARI, several excellent wheat varieties have been approved and released for general cultivation in southern Punjab. These varieties include Blue Silver, Bahawalpur-79, Sutluj-86 (developed in collaboration with ICARDA (ICARDA 2000)), Derawar-97, Bahawalpur-97, Bahawalpur-2000, and Punjnad-1 (see Table 2). Agronomy, soil chemistry, plant pathology, and entomology sections also conduct relevant studies on wheat.

RARI has an area of 88.63 ha and despite the constraints of budget and staff shortages, RARI has contributed positively towards the development of wheat varieties in Punjab. The newly approved wheat variety Punjnad-1 is expected to replace the existing wheat varieties in southern Punjab because of its high-yield potential, more productive tillers per unit area, and disease, salinity and lodging resistance.

Soil Salinity Research Institute, Pindi Bhattian (SSRI). Considerable increases in the waterlogging/salinity/sodic areas in the province has initiated research to develop and test wheat material for resistance/tolerance to salinity and sodicity.

Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute, Faisalabad (ABRI). Plant biotechnology provides the researchers with novel genotypes/varieties. The ABRI is conducting research on various aspects of wheat tissue culture to exploit the potential of somaclonal variation for the improvement of wheat and its future use in the development of new wheat varieties. Genetically engineered wheat seed resistant to pests and weeds will increase the present yields by 25 % in countries like Pakistan as soon as it is released (Kidwai 1992). This seed could be made protein rich to cope with the animal protein deficiency for the low-income groups. Therefore, organizations such as ABRI and Nuclear Institute for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Faisalabad, must look at technological breakthroughs and try to evolve genetically engineered grains out of local wheat varieties as soon as possible. The ABRI has produced some promising strains of wheat, and one of which is being tested in the NUYT in 2000-01 (Table 3).

Arid Zone Research Institute, Bhakkar (AZRI). A multicrop institute headed by a director, AZRI has six scientists. The AZRI was established in 1991­92 to carry out research for Arid Zones of Bhakkar, Mianwali, Khushab, Layyah, and Muzaffar Garh. Sufficient advanced material of various crops has been developed and is being tested in A1, B1, and C1 Trials; Multilocation Trials; Zonal Trials; Cooperative Trials; and the NUYT. Although no variety of any crop has been released by this institute to date, two advanced strains of wheat 92T009 are being tested in the NUYT.

University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF). The Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute was split into two components: Punjab Agricultural College (PAC) and Punjab Agricultural Research Institute (PARI). PAC was later given autonomy and was upgraded to the University of Agriculture in 1961 whereas PARI was funded by the Agriculture Department and later developed into Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad. The university has developed rapidly during the last four decades. UAF has an experimental area of 850 ha and the largest number of Ph.D. scientists. Besides teaching and training high-level manpower, the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics studies the evolution of crop varieties including wheat. LU-26 had been a popular wheat variety developed at UAF.

Prospective wheat varieties. The evolution of new wheat varieties is a continuous process. At present, 18 new promising wheat strains with high-yield potential and other good agronomic traits are in the pipeline. These lines are being tested in the NUYT as a prerequisite of approval for a new variety. In this trial, new strains from all the wheat breeders of Pakistan are included every year. This trial is conducted throughout Pakistan, and the yield and other data are compiled by the National Coordinator Wheat, NARC, Islamabad. These data are then disseminated to all the breeders to prepare the proposal for approval of a new variety. Prospective strains of various institutes of Punjab included in NUYT in 2000-01 are listed in Table 3.

Constraints in agricultural research and development.

• Insufficient operational funds for efficient research, particularly, research on the vital aspects of wheat physiology is nonexistent.
• Insufficient transportation. The lack of vehicles and the shortage of money to maintain and operate those that are available are a major reason why Punjab scientists are unable to complete their work.
• Lack of regional research stations at RARI to test and improve the current knowledge base of the cropping and allied disciplines. More efficient use of Thal and Cholistan desert areas also is a priority program.
• Poor communication among the research workers.
• Lack of E-mail facilities for quicker communication with the international scientists and organizations.
• Lack of current research literature (journals and books). Insufficient funds to maintain the purchase of periodicals and journal and books.
• Lack of computer facilities.
• Paucity of roads, fertilizers, improved seeds, agrochemical products, bank services, tools and equipment, maintenance services, storage installation, and marketing services (Razzaq 1992).
  

Suggestions and recommendations for improvement.

• Facilities for research on physiology, food technology, and quality control of wheat needed.
• E-mail facilities where information can be cheaply obtained, transferred, and exchanged.
• Computer facilities for quick processing the research data, presentation of results, and compilation of annual/periodical reports.
• Efficient monitoring of the progress of research projects and comparing the progress with clearly specified targets and objectives.
• Staff accountability (awards and rewards to be based on performance).
• Pakistan has acute dearth of scientists: 44 per million populations compared with 300 in Egypt, 1,400 in the UK, 2,850 in the U.S., and 3,610 in Japan. Research scientists must be trained at the Ph.D. level to fill the gap with other countries. In April 1996, AARI had only 38 Ph.D. out of 910 scientists. This figure is much less than the requirements. In the Plant Breeding Division, the ratio is 1 Ph.D.: 13.5 scientists whereas in others it is 1:24
• Efficient use of Ph.D.-trained scientists in the existing research system. A Ph.D. scientist trained in one crop is sometimes appointed in another crop or outside his expertise and his training is wasted with the passage of time. A 4-tier system can be helpful in this regard.
• A service orientation course in the specialized area in agricultural research and office management (rules and regulations, Esta Code, and DDO Powers) should be arranged to improve the knowledge of researchers on a regular basis in Punjab.
• Vacant posts (due to retirements and ban on new recruitment) of research and supporting staff throughout the province should be filled immediately. Research work is suffering badly from a lack of technical staff and labor required to perform efficient research work;
• Timely provision of fertilizers, improved seeds, agrochemical products, bank services, tools and equipment, maintenance services, storage installation, marketing services, and construction of roads from farms to markets (Razzaq 1992). The provision of these facilities will enable the landless farmers to find jobs locally and also stop the shifting of the rural population to the already crowded towns and cities.

References.

• Anonymous. 1996. Agricultural Research Project-II, 1996. Punjab Agricultural Research Board, Lahore.
• Anonymous . 1999. Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, 1998-99. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (Economic Wing), Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.
• Anonymous. 2000a. A wheat production targets fixed at 22 million tonnes. PARC News. 20(9):2.
• Anonymous. 2000b. Wheat production targets revised to 20 million tonnes. PARC News. 20(10):5-6.
• Anonymous. 2000c. Agricultural Scientists told to strive with full dynamism. Agricultural Research Courier, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad. 10(5):1.
• Bajwa MA. 1986. Wheat Situation in Pakistan. An overview. AARI, Faisalabad.
• CIMMYT. 1989. Wheat Research and Development in Pakistan. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council/CIMMYT Collaborative Programme.
• Hussain A, Samad A, Ibrahim M, Latif M, Ashraf M, and Ilhamuddin. 1995). Wheat and barley varieties of Pakistan. National Seed Registration Department, Islamabad.
• ICARDA. 2000. ICARDA Annual Report 1999. International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria. VIII + 92 pp.
• Khan MA. 1987. Wheat variety development and longevity of rust resistance. Directorate of Agricultural Information, Punjab Government, Lahore.
• Kidwai A. 1992. Genetically Engineered Wheat. In: Food and Agriculture. A Publication of Press Corporation of Pakistan. Pp. 125-126.
• Razzaq A. 1992. Seedbed preparation in wheat production. In: Food and Agriculture. A Publication of Press Corporation of Pakistan. pp. 127-129.
• Stubbs RW, Prescot JM, Saari EE, and Dubi HJ. 1986. Cereal Disease Methodology Manual. Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), Mexico.
  

Stability analysis of advanced-stage wheat strains. [p. 129-130]

Lal Hussain Akhtar, Mushtaq Ahmad, Manzoor Hussain, and Sabir Zameer Siddiqi.

Background. Plant breeders aim to develop new wheat cultivars that have improved yield stability in a variety of environments. This aim is essential because a new cultivar takes approximately 10­12 years to breed and a lot of funds to develop. Various statistical methods have been proposed to determine the stability of a new cultivar. The most commonly used method is the joint regression analysis for yield stability (Finlay and Wilkinson 1963, Eberhart and Russell 1966). The regression coefficient (bi) and the average quadratic departure from the regression line (Sd2) are two mathematical indices for the assessment of stability (Eberhart and Russell 1966). Genotypes with a high bi and Sd2 react readily to changes in the environment and possess considerable variability, whereas cultivars with a bi < 1.00 and an Sd2 near zero react weakly to changes in growing conditions and are considered to be stable in yield (Shindin and Lokteva 2000). Finlay and Wilkinson (1963) regarded as being well adapted to all environments those genotypes with a bi near 1.00 and a high mean yield. The present studies assessed the yield stability of newly developed wheat strains (93B2707, 97B2236, and 97B2098) in comparison with the check varieties (Inqlab-91 and Bahawalpur-97).

Methodology. Five genotypes of wheat including two check varieties were evaluated at five locations (Liaquatpur, Bahawalpur, Multan, Khanewal, and Sahiwal) in Punjab Province for two continuous years (1998-99 and 1999-00). The experiments were laid out according to a randomized complete block design with four replications at each site during each year. Six rows of 5-m length per genotype were sown at 30 cm. Normal inputs of fertilizer, herbicide, and irrigation were applied during the growing period. At maturity, the central four rows 4 m in length were harvested to determine grain yield. The data were subjected to stability analysis according to Eberhart and Russell (1966).

Results and discussion. The analysis of variance of the data for grain yield (Table 4) revealed that genotypes (G), locations (environments) (E), and the 'G x E' interaction mean squares were highly significant (P < 0.01) for grain yield. The average yield (mt/ha) of various genotypes over years is given in Table 5. These data revealed that the genotype 93B2707 yielded the highest (6.1 mt/ha) followed by 97B2236 (5.14 mt/ha) and Inqlab-91 (4.15 mt/ha) at all five locations. Mean yield over all locations ranged from 3.65-6.10 mt/ha. Grain yield was higher in 1999-00 compared to 1998-99 because of better weather conditions. The regression of genotype mean yield on the environmental index resulted in a bi ranging from 0.763 in Bahawalpur-97 to 1.072 in 97B2236, which means that 93B2707 (bi = 1.059) is generally adapted to all environments.

Table 4. Analysis of variance of the grain yield data.

Source	DF	Mean Squares	F value	Probability
Replications	3	2,278,880.1	17.6	0.000
Locations (E)	4	12,064,032.8	93.2	0.000
Genotypes (G)	4	2,032,101.5	15.7	0.000
E x G	16	280,955.1	2.2	0.010
Error	72	129,492.5

Table 5. Yield (mt/ha) performance of wheat varieties during 1998-99 and 1999-00 (average of five locations).

Genotypes	1998-99	1999-00	Av. (2years)	%± over checks
				Inqlab-91	Bwp-97
97B2236	4.92	5.36	5.14	+23.9	+34.6
97B2098	3.02	4.28	3.65	­ 12.1	­ 4.5
93B2707	6.29	5.91	6.10	+46.3	+58.9
Inqlab-91	3.70	4.60	4.15
Bwp	3.41	4.23	3.82

The other best performing genotypes were 97B2236 and Inqlab-91 (Table 6). These genotypes had bi values near to unity and had comparatively higher yield than the grand mean yield (3.24 mt/ha) over all the locations. These lines are less responsive to environment changes and generally adapted to all the environments. The genotypes 97B2098 & Bahawalpur-97 had the highest value of Sd2 compared to other genotypes, indicating that these genotypes are less stable (Eberhart and Russell 1966). Similar results have been reported (Arain and Siddiqi 1977, Sial et al 1999, Shindin and Lokteva 2000).

The genotype 93B2707 was approved by the Punjab Seed Council for general cultivation in southern Punjab during 2000 in the name of Punjnad-I because of its high yield and better stability. The other stable line 97B2236 is being tested in the National Uniform Wheat Yield Trial and will be released for general cultivation in near future.

References.

• Arain AG and Siddiqi KA. 1977. Stability parameters of wheat mutants. Env Exp Bot 17:13-18.
• Eberhart S and Russell WA. 1966. Stability parameters for comparing varieties. Crop Sci 6:36-40.
• Finlay W and Wilkinson GNR. 1963. The analysis of adaptation in a plant breeding programme. Aust J Ag Res 14:742-754.
• Shindin IM and Lokteva OV. 2000. Evaluation of spring wheat varieties at Primorskey for ecological plasticity. Ann Wheat Newslet 46:105-106.
• Sial MA, Jamali KD, Arain MA, and M. Ahmad. 1999. Adaptability of semidwarf spring wheat in Sind Province. Pak J Sci Ind Res 42(6):342-344.

Punjnad-1, a new wheat variety for southern Punjab (Pakistan). [p. 131-133]

Sabir Zameer Siddiqi, Mushtaq Ahmad, Lal Hussain Akhtar, Manzoor Hussain, Ghulam Hussain, Abdul Rashid, Muhammad Aslam, Muhammad Safdar, and Muhammad Masood Akhtar.

Summary. The continuous and devoted efforts of wheat breeders at the Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Bahawalpur have been successful in developing the new wheat variety. Punjnad-1 was developed in 1990-91 through a hybridization/pedigree method by crossing a widely adapted wheat variety from the irrigated area of Punjab (Punjab-85) and an exotic line (Neelkent (NKT)) with stiff stem, an erect growing habit, and more productive tillers. The pedigree of Punjnad-1 is BR2194-12B-OB. The F1 to F3 were grown in 1991­92 and 1993­94. This line was given the number 93B2707 and was evaluated for its yield potential in 84 trials at various locations including the Preliminary and Advanced Yield Trials (1994-96), Micro Wheat Yield Trials (1996-97), and National Uniform Wheat Yield Trials (NUWYT) (1997-98 and 1998-99). Zonal testing was conducted in 1999-00. On average, 93B2707 (Punjnad-1) gave 3.37 % and 9.65 % higher yields than Inqlab-91 and a local check, respectively. Agronomic requirements of the new variety include an optimum sowing time between 10 November­10 December and maximum yields when NPK are applied at 125-100-50 kg/ha. Punjnad-1 is resistant to foliar diseases, insect pests, and salinity; highly responsive to fertilizer; and is resistant to lodging. The yield potential is 6,833 kg/ha. This variety was approved and released by the Punjab Seed Council, Lahore, during its meeting held on 23 November, 2000, as a medium to short duration variety for general cultivation in southern Punjab under the name of Punjnad-1.

Introduction. The main staple food of the people of Pakistan, wheat is grown on more than 5.9 million hectares in the Punjab. Although wheat is the most important cereal crop and has a large research and development program, yield per hectare is slightly more than 1 t/ha. As a result, a huge amount of foreign exchange is spent to import wheat every year (except in 2000). Dwarfing genes resulted in the green revolution. Genetic yield improvement is almost insignificant. On the other hand, removal of constraints on agronomic plants, better response to fertilizer, and resistance to foliar diseases has resulted in a jump in yield.

The new variety Punjnad-1 was developed at the Regional Agricultural Research Institute (RARI), Bahawalpur, from a cross between Pb-85 and NKT. Punjnad-1 has improved grain number per unit area and resistance to lodging. The variety performed better under high dozes of fertilizer and under high temperature at maturity. Punjnad-1 also is resistant/tolerant to leaf and yellow rusts. In early stages, this variety was tested in late-sowing trials and was found to yield higher with a normal sowing. We tested Punjnad-1 in the NUWYT in 1997-98 and 1998-99. Punjnad-1 placed second averaged over 26 locations in Pakistan. The release of this variety will be helpful in boosting up the average wheat yield of Pakistan.

Material and methods. Punjnad-1 was developed through a hybridization/pedigree method by crossing a widely adapted wheat variety from the irrigated area of Punjab (Punjab-85) and the exotic line Neelkent (NKT) with a stiff stem, erect growth habit, and more productive tillers in 1990-91. The F1 to F3 were grown in 1991-92 and 1993-94 and given the number 93B2707. This line was evaluated for yield potential in 84 trials at various locations in the Preliminary and Advanced Yield Trials (1994-96), Micro Wheat Yield Trials (1996-97), and National Uniform Wheat Yield Trials (1997-98 and 1998-99). Zonal testing was conducted in 1999-00. Agronomic requirements of Punjnad-1 were studied at Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Bahawalpur and by the Director Agronomy, Faisalabad. The Crop Disease Research Institute, NARC, Islamabad conducted plant pathological and entomological studies. Quality parameters were determined by the National Coordinator (Wheat), Islamabad. The Federal Seed Registration and Certification Department, Islamabad, studied varietal characteristics. Yield data were subject to analysis of variance by computer using the MSTAT statistical programs and means were compared using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (Steel and Torrie 1980).

Yield performance. Yield performance of Punjnad-1 is summarized in Table 7. The new variety was evaluated at RARI, Bahawalpur, for yield potential in four Preliminary and Advance Yield Trials between 1994-98. The data collected revealed that the new variety gave 3.8 and 5.3 % higher yield than Inqlab-91 and 6.4 % higher yield than Parwaz-94 during normal and late sowing.

Punjnad-1 also was tested in the Micro Wheat Yield Trial in a late sowing throughout Punjab by the Director Wheat, Faisalabad. Averaged over eight locations, Punjnad-1 yielded 3.4 % and 1.3 % higher than Inqlab-91 and Parwaz-94, respectively.

Punjnad-1 was included in the NUWYT in 1997­98. The variety produced 4,913 kg/ha against 4,264 kg/ha for Inqlab-91 and out yielded Inqlab-91 at seven of nine locations under normal sowing, and produced 3,332 kg/ha against 3,303 kg/ha of Inqlab-91 in a late sowing.

Punjnad-1 also was tested in the NUWYT in 1998­99. The new variety outyielded the check variety Inqlab-91 on all nine locations by producing 5,113 kg/ha against 4,799 kg/ha of Inqlab-91 with percentage increase of 6.5 in normal sown set while it out yielded commercial checks, i.e., Inqlab-91 by 0.8 % and local check by 5.4 % in late sown set.

In the Zonal Varietal Trials conducted at 12 locations, Punjnad-1 out yielded the check varieties Inqlab-91 and Bahawalpur-97 by 5.8 and 8.8 %, respectively. The yield performance is summarized in Table 7, which revealed that the new variety had 3.4 and 9.7 % higher yields than the check varieties Inqlab-91 and local check on overall basis.

Resistance studies. Punjnad-1 is resistant to lodging and salinity. The variety was tested against disease throughout Pakistan in the NUWYT and is resistant to foliar diseases like leaf and yellow rusts. Yield losses in wheat crop caused by Helicoverpa armigera (Hb.) and aphid infestation were determined at RARI, Bahawalpur in 1999­00. Minimum losses (1.7 %) were found in Punjnad-1 compared to Inqlab-91 (2.33 %). The aphid attack on Punjnad-1 was found to be 6.3 aphids/tiller compared to 18.47 aphids/tiller in Inqlab-91.

Varietal characteristics. Punjnad-1 is an erect, dwarf variety with a high tillering capacity and an erect flag leaf. The spike is dense and white. The salient features of the new variety Punjnad-1 are listed in Table 8.

Production technology. Nine experiments were used to determine the agronomic requirements of the new variety. The findings are summarized as follows:

Seed rate	25-150 kgs/hectare.
Sowing time	10th November - 10th December.
Fertilizer	150-100-50 (NPK), all P and K and 1/3 N at sowing time and 2/3 N in two splits before heading.
Irrigation/water	Maximum yield with five irrigations.
Requirements	Total delta of water is 480 mm.

Quality studies. Quality characteristics were studied by the National Coordinator Wheat, Islamabad and were found satisfactory (see Table 9).

Table 9. Quality characteristics of Punjnad-1 (Mustafa et al. 1998, 1999).

Variety	Test weight	PSI	1,000-kernel weight (g)	Floor ash %	Protein (%)	Dry gluten	Gluten content	Chapati quality
NUWYT 1997­98
Punjnad-1	75.3	43	41.7	1.448	9.30	6.79	MS	Good
Inqlab-91	74.6	43	44.3	1.490	8.52	6.91	MS	---
NUWYT 1998­99
Punjnad-1	75.3	41.9	37.7	2.30	10.97	7.60	MS	Good
Inqlab-91	74.2	42.2	37.0	1.54	1.06	5.97	MS	Good

Conclusion. Punjnad-1 is a local cross between the widely adopted wheat variety Punjab-85 and an exotic wheat line Neelkent. The variety has more productivity tillers per unit area. Because of short stature and a stiff stem, it is highly responsive to fertilizer. Resistant to all foliar and grains diseases, lodging, and salinity, Punjnad-1 also is resistant to insect pests Helicoverpa armigera and aphids. Punjnad-1 has a yield potential is 6,833 kg/ha and a chapatti-making quality better than the other commercial varieties. Punjab Seed Council approved Punjnad-1 in November 2000 for general cultivation in southern Punjab as a medium duration variety. We hope that it will replace the widely adapted wheat variety Inqlab-91 because of its high yield potential, disease and stress resistance, and more productive tillers per unit area.

References.

• Mustafa SZ, Ahmad I, Yasmin S, and Majid A. 1998. Results of the National Uniform Yield Trials. Coordinated Wheat-Barley and Triticale Programme, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, P.O. Box 1031, Islamabad.
• Mustafa SZ, Yasmin S, and Majid A. 1999. Results of the National Uniform Yield Trials. Coordinated Wheat-Barley and Triticale Programme, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, P.O. Box 1031, Islamabad.
• Steel RGD and Torrie JH. 1980. Principles and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York. pp. 187-188.

Wheat breeding activities at the Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan. [p. 133-135]

Mushtaq Ahmad, Manzoor Hussain, Ghulam Hussain, Lal Hussain Akhtar, Abdul Rashid, Muhammad Aslam, Muhammad Safdar, Muhammad Masood Akhtar, and Sabir Zameer Siddiqi.

Maintenance of germ plasm. The collection and maintenance of germ plasm with a divergent genetic base is of fundamental importance. A large number of entries/varieties were selected and evaluated for desirable traits. Detail is given in Table 10.

Preliminary yield trials. One hundred and ten promising bread wheats along with commercial checks were tested in 11 Preliminary Yield Trials (A-Trial) in 1999-00. Normally recommended practices were with supplemented with 110-60-60 kg/ha NPK and six irrigations. Each trial consisted of 10 entries including national checks. The trials were planted in an RCB design with four replications/6 sq. m.-plot. The results are summarized in Table 11.

Regular yield trials. Forty promising bread wheat strains and a commercial check were tested in four regular wheat yield trials (Normal duration-B-trial). Normally recommended practices were supplemented with 110-60-60 NPK kg/ha fertilizer and six irrigations. Each trial consisted of eight entries and two checks. The trials were planted according to RCBD with four replications. Net harvested plot size was 6 m2. Experimental results are in Table 12.

Advanced yield trials. Twenty (20) bread wheat promising strain along with commercial checks were tested in two advance yield trails. Normal recommended practices were adopted in normal sowing. Each trial was consisted of 10 entries including two checks. The trials were laid out according to RCBD with 4 replications. Harvested plot size was 6 m2. Performance of new strains in C1 trial is given in Table 13.

Effect of aphid infestation on various wheat strains under Bahawalpur agroclimatic conditions. [p. 133-135]

Muhammad Saleem, Abdur Rashid, Lal Hussain Akhtar, and Sabir Zameer Siddiqi.

Introduction. Aphids are among the most destructive of the plant-infesting insects. The nymphs and adults suck sap from plants preferably in the spikes. A heavy infestation on the growing tips causes stunting, dwarfing, and shriveling of kernels. Aphid populations on wheat crop have been increasing for the last few years. Four species of aphid, Sitobion avenae (F), S. graminum, Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis (Sasaki), and R. maidia (Fitch), damage the wheat crop in Pakistan (Hashmi et al. 1983). Few studies have been made on control measures, losses, and resistance to aphids. McPherson et al. (1986) applied the systemic insecticides disulfotan, carbofuran, and dimethoate for aphid control. Aheer et al. (1993) observed that 7.2 aphids/tiller caused a 16.4 % loss in grain yield. The present studies aimed at to determine the effect of aphid populations of S. avenae and R. rufiabdominalis on different wheats.

Methodology. Studies were made at the Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Bahawalpur, to elucidate the effects of aphid infestation on wheat grain yield in 1999­00. Eight wheat strains/varieties including two checks. (Inq-91, Pb-96, V-2047, V-2236, V-2239, V-2251, V-2707, and V-7222) were sown into two sets (protected and unprotected). In protected set, Furathiocarb was sprayed at 625 ml/ha during February (Ist and 3rd weeks) and March (1st and 3rd weeks) in order to control aphid populations. A RCB design with three replications was used. Plot size was '5 x 1.2 m' in both sets. Aphid infestation was recorded at 10-day intervals from the first week in February to the first week of April, 2000. Fifteen tillers were selected randomly from each plot. Each tiller was clipped with a scissors. Aphids were counted by dropping them on white paper using a camel hairbrush. At maturity, the yield data were recorded and percent loss determined. Data were analyzed statistically. Means were compared using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (Steel and Torrie 1980).

Results and discussion. The results revealed significant differences among wheat varieties/strains for aphid population/tiller (Table 14). The maximum infestation was found in Inqlab-91 (14.4 aphid/tiller) and Punjab-96 (12.6 aphid/tiller). Wheat strain V-2707 was the least infested followed by V-2047 and V-2251. Similarly, Inqlab-91 and Punjab-96 had the highest loss in grain yield, 7.4 and 6.4 %, respectively. Lines V-2707, V-2047, and V-7222 had the least loss in grain yield.

The average loss in grain yield due to a single aphid/tiller was 0.59 %, whereas 9.63 aphids/tiller caused a 4.95 % loss. Kortyukovski (1984) reported 30-80 % losses with 100-200 aphids per stem, which is comparable with the present study. Kuroli and Nemeth (1987) observed 50 and 70 % losses in grain yield per year in winter and spring wheat, respectively. The present findings do not agree with earlier reports, which could be due to different ecological conditions.

Table 14 clearly indicates that the check varieties resulted in a higher infestation rate and greater loss in grain yield as compared with new strains. The loss in grain yield, especially in the checks, demands plant protection measures. Being a staple food, the use of insecticides in not advisable. Hence, emphasis should be given on plant resistance to aphids, which should be incorporated in any breeding program.

References.

• Aheer GMAR, Afzal M, and Ali M. 1993. Varietal resistance/susceptibility of wheat to aphids, Sitobion avenae F. and Rhopalosiphum sufiabdominalis S. J Agric Res 31(3):307-311.
• Hashmi AA, Hussain MM, and ltaf M. 1983. Insect pest complex of wheat crop. Pak J Zool 15(2):169-176.
• Kostyukovski MG. 1984. Aphid and productivity of wheat. Z Rast No.11 54-55 Wheat Barley and Triticale Abstr 3(3):2014, 1986.
• Kuroli G and Nemeth I. 1987. Aphid species occurring on winter wheat their damage and results of control experiments. Novenyvede lem 23(a):385-394 and Rev Appl Entomol (A) 76(8):5068, 1988).
• McPherson RMS and Comper TM. 1986. Fall and early spring aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) population affecting wheat and barley production in Virginia. J Econ Entomol 79(3):827-832.
• Steel RGD and Torrie JH. 1980. Principles and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York. pp. 187-188.

Field evaluation of wheat genotypes to leaf rust at Bahawalpur. [p. 136-137]

Saeed Ahmad, Altaf Hussain Tariq, Hafiz Muhammad Ziaullah, Muhammad Arshad Hussain, Lal Hussain Akhtar, and Sabir Zameer Siddiqi.

Background. Rust diseases of wheat are among the major factors that adversely affect wheat yield and quality worldwide. Afshari et al. (2000) reported losses of about 20 million dollars during 1999 because of a leaf rust epidemic in Western Australia.

In Pakistan, leaf and stripe rust cause economic losses in the wheat crop. Hassan (1979) reported a 10 % yield loss from a leaf rust epidemic during 1978. In susceptible varieties, an outbreak of rust may cause losses in grain yield that exceed 50 % (Yaqub 1991). The most appropriate control of rust diseases is the sowing of resistant varieties. Because of the potential danger for the break down of resistance, existing varieties and new genotypes are regularly evaluated every year against the prevailing rusts for their type of virulence. These studies are useful for future rust management and to enable wheat-breeding program to develop wheat cultivars with durable resistant.

Methodology. Two nurseries, the Local Rust Disease Screening Nursery (LRDSN, 200 entries) and the Rust Trap Nursery (RTN, 38 entries) were planted in late November, 1999. Two rows of each entry were planted in a 2-m length. Two lines, Morocco and Local White (highly susceptible to rust), were sown repeatedly after every fifth entry and around the perimeter of the plot as a spreader.

Both the nurseries were planted 200 m apart. Rust inoculum was sprayed twice with a ULV sprayer on the spreader rows in the LRDSN in February and March. Rust observations were recorded on both nurseries during the first week of April, 2000, following Peterson et al. (1948).

Results and discussion. In the inoculated leaf rust nursery, rust appeared earlier on the spreader plants than on the test entries. Observations of virulence of spores trapped in the Rust Trap Nursery (RTN) during these studies are given in Table 15. Virulence for Lr9, Lr15, Lr25, Lr36, LrB (WL-7), and Lr27+31 was not found in Bahawalpur in 2000. However, Lr3ka, Lr12, Lr13, Lr14b, Lr17, and Lr22a were resistant (Tr to 20 MR), the highest virulence for Lr genes was observed in Lr1, Lr29, Lr26, Lr2c, Lr3, Lr3bg, Lr10, Lr11, Lr22b, Lr23, Lr29, Lr33, and Lr34. These results are in agreement with Chaudhry et al. (1995). They studied the same material at five locations of the Punjab and Kaghan (NWFP) between 1991-94 and reported almost same trend of Lr genes. In Hungary, the genes Lr9, Lr19, Lr24, Lr25, Lr27, Lr28, Lr29, Lr35, Lr38, and Lr44 gave satisfactory resistance to the Hungarian rust population in 1999 (Bedo et al. 2000).

Among the eight commercial varieties, Inqlab-91, Rohtas-90, Punjab-96, Bahawalpur-97, and MH-97 showed a trace to R reaction (Table 16). These varieties possess Lr13 and other resistant genes (Chaudhry et al. 1996). Knott (1993) also reported durable rust resistance in 12 wheat lines from Lr13 and Lr34 and some additional genes. Among 192 advanced lines, 54 were found immune to leaf rust, whereas 81 had a Trace (Tr), 36 resistant/moderately resistant, and 21 moderate resistant/moderate susceptible (MRMS) reaction (Table 17).

References.

• Afshari F, Bariana HS, Bell J, Brown GN, Gosal KS, Haque S, McIntosh RA, Miah H, Park RF, Wellings CR, and Zakeri A. 2000. Rust pathogenecity surveys. Ann Wheat Newslet 46:25-26.
• Bedo Z, Szunics L, Lang L, Szunics Lu, Veisz O, Karsai I, Vida Gy, Szucs P, Juhasz A, Gal M, Bencze Sz, Megyeri M, Puskas K, and Horvath Cs. 2000. Research on quality, disease studies. Ann Wheat Newslet 46:47-52.
• Chaudhry MH, Hussain M, Khan FA, and Shah JA. 1995. Virulence of Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici in the Punjab and Kaghan during 1991-1994. Pak J Phytopath 7(1):1-4.
• Chaudhry MH, Hussain M, and Shah JA. 1996. Wheat Rust Scenario, 1994-1995. Pak J Phytopath 8(1):96-100.
• Hassan FS. 1993. Wheat diseases situation in Pakistan. In: Proc Natl Sem wheat research and production, 6 August, 1979, Islamabad.
• Knott DR and Yadan B. 1993. The mechanism and inheritance of adult plant leaf rust resistance in 12 wheat lines. Genome 36:877-883.
• Peterson RF, Campbell AB, and Hanna AE. 1948. A diagramic scale for estimating rust severity on leaves and stems of cereals. Can J Res 26:496-500.
• Yaqub M. 1991. Studies on slow rusting and tolerance in wheat cultivars, inbred lines in Pakistan. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

The contribution of Punjab in the national production of wheat in Pakistan. [p. 137]

Muhammad S. Cheema and Liaquat Ali.

Wheat is an important staple food of the Pakistani people. Pakistan is an agricultural country with a population of more than 140x10^7^ increasing rapidly. Punjab has the highest population of all three provinces. About 69.7 % of the people live in rural areas and are directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture. The province of Punjab contributes a large share of the area of wheat in Pakistan, increasing from 72.10 to 73.03 % between the 1998 and 1999 growing seasons (Table 18). This increase is due to an enhanced support price for wheat, early harvest of the cotton crop, and replacement of sugarcane and other competitive crops. Wheat production in Pakistan in 1999-00 was 21.07 x 106 t. According to final estimates, the Punjab contribution of 16.48 x 10^6^ in 1999-00 was greater and that of 1998-99 at 13.21 x 106. Production increases due to increased acreage, favorable weather condition at dough and maturity stages, increase use of fertilizer and herbicides, and farmer awareness of new production technology.