============================================================================== AUTHOR: Alexander, R. R. et al. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Offsite sediment benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Southern United States SOURCE: University of Tennessee Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology. Staff Paper SP-89-01. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Wildlife habitat criteria in relation to future use of CRP lands SOURCE: Pages 41-88 in Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural Council Annual meeting. June 2-4, 1993, Rapid City, S. Dak. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Report intended to identify strengths and weaknesses of the CRP as its development and management effects wildlife habitat. Information on relations between the CRP, specific conserva- tion practices, spatial considerations, planning, and manage- ment are presented. Presents discussion of the need to explicitly define CRP/wildlife objectives on regional and local scales. Content of report based largely on input solicited from information state and federal biologists ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Regional and state perspectives on Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contributions to wildlife habitat SOURCE: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Aid Report, National Ecology Research Center, Fort Collins, Colo. 28 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Literature review and information furnished by state and federal biologists on relations between the CRP and effects on wildlife within agricultural ecosystems. Regional review of benefits and weaknesses of program implementation. Comparison of needs of endemic grassland species and those more traditionally affiliated with agricultural land use. Recommendations presented addressing need for elevated in- volvement of state wildlife agencies in technical assistance to USDA agencies and contractees, increased flexibility in conservation practices implemented, and greater recognition of regional and local priorities. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Wildlife benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program: A national perspective SOURCE: Pages 18-20 in Proceedings of the Soil and Water Conservation Society Conference: When Conservation Reserve Program contracts expire: The policy options. Washington, D.C. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankey, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Brief summary of widespread benefits of CRP to game and non- game species. Discussion of limitations of the program and recommendations for increasing effectiveness of USDA conser- vation programs in enhancing habitat quality associated with agricultural ecosystems. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Wildlife benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program: A national perspective SOURCE: Land and Water: The Magazine of Natural Resource Management and Restoration 38:23-25. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Same as above. Article from Soil and Water Conservation Soc. meeting published by magazine to reach wider audience. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Agroforestry and wildlife: Alternatives and opportunities SOURCE: Pages 67-73 in W. J. Rietveld, technical coordinator. Proceedings of agroforestry, sustainable agriculture symposium, 7-10 August 1994. Fort Collins, Colo. U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report RM-GTR-261. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Discussion of integration of agroforestry practices into existing farming operations to benefit wildlife. Presentation of spatial design considerations of tree-dominated cover types within agricultural ecosystems to benefit selected species of wildlife. Discussion of potential negative effects of tree/shrub-dominated covers to endemic avian grassland species. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Agricultural ecosystems SOURCE: Pages 423-426 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Summary of historical effects of agricultural production on quality and distribution of wildlife habitats. Discussion of preliminary results of multi-state monitoring of grassland characteristics in undisturbed fields in Southern Plains and Midwestern CRP fields. Overview of CRP benefits to wildlife populations associated with agriculturally dominated land- scapes. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W., and E. Ekstrand PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: An overview of wildlife and wildlife-related economic benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Pages 49-58 in Economic and environmental implications of expiring conservation reserve contracts. Annual meeting of NC-214 North Central Agricultural Experiment Station). 18 October 1994. Kansas City, Mo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, A. W., Y. K. Bernal, and R. J. Moulton PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Pine plantations and wildlife in the southeastern United States: An assessment of impacts and opportunities SOURCE: U.S. Department of Interior, National Biological Service. Information and Technology Report 3. 32 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Report documents growing dependance on southeastern forest products and the major role that private lands will play in provision of timber resources in future decades. However, the priorities of owners non-industrial private forest land (NIPF) suggest that nontimber-related financial investment, recreation, and aesthetic considerations increasingly define acceptable management goals. Wildlife is a principal factor affecting management on a growing number of privately owned forest lands. Within the next 50 years the area of even- aged, pine plantations, including CRP, on southeastern NIPF lands is projected to exceed 20 million acres. Silvicultural prescriptions applied influence wildlife habitat quality within as well as across stand boundaries and may potentially influence habitat distribution on a landscape scale. Various alternatives in physical design, location, and subsequent management of pine plantations are presented to mitigate negative effects of large scale dependance of even-aged forest management on wildlife habitat. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, K PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Reflections on the past, challenges for the future: an examination of U.S. agricultural policy goals SOURCE: Pages 3-23 in K. Allen, editor. Agricultural policies in a new decade. Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: The development of agricultural policy has become a process of mutual accommodation with large numbers of narrow provisions being fitted together to become broad-based legislation often containing inconsistencies and few clues to real goals of policy. Agricultural policy is forced to address many more issues than farm prices and incomes. Food, fiber, trade, environmental health, rural macroeconomic, and foreign policies have all become important constituents in formulation of agricultural policies. Main objective of farm groups remains price and income support, market stability. Overall goals have broadened in response to a political environment in which an increasing awareness among non-farm interests that agricultural programs have been partly responsible detrimental effects on the environment. Consumer interests: will become increasingly important to the largely urban Congress. Demographic changes in population will continue to cause changes in consumers' tastes and preferences. Concerns about chemical residues in foods and their injection into the environment are a major issue and will continue to be so. Public wants to provide support farmers but are increasingly disenchanted with subsidies that go largely to the largest, wealthiest farmers. Rural economies: Farming and agricultural service industries together contributed only about 8% of the personal income in non-metropolitan areas in 1986. Rising farm prices for select agricultural commodities is and inefficient way to promote rural economic activity. Economically diversified rural communities can offer greater employment opportunities to farmers who wish to continue farming but who also have difficulties meeting financial commitments. Small, marginal changes can yield significant results in the long-run. Long- term goal of agricultural policies should be promotion of a healthy, competitive and diverse agricultural sector and viable diverse rural communities. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Allen, P., D. Van Dusen, J. Lundy, and S. Gliessman PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Integrating social, environmental, and economic issues in sustainable agriculture SOURCE: American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 6:34-39. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Altieri, M. A PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: How best can we use biodiversity in agroecosystems? SOURCE: Outlook on Agriculture 20(1):15-23. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Anderson, W. L., and L. M. David PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Results of the 1991-1992 Illinois quail hunter survey SOURCE: Illinois Department of Conservation, Division of Wildlife Resources Administrative Report. Chicago. 16 pp. + appendices. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Anderson, W. L., and L. M. David PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Results of the 1991-1992 Illinois pheasant hunter survey SOURCE: Illinois Department of Conservation, Division of Wildlife Resources Administrative Report. Chicago. 16 pp. + appendices. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Barbarika, A., T. Osborn, and R. Heimlich PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Using an environmental index in the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Pages 118-133. Proceedings of the NCT-163 Post Conservation Reserve Program Land Use Conference. Denver, Colo. January 10-11. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Barnes, T. G., L. A. Madison, J. D. Sole, and M. J. Lacki PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: An assessment of habitat quality for northern bobwhite in tall fescue-dominated fields SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(2):231-237. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Evaluation of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) fields in Kentucky. Fields characterized by dense vegetation, little bare ground, and low plant species diversity. Tall fescue characterized as marginal habitat for bobwhite quail due to unsuitable vegetation structure, floristic composition, and insufficient food. Tall fescue is grown extensively for stock feed, turf, and conservation purposes. It is an excellent pasture grass and the dominant grass seeded in most south- eastern CRP fields. Aggressive domination of fields tall fescue may reduce plant species diversity resulting in lower quality of habitat. Infection of endophytic fungus (Acremonium coenophialum) may result in fescue toxicosis, reproductive disorders in mammals and reduced fertility and hatching success in quail have been documented. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Basore, N. S., L. B. Best, and J. B. Wooley PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Bird nesting in Iowa no-tillage and tilled cropland SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 50:19-28. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Crop residue associated with no-till operations is beneficial to ground nesting birds. Bird densities greater in no till fields than within tilled fields. Vegetation residue important for attracting birds to no-till fields, nest de- struction by farming implements is infrequent in contrast to tilled fields. No-till fields had nest density of 36/100 ha compared to 4/100 ha in tilled fields. Nests in tilled fields were in locations were there was residual vegetation. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Berner, A. H. PUBL. YEAR: 1984 TITLE: Federal land retirement program: A land management albatross SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources Conference 49:118-130. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Berner, A. H. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Federal pheasants: Impact of federal agricultural programs on pheasant habitat, 1934-1985 SOURCE: Pages 45-93 in D. L. Hallett, W. R. Edwards, and G. V. Burger, editors. Pheasants: Symptoms of wildlife problems on agricultural lands. Forty-ninth Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference, December 8, 1987. Northcentral Section of the Wildlife-Society, Bloomington, Ind. 345 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Berner, A. H. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: The 1985 Farm Act and its implications for wildlife SOURCE: Pages 437-465 in 1988/1989 Audubon wildlife report. National Audubon Society, 950 Third Avenue, New York, NY. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Over the last 50 years changes in land use and agricultural production have significantly affected wildlife inhabiting agricultural landscapes. Specialization and intensification of agricultural production are responsible for severe declines in many populations of wildlife. Federal commodity programs have contributed to much of the decline in habitat quality and availability. Regulations have encouraged devel- opment of unsafe habitat by allowing late-seeding and early destruction of vegetative cover on retired acres during the nesting season. The 1934 Cropland Adjustment Act was first retirement program with the purpose of stabilizing the market and farm economy. Planting of cover on retired acres was not required. 1936 Agriculture Conservation Program created SCS and ASCS and required farmers to plant grass, grass-legume cover on set aside lands. Soil Bank established in 1956-72 provided annual set-asides and a multi-year set-aside (Conservation Reserve) programs with 3,5, and 10 year options. Due to the annual nature of these programs and wide variety of agricultural management practices, little guidance on appropriate management of retired lands was furnished or required. Option of more restrictive, beneficial guidelines are left to the state, county committees comprised of local farmers which has, many times, has resulted in environmentally questionable management practices. Many committees allow late seeding of cover crops or require no cover, and permit or require destruction of established cover in the fall. During period of 1956-1987 low prices for crops precipitated by overproduction resulting in low farm income. Desire to stabilize farm economy and increase farm income has been elemental impetus for subsidy programs. Conflicting USDA programs resulting in conversion of non-cropland to cropland and increasing the crop base resulted in higher cost of commodity programs. ARP (acreage reduction programs) pay farmers to annually idle land to reduce production of commodity crops. Regulations that once required reducing soil loss to AT@ now require that highly erodible croplands be farmed under an approved Soil Conservation plan that "substantially" reduces soil loss. USDA predicts that crop surpluses will exist at least through 2000. More than 20 million acres/yr are expected to be retired in ARP annually. Because ARP agreements are annual farmers are not willing to pay to seed perennial grass-legume cover crops. ASCS committees generally opt to maintain maximum flexibility in establishing cover requirement, crop seeding dates, and rates and dates of cover destruction with minimal natural resource benefits. Pheasant population have substantially increased when ARP acres are planted early to annual cover crops (typically small grains)and maintained to multi-year covers. Presently, however, ARP encourage practices that are proven to be detrimental to wildlife. Pheasant production in Minnesota averages 30% lower in years with an ARP when compared to years without the program. Minor modifications could increase the value of these lands. Negative impacts could be reversed if acres were seeded to annual cover crop (small grains) and not disturbed for 90 days. In areas where winter cover may be critical, ARP, or a portion of, should be seeded to cover crop such as forage sorghum and left undisturbed throughout winter. Cover for three or more years would provide maximum benefits. =============================================================================== AUTHOR: Berthelsen, P. S. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Value of the Conservation Reserve Program to birds in the Texas southern high plains SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. Texas Technical University, Lubbock. 106 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Greatest potential benefit of the CRP to wildlife in the Southern High Plains is provision of secure, high quality nesting and winter cover for avian species. Bird species composition on CRP lands represented primarily by 2 to 3 dominant species. Seven of 13 species observed on CRP lands were considered migrants or winter residents. Fields of blue grama/kleingrass (BG/K) produced high quality winter habitat. This cover type produced the greatest values for avian winter densities, avian biomass estimates, nest densities, number of birds observed, and winter cover quality for pheasants. BG/K had highest numbers of avian species observed, followed by blue grama/side-oats gramma and blue grama/plains bluestem. CRP may promote dispersal and increase survival of pheasants through provision of high-quality winter habitat more evenly dispersed over agriculturally dominated landscapes. BG/K grasslands will provide quality passerine habitat in southern high plains during winter and reproductive seasons. CRP fields in vicinity of remaining grain crops may substantially enhance year round habitat quality. Greatest potential of CRP wildlife habitat in southern high plains is to produce secure, high quality, long-term nesting and winter cover for upland game birds. Nest success on CRP lands averaged 22%, no apparent difference in nest success between CRP cover types. BG/K had highest production of cover types followed by BG/PB AND BG/SO.Earlier initiation of pheasant nests in CRP than reported for the general area, may be related to increase of available nesting habitat, more favorable weather, or hens entering breeding season in good physiological condition. CRP lands enable pheasants to distribute from formerly concentrated habitats, particularly playa wetlands that were often unsafe due to seasonal flooding. Benefits of CRP are dependent upon cover management practices and political pressures. Approximately 1/3 of fields evaluated were hayed or mowed for weed control resulting in minimal to no value as beneficial habitat for upland nesting birds. Mowing of CRP fields for weed control believed unnecessary. As stands age grasses will out compete forbs. In addition weed control may reduce compositional quality of the field. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Berthelsen, P. S., L. M. Smith, and C. L. Coffman PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: CRP land and game bird production in the Texas High Plains SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 44:504-507. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Berthelsen, P. S., L. M. Smith, and R. R. George PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Ring-necked pheasant nesting ecology and production on CRP lands in the Texas Southern High Plains SOURCE: Proceedings of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 55:46-56. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Best, L. B., K. E. Freemark, J. J. Dinsmore, and M. Camp PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: A review and synthesis of habitat use by breeding birds in agricultural landscapes in Iowa SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 134(1):1-29. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Data collected during breeding season (May-July). Total numbers of birds highest in floodplain forest and upland forest and lowest in small grains and herbaceous fencerows. Species abundances lowest in agricultural habitats (tilled row crops and small grains and highest in narrow strip-cover habitats (railroad rights-of-way, wooded fencerows and shelterbelts). Abundance patterns in natural habitats (forest marsh and prairie intermediate between ag and strip cover habitats. Bird species more abundant in strip cover habitats, at least 30% of bird species that use these habitats are common to very abundant. These habitats provide nest sites which are usually much higher density of nests. Abundance and diversity of arthropods greater in uncropped strip cover habitats with perennial vegetation than in cultivated cropland. Foraging concentrated in and near such areas. Low abundance of bird in agricultural habitat: repeated human disturbance of tillage, planting cultivation pesticide and fertilizer application and mowing. Destroy nest and adversely alter habitat. Disruption of site fidelity behavior in birds. Croplands characteristically have low species diversity and generally relatively simple physical structure. Acute or toxic exposure to toxic compounds or reduction in food sources also influence use of croplands. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Bjerke, K. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: An overview of the agricultural resources conservation program SOURCE: Pages 7-10 in L. A. Joyce, J. E. Mitchell, and M. D. Skold, editors. The conservation reserve -yesterday, today, and tomorrow. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Bryan, G. G., and L. B. Best PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Bird abundance and species richness in grassed waterways in Iowa rowcrop fields SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 126:90-102. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Grassed waterways planted to smooth brome in cornfields and soybean fields. 48 bird species observed in waterways compared to 14 within croplands. Total bird abundance 3X of fields. No species exclusive to croplands. Current mowing recommendations is to mow after July 15, but 53% of all species observed and all of the breeding species were at peak abundance in the waterways during 4-22 July. Recommend that waterways be mowed in late August or early September. Mowing should not be undertaken after mid-September because mowing would reduce the amount of winter cover and residual veget- ation required for early spring nesting. Unmowed waterways important habitat for birds in mid-to-late summer because other grass dominated cover types have already been mowed, concentrating birds in remaining habitat. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Bryant, F. C., and L. M. Smith PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: The role of wildlife as an economic input into a farming or ranching operation SOURCE: Pages 95-98 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Bultsma, P. M. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Ducks and CRP SOURCE: Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Society of Range Management 48:9 (abstract only). CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Burger, L. W., Jr. PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Structural characteristics of vegetation in CRP fields in northern Missouri and their suitability as bobwhite habitat SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 55:74-84. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Burger, L. W., Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, T. V. Dailey, and M. R. Ryan PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Structural characteristics of vegetation in CRP fields in northern Missouri and their suitability as bobwhite habitat SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 55:74-83. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: CRP cover may provide both nesting and winter roosting habitat for bobwhite in northern Missouri. Fifty percent of all fields sampled were disturbed by clipping, haying or disking. Thirty four percent of fields provided potential roosting habitat. CP2 and CP4 fields were most likely to provide early season nesting habitat. Disturbance was primary factor limiting the potential value of CRP fields as winter roosting and nesting cover. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Burger, L. W., Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, T. V. Dailey, and M. R. Ryan PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Relative invertebrate abundance and biomass in Conservation Reserve Program plantings in northern Missouri SOURCE: Pages 102-108 in K. E. Church and T. V. Dailey, editors. Quail III: National quail symposium. Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Pratt. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Burger, L. W., Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, T. V. Dailey, and M. R. Ryan PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Factors affecting the habitat value of Conservation Reserve Program lands for bobwhite in northern Missouri SOURCE: Pages 103-119 in M. Dicks and M. Monson, (ed.) Proceed. NC163 Post-CRP Land Use Conf. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Caithamer, D. F., and G. W. Smith PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: North American ducks SOURCE: Pages 34-37 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Camp, M., and L. B. Best PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Nest density and nesting success of birds in roadsides adjacent to rowcrop fields SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 131(2):347-358. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Campa, H., III, and S. R. Winterstein PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Wildlife and vegetative response to diverted agricultural land in Gratiot county, Michigan SOURCE: Annual report. Department of Fish and Wildlife. Michigan State University, East Lansing. 26 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Several significant differences for vegetation variables (e.g., % canopy cover, height, total canopy, % grass canopy, % litter cover) among grasslands reported but none were consistently related to field age. Older fields tended to be characterized by a greater percentage cover of grass and litter. Younger fields tended to have greater forb and live canopy cover. Younger fields supported greater avian densities and diversities but productivity was higher in older fields. May have been result of older fields providing more suitable nesting sites than younger fields due to greater diversity in structure. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Castrale, J. S. PUBL. YEAR: 1985 TITLE: Responses of wildlife to various tillage conditions SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference SO:142-156. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Discussion of minimum tillage practices on wildlife use of agricultural fields, primarily corn and soybeans. Three factors are major contributors to wildlife use of fields, food availability, vegetation structure, and disturbance. Under most circumstances, availability of insects probably does not limit wildlife populations in agricultural fields. Preferred foods may be readily available in corn and soybean fields but lack of adequate cover or vegetation character- istics may prevent some species from utilizing resources present. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Center for Resource Economics PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Farm Bill 1990 revisited SOURCE: Center for Resource Economics, Washington, D.C. 44 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cihacek, L. J. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Selection criteria for retention of CRP land in permanent cover SOURCE: Pages 41-88 in Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural Council. Annual meeting, June 2-4, 1993, Rapid City, S. Dak. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cochrane, W. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The development of American agriculture: An historical analysis. SOURCE: University of Minnestoa Press, Minneapolis. 500 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cook, K. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: So long, CRP. SOURCE: Environmental Working Group/The Tides Foundation Report. Washington, D.C. 38 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cook, K. A., and A. B. Art PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Countdown to compliance: implementation of the resource conservation requirements of federal farm law SOURCE: Center for Resource Economics. Washington, D.C. 37 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Ecological impacts of Federal conservation and cropland reduction programs SOURCE: Task Force Report 117. 28 pp. Ames, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Ecological impacts of Federal conservation and cropland reduction programs SOURCE: Task Force Report 117. 28 pp. Ames, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Overproduction in agriculture first became a major problem following WWI. Food and fiber produced for the war effort but market disappeared following end of war. Pattern was repeated following WWII. World demand is a major factor influencing domestic production and prices. Overproduction also due to increase in technology and productivity per acre. Between 1930 and 1980 farm production rose by almost 150%. If CRP reaches its goal of 45 million acres reduction in soil erosion estimated to be 850 million tons/yr. Other CRP benefits: reduction in soil erosion, improved ground and surface water quality, reduction in nitrate and pesticide use, decrease in commodity surpluses. Discussion of ARP guidelines to lessen negative effects: 1. Extend period that a field may be idled from 1 to 3-5 years, 2. Ban fallowing without cover, 3. Require ASCS to consider wildlife when setting rules for seeding and destruction of cover, 4. Include natural resource professionals on ASCS committees. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve: A survey of Research and Interest Groups SOURCE: Special Publication 19. 44 pp. Ames, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cowardin, L. M., T. L. Shaffer, and K. M. Kraft PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: How much habitat management is needed to meet mallard production objectives SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(1):48-55. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cowardin, L. M., A. B. Sargeant, and H. F. Duebbert PUBL. YEAR: 1983 TITLE: Low waterfowl recruitment in the prairies: the problem, the reasons, and the challenge to management SOURCE: Pages 16-18 in H. Boyd, editor. First western hemisphere waterfowl and waterbird symposium (abstract only). International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, Great Britain. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Nest success estimates for the northern US are in the range of 5-15% although two studies in western N. Dakota demonstrated success rates of 38% and 42%. Variation in success reflects variations in quality of habitat and predator populations. Lowest success rates are observed in areas of intensive agriculture. Highest success for mallard in grass- land, lowest in cropland. Data demonstrate a serious problem of low recruitment resulting from destruction of habitat and increased predation rates in remaining suitable habitat. Intensified agriculture has decreased both the availability of nesting cover and habitat available to resident prey species. Result is concentration of nesting ducks and foraging predators in remaining untilled grassland. Key management strategy is to separate nest predators from nesting waterfowl. Habitat preservation is essential but also requires purposeful management of predators. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Cutler, M. R. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Meeting the biodiversity challenge through coordinated land-use planning SOURCE: Renewable Resources Journal 9(4):13-16. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Dahlberg, K. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: The conservation of biological diversity and U.S. agriculture: Goals, institutions, and policies SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 42:177-193. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Agricultures transformation over the past several decades has led to an increasing genetic depletion of farm habitats and rural landscapes. Ways to modify policy to enhance diversity in agricultural landscapes include making changes in current set-aside policies, credit programs and rangeland management. Water and energy should receive priority but aesthetic value and diversity of rural landscapes should also be considered. Goal is to achieve a more diversified lower-input agri- cultural system. Agricultural practices and efforts in conservation biology affect each other. American agriculture has gone from small scale, diversified production, local marketing systems dependent largely upon human and animal labor to large scale monoculture systems depend on cheap energy and large markets. Size of rural populations and the number of farmers in U.S. population have declined. Pressures to expand production have led to more mono-cropping and elimination of habitat for wildlife and pest predators through simplification of the agricultural ecosystem. Resultant increase in soil erosion and groundwater pollution. High levels of energy input have led to fewer and more uniform crops and more simplified rural landscapes. An important part of seeking new policy direction will be to educate the public regarding the value and importance of re- building a strong, diverse rural America. Potential modifications to policy: change current set-aside policies designed to reduce overproduction on annual set-aside lands. In grain areas encourage farmers to leave unharvested portions of fields as cover. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Davidson, J. H. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Conservation agriculture: an old new idea SOURCE: Natural Resources and Environment 9(3):20-22. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Dicks, M. R., and J. E. Coombs PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: CRP in the future SOURCE: Great Plains Agricultural Policy Center. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. np. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Dicks, M. R., L. D. Sanders, and S. Anderson PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Agricultural ecopolitics: Conflicts of agricultural policies with resource conservation and sustainable agriculture SOURCE: Pages 89-98 in P. J. Hoefer, G. H. Fechner, and S. E. McDonald, technical coordinators. Trees are the answer: 42nd Annual Meeting, Forestry Committee. Great Plains Agricultural Council Publication 132. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Central theme of federal agricultural policy is controlling the variability in agricultural production and prices. During first 150 years of American history federal policy success- fully promoted the expansion of U.S. farmland. Past agri- cultural policy may have influenced resource use. Current policy is shifting focus to supply management placing restrictions on resource use rather than just land use. The greatest need for education and research rests with integrating conservation practices with cropping systems. 1980's may be viewed as a transitional decade for agri- cultural policy shifting focus from production control to production management. The environmental impacts of altern- ative agricultural production control policies have been considered during the development and implementation of legislation. Since the 1930's agricultural policies have sought to modify farmers' allocation of resources almost exclusively through use of positive and negative incentives. Peak of U.S. farmland acreage in early 50's at over 1200 million acres. Farmland acreage devoted to crops peaked at nearly 395 million acres in early 50's. Total production of the basic commodities has grown rapidly since the 50's as technology brought increases in productivity. Federal policies designed to boost agricultural output through research an extension continue to achieve this goal. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Diebel, P., T. T. Cable, and P.S. Cook PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The future of Kansas CRP lands: The landowner's view SOURCE: Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State University, Manhattan. 56 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Majority of survey respondents were satisfied with CRP program and ranked soil erosion as and important influence in initial enrollment. Wildlife habitat considerations affected decisions of 67.7% of respondents. However, 57.6 percent said increases in wildlife populations were undesirable. Hunting was most frequent form of recreation allowed on CRP land (76.4%). Market prices, forage, and livestock were key factors in decision about future use of CRP land. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Dunn, C. P., F. Stearns, G. R. Guntenspergen, and D. M. Sharpe PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Ecological benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Conservation Biology 7(1):132-139. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Unintentional, yet significant, ecological benefits of CRP: reversal of landscape fragmentation, maintenance of regional biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and regional changes in carbon flux. Overall program costs would be more than offset by benefits from increased net farm income, soil productivity improvements, enhanced water quality, and revenue from recreational activities. Dollar benefits derived from program are difficult precisely quantify. Other ecologically desirable benefits: reduced sedimentation in lakes, rivers, streams; reduced non-point source agricultural runoff, improved water quality and retention and development of wildlife habitat. These and other benefits should be used by policy makers to maintain the program. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Edwards, W. R. PUBL. YEAR: 1984 TITLE: Early ACP and pheasant boom and bust! - a historical perspective with rational SOURCE: Pages 71-83 in R. T. Dumke, R. B. Sthiel, and R. B. Kahl, editors. Proceedings: Perdix III. Gray partridge and ring necked pheasant workshop. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ekstrand, E. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Wildlife economics of the CRP SOURCE: Pages 52-54 in C. Lee, editor. Will there be a lasting conservation legacy? Proceedings of Midcontinent CRP conference, Manhattan, Kansas. Kansas Wildlife and Parks. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ekstrand, E., and R. L. Johnson PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Application of farm programs to water quality SOURCE: Pages 541-544 in D. G. Fontane and H. N. Tuvel, editors. Water policy and management: Solving the problems. Proceedings of the 21st annual conference of the Water Resources Planning and Management Division. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ervin, D. (Director) PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Conservation and environmental issues in agriculture SOURCE: U.S. Economic Research Service, Resources and Technology Division. Washington, D.C. 62 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Evrard, J. O., D. A. Snobl, P. B. Doeneir, and J. A. Dechant PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Nesting short-eared owls and voles in St. Croix county SOURCE: The Passenger Pigeon 53(3):223-226. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: High concentration of meadow voles in CRP lands attributed to attracting and supporting a elevated diversity of predators, short-eared owl, red fox, coyote, rough legged hawks. Two nests of short-eared owls found in CRP. The species rarely has nested in Wisconsin. Presence of nests attributed to CRP habitat supporting high density of meadow voles. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Faeth, P., R. Repetto, K. Kroll, Q. Dai, and G. Helmers PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Paying the Farm Bill: U.S. agricultural policy and the transition to sustainable agriculture SOURCE: World Resources Institute. Washington, D.C. 70 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Farmer, A. H., R. L. Hays, and R. P. Webb PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife habitat: a cooperative study SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources Conference 53:232-238. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Farris, A. L., and S. H. Cole PUBL. YEAR: 1981 TITLE: Strategies and goals for wildlife habitat restoration on agricultural lands SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources Conference 46:130-136. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Indicators of negative farmland wildlife habitat change are increased urbanization of agricultural land, increased size of farms, increased acres in rowcrops, decreased area in production of small grains, wild/tame hay and pasture, larger field size, loss of edge, fence rows, farmsteads, wetland and idle lands. All have contributed to reductions in numbers and diversity of wildlife. Agricultural policy is the primary influence on agricultural land use and farmland wildlife habitat. Native grasses, while taking more care and time to establish, provide excellent erosion control with significantly lower cost and energy utilization. Long term benefits of native grasses over cool season grasses are significant. Cutting for hay should be delayed to > July 15. Encourage cost-sharing for farmers that devote a minimum percentage of cropped acreage to permanent cover capable of supporting wildlife (4-5% of landscape probably sufficient). ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Freemark, K. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Assessing effects of agriculture on terrestrial wildlife: Developing a hierarchial approach for the EPA SOURCE: Landscape and Urban Planning 31:99-115. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Given the intensive and extensive extent of agriculture there is a need to develop the conceptual and scientific basis for landscape design and management to promote sustainable agri- cultural practices that enhance conservation and environmental priorities associated with agricultural ecosystems. Retro- spective analysis may provide insights into the range of possibilities for future landscape design and management scenarios in a given area. Major limitation of many previous studies of wildlife on farmland has been the focus on detailed studies of small plots with little regard to larger spatial scales. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Freemark, K., and C. Boutin PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Impacts of agricultural herbicide use on terrestrial wildlife in temperate landscapes: A review with special reference to North America SOURCE: Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment 52(2, 3):67-91. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Fry, G. L. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Conservation in agricultural ecosystems SOURCE: Pages 415-443 in I. F. Spellerberg, F. B. Goldsmith, and M. G. Morris, editors. The scientific management of temperate communities for conservation. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Great Britain. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Protected areas alone cannot achieve conservation goals such as maintenance of biological diversity. Incorporation of conservation measures in farm management will demand clear recommendations based on sound theory and evidence gained through practical trials. Maintenance or enhancement of habitat quality for a wider range of plants and animals will require better understanding of ecological processes at the site, field and landscape levels. Lack of understanding of the processes involved in animal distribution and the way in which species use corridors and what constitutes barriers is a constraint in designing and managing habitats. High connectivity in a landscape is one buffer against effects of habitat fragment- ation so that isolated subpopulations link to form meta- populations which are less vulnerable to local extinction processes. One limitation of many investigations of habitat and wildlife on farmland is alack of regard to management of the next field or surrounding landscape. The abundance of many species comprising animal communities on farmland are controlled largely by a few environmental factors. Both the timing and severity of agricultural practices are important factors governing the potential of agricultural lands as wildlife habitat. Extending width of field margins farther into the crop is one way of increasing habitat diversity on arable lands. Manage- ment decisions often will need to be made without thorough assessment of the impacts on wildlife. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Furrow, L. T., K. F. Millenbah, R. B. Minnis, A. J. Pearks, H. Campa, III, and S. R. Winterstein PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: not just for the birds SOURCE: Proceedings of the Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference 55:170 (abstract only). CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Gall, G. A. E., and G. H. Orians PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Agriculture and biological conservation SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 42:1-8. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Agriculture is the dominant form of land management on all continents. Dramatic increase in intensity of management and capital investment in agriculture following WWII. Prior to that time agriculture was sufficiently inefficient that habitats were provided for many species of wildlife. Multiple use of land declines as management intensity increases. As prices of agricultural commodities have increased there is a decrease in recreational, aesthetic uses and values. Adoption of more intensive agriculture on suitable lands enables more food to be produced per unit area. As a result, pressures on marginal agricultural land could be reduced making them available for conservation practices that contribute not only to on-site habitat but enhancement of downstream environmental quality. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Gerard, P. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Agricultural practices, farm policy, and the conservation of biological diversity SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service. Biological Science Report 4. 28 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: George, R. R., A. L. Farris, C. C. Schwartz, D. D. Humburg, and J. C. Coffey PUBL. YEAR: 1979 TITLE: Native prairie grass pastures as nest cover for upland birds SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 7(1):4-9. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Lands seeded to pure stands of switchgrass Indian grass and big bluestem and properly managed as warm season livestock forage provide suitable nest cover for ring-necked pheasants and other upland nesting birds. In contrast alfalfa and orchard grass hay fields produced no successful nests due to early season hay cutting. Switchgrass good cover because it maintains leaves, resists burial by snow, and provides good residual spring cover. Passerine densities were highest in big bluestem. The three grasses listed above are recommended for warm-season livestock forage and wildlife nesting cover. Little bluestem is best nesting cover but it produces less forage and is more difficult to establish than other native grasses. Tall native grasses should not be grazed below 8-10 in. Grasses should be left undisturbed as much as possible in order to provide maximum residual cover in spring. Prescribed burn every 4-5 years will remove excess litter and prevent woody invasion. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Gill, M., and S. Daberkow PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Crop sequences among 1990 major field crops and associated farm program participation SOURCE: Agricultural Resources-Situation and Outlook Report. 24 October 1991. Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Gilpin, M., G. A. E. Gall, and D. S. Woodruff PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Ecological dynamics and agricultural landscapes SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 42:27-51. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Many parts of society see conflicts between conservation of biological resources and exploitation by agriculture. Agri- cultural production is essential to society and also can provide stewardship of biological resources but inter- displinary effort is needed in development of strategies that reward agriculture for good conservation. Benefits of biological diversity: stabilizes soils, regulates water flow, buffers disturbance. Agriculture and conservation are not mutually exclusive and can be positively linked on local, regional, and global scales. Governmental policies that support agriculture are often fictional and deny true economic constraints.. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Gould, J. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Seasonal use of Conservation Reserve Program fields by white-tailed deer in eastern South Dakota SOURCE: M.S. thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings. 40 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: CRP lands used by white-tailed deer in greater proportion than availability during spring, summer and fall. Selected CRP during active periods in the spring and summer and during bedding periods in summer and fall. Avoided CRP during fall active periods. CRP land provide important forage and cover in all seasons. Maintenance mowing, weed control detrimental to wildlife populations. CRP fields must have some type of disturbance every few years to maintain quality of habitat. Optimal every 3-5 years in late summer subsequent to nesting season . CRP may not be living up to expectations for provision of high quality habitat, however, in comparison with previous use habitat quality is better than that on most cropland. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Granfors, D. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: The impact of the Conservation Reserve Program on eastern meadowlark production and validation of the eastern meadowlark habitat suitability index model SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. Texas Technical University, Lubbock. 98 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Eastern meadowlark productivity compared between CRP land and rangelands in Lyon county Kansas. Nests in CRP fields had lower cowbird parasitism, larger clutch sizes and higher hatch rates than nests in pastures. Cowbird parasitism appears to be a major cause of lowered productivity of meadowlark nests. Eastern meadowlarks selected for less dense litter and more homogenous vegetation structure in both land use types. Nests in CRP fields had higher proportion of grass than was available in random sites. Residual cover was greater near nests in CRP fields. Relationships between HSI values and eastern meadowlark densities was poor due primarily high densities of meadow- larks in fields with high forb coverage. Relationships improved when HSI values and densities were averaged over the three years of the study. No discernible relationship between western meadowlark densities and the eastern meadow- lark model. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Graul, W. D. PUBL. YEAR: 1980 TITLE: Grassland management practices and bird communities SOURCE: Pages 38-47 in Management of western forests and grasslands for nongame birds. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report INT-86. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Ogden, Utah. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Greenwood, R. J., A. B. Sargeant, D. H. Johnson, L. M. Cowardin, and T. L. Shaffer PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: Mallard nest success and recruitment in prairie Canada SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife Natural Resources Conference 52:298-308. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Griffen, S. L. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Pronghorn use of agricultural land in northwestern South Dakota SOURCE: M.S. thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings. 63 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Pronghorn observed CRP grasslands 5% of time. CRP grasslands represented 4% of study area. Suggests that CRP grasslands may furnish high-quality foraging areas and is a method of reducing depredation on small grain and alfalfa croplands. Use of CRP often highest in early summer and winter when potential for agricultural conflict was greatest. Future research should focus on better definition of pronghorn preferences for different grassland plantings permitted in program. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Gulinck, H. PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Landscape ecological aspects of agroecosystems SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 16:79-86. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Hall, D. L., and M. R. Willig PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Mammalian species composition, diversity, and succession in Conservation Reserve Program grasslands SOURCE: Southwestern Naturalist 39(1):1-10. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Abundance of small mammals and species diversity compared between native shortgrass grasslands and CRP fields in southern high plains of Texas. CRP grasslands simulate shortgrass prairies in species diversity but not in species composition. CRP grasslands consist of introduced grasses, primarily lovegrass, that allow CRP to accomplish soil erosion goals but do not create "native habitat" with respect to plant or animal species composition. Successional changes in vegetational structure occurred in CRP sites. First year sites on average contained more bare ground and less cover than older sites. Second year sites were dense and almost homogenous with lovegrass. Third year sites contained dense lovegrass but it occurred in clusters or bunches interspersed with open spaces. CRP grasslands support as great a diversity of small mammals as do shortgrass prairie at least within the 1st three years Species composition may be highly dependent on specific physiognomic parameters that are not met in either agricultural sites or CRP grasslands. Mammalian species com- position may be restored if grazing or fire disturbance were incorporated into long-term management of CRP grasslands. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Harmon, K. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1981 TITLE: Future actions for management of private land wildlife SOURCE: Pages 374-382 in R. T. Dumke, G. V. Burger, and J. R. March, editors. Wildlife management on private lands. Wisconsin Chapter of the Wildlife Society, Madison. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Harmon, K. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: History and economics of farm bill legislation and the impacts on wildlife management and policies SOURCE: Pages 105-108 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Harris, B. L. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Landowner options when CRP ends SOURCE: Pages 24-26 in L. A. Joyce, J. E. Mitchell, and M. D. Skold, editors. The conservation reserve - yesterday, today and tomorrow. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Hays, R. L., and A. H. Farmer PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Effects of the CRP on wildlife Habitat: emergency haying in the midwest and pine plantings in the southeast SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 55:30-39. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Hays, R. L., R. P. Webb, and A. H. Farmer PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife habitat: results of 1988 monitoring SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 54:365-376. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Highest amount of persistent vegetation cover is on CP-2 (warm season grasses) fields. Highest pre-green up average VOR was on CP-2. Percentage of herbaceous cover made up of grasses was not different between conservation practices. Pheasants may be more limited by winter food and cover than nesting cover near come CRP fields. Planting of woody vegetation and food plots should be encouraged. CRP appears to be providing good nesting habitat for pheasants and fair nesting habitat for meadow larks. Improvement in habitat quality for cottontails not detected. Winter cover values appear to be greater on CP-2 than within CP-1 (introduced grasses). Unless high quality winter cover is developed on more CRP fields themselves, it seems likely that winter food will only contribute to usable pheasant habitat in years that have mild winters. Appears that CRP could improve pheasant habitat by planting more winter cover and winter food where these resources are in short supply. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Heimlich, R. E., and C. T. Osborn PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: After the Conservation Reserve Program: Macroeconomics and post-contract program design SOURCE: Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural Council Annual meeting. June 2-4, 1993, Rapid City, S. Dak. In press. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Heimlich, R. E., and C. T. Osborn PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program: What happens when contracts expire? SOURCE: Choices 3rd quarter: 9-14. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Heimlich, R., C. T. Osborn, and A. W. Allen PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Including wildlife in an environmental benefits index (EBI) for analyzing alternative acreage reduction scenarios when CRP contracts expire SOURCE: American Agricultural Economists meeting, Orlando, Fl. August 1993. 8 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Heimlich, R., C. T. Osborn, A. W. Allen, and R. Roath PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Future use of Conservation Reserve Program lands in the Great Plains SOURCE: Great Plains Agricultural Council Task Force White Paper. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 27 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Heimlich, R., C. T. Osborn, A. W. Allen, and R. Roath PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: What do we have to lose? SOURCE: Pages 13-15 in R. Clark, editor. Future use of Conservation Reserve Program lands in the Great Plains. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Herkert, J. R. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Prairie birds of Illinois: Population response to two centuries of habitat change SOURCE: Illinois Natural History Survey, Bulletin from Symposium Proceedings: Our Living Heritage 34:393-398. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Herman, R. J. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Wildlife management on CRP SOURCE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Champaign, Ill. Illinois Bulletin No. Ill90-3-33. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Higgins, K. F. PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: Maintenance of planted grass stands for wildlife SOURCE: Proceedings of the North Dakota Academy of Science 41:42. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Higgins, K. F., D. E. Nomsen, and W. A. Wentz PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: The role of the Conservation Reserve Program in relation to wildlife enhancement, wetlands, and adjacent habitats in the northern Great Plains SOURCE: Pages 99-104 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Igl, L. D., and D. H. Johnson PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Migratory bird population changes in North Dakota SOURCE: Pages 298-300 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Igl, L. D., and L. A. Murphy PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: CRP, succession, and Brewer's Sparrows: advantages of a long-term, federal land retirement program SOURCE: South Dakota Bird Notes 48(3):69-70. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Jahn, L. R. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: The potential for wildlife habitat improvements SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 43(1):67-69. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Jahn, L. R., and E. W. Schenck PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: U.S. agricultural programs: implications for wildlife and potential for improvement SOURCE: Pages 359-371 in K. E. Church, R. E. Warner, and S. J. Brady, editors. Perdix V: Gray partridge and ring-necked pheasant workshop. Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Emporia. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Jahn, L. R., and E. W. Schenck PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: What sustainable agriculture means for fish and wildlife SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 46(4):251-255 CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: James, P. C. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Internalizing externalities: granular carbofuran use on rapeseed in Canada SOURCE: Ecological Economics 13:181-184. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Jassen, L., M. Beutler, and T. Ghebremicael PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Major characteristics of post-contract land use intentions for Conservation Reserve Program wetland tracts SOURCE: Economics Staff Paper No. 94-2. South Dakota State University, Pierre. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: John, K., R. Walsh, and J. McKean PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Value of wetland habitat resources and benefits of waterfowl hunting under the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Unpublished report to NBS, Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, D. H., and M. D. Schwartz PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program and grassland birds SOURCE: Conservation Biology 7(4):934-937 CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, D. H., and R. R. Koford PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program and migratory birds in the northern Great Plains SOURCE: Pages 302-303 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Presentation of nest densities and survival rates for selected common birds and waterfowl nesting in North Dakota and Minnesota CRP fields, croplands, and waterfowl production areas. Data supports conclusion that federal agricultural programs can have beneficial effects on wildlife resources over broad geographic areas. As CRP fields age their attractiveness to certain species may change. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, D. H., S. D. Haseltine, and L. M. Cowardin PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Wildlife habitat management on the northern prairie landscape SOURCE: Landscape Urban Planning 28(1):5-21. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Summary of European settlement impacts to northern prairie landscapes and wildlife habitat. Regional management of wild- life can not be effective on public lands alone. Partnerships with private landowners need to be developed. Wildlife managers need to base management activities on explicit, quantifiable objectives that furnish measures of survival, reproduction, and distribution of species. Description of potential landscape-level management options presented. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, D. L., and M. D. Schwartz PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program land is a plus for grassland birds SOURCE: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Information Bulletin 42. 2 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, R. G., and S. A. Temple PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Assessing habitat quality for birds nesting in fragmented tallgrass prairies SOURCE: Pages 245-249 in J. Verner, M. L. Morrison, and C. J. Ralph, editors. Wildlife 2000: Modeling habitat relationships of terrestrial vertebrates. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: =============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, R. G., and S. A. Temple PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Nest predation and brood parasitism of tallgrass prairie birds SOURCE: Journal of Wildlife Management 54(1):106-111. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Presentation of nest densities and survival rates for selected common birds and waterfowl nesting in North Dakota and Minnesota CRP fields, croplands, and waterfowl production areas. Data supports conclusion that federal agricultural programs can have beneficial effects on wildlife resources over broad geographic areas. As CRP fields age their attractiveness to certain species may change. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, R. J., and M. M. Beck PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Influences of shelterbelts on wildlife management and biology SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 22-23:301-335. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, R. L., J. R. McKean, and C. L. Sandretto PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Increased recreational hunting can offset negative economic impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin TB92-4. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 23 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: An input-out analysis using National Survey of Fishing and Hunting data completed for northeastern Colorado estimates the negative economic effects of the CRP and necessary increase in small game and migratory bird hunting needed to offset it. Offsetting CRP-related employment loss would require recreation hunting to rise by 1.8 times but off- setting the loss in sales would require and increase of 2.5. The negative impact and the required offsetting rise in recreational hunting increases sharply if farmers who place some land in CRP leave the region. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Johnson, R. L., K. H. John, and R. G. Walsh PUBL. YEAR: TITLE: Valuation of wetland as waterfowl habitat SOURCE: Combining stated and revealed preference approaches. Journal of Ecological Economics. In preparation. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Joyce, L. A., and M. D. Skold PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: Implications of changes in the regional ecology of the Great Plains SOURCE: Pages 115-127 in J. E. Mitchell, editor. Impacts of the Conservation Reserve Program in the Great Plains. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-158. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Joyce, L. A., J. E. Mitchell, and M. D. Skold, editors PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve - Yesterday, today and tomorrow: Symposium Proceedings SOURCE: U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. 64 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Just, R. E., and J. M. Antle PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Interaction between environmental and agricultural policies: Opportunities for coordination and limitations for evaluation SOURCE: American Economic Review 80:197-202. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Agricultural policy has a well-documented impact on farmer's production decisions which in turn affects the environment. Growing public perception that existing agricultural policies are linked to agricultural pollution. Existing agricultural and environmental policies can have either positive or negative effects on non-point source pollution. Agricultural policy can be used to mitigate pollution if properly used. Agricultural production and environmental impacts depend on highly location-specific environmental conditions. General- izations about the environmental impacts of agricultural policies are easy to make but should be avoided. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kantrud, H. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1981 TITLE: Grazing intensity effects on the breeding avifauna of North Dakota native grasslands SOURCE: Canadian Field Naturalist 95:404-417. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Avian species richness tended to decrease in response to greater grazing intensity, but total bird density increased due to higher populations of a few species. Total bird density was always highest on idle or lightly grazed sites. In general, distribution and abundance of most grassland bird species in ND have been negatively affected by agri- cultural and pastoral activities. Fragmentation of grass- lands by agriculture resulted in extirpation of some but cultivation of eastern tallgrass prairie has destroyed better habitat for more bird species than in the shorter grasslands to the west. Protection should be given to the larger remaining areas of grassland representative of various types found throughout state. Long-term pre- servation will require periodic management. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kantrud, H. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Duck nest success on Conservation Reserve Program land in the prairie pothole region SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 48(3):238-242. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Duck nest success higher (23.1%) on tracts of CRP than on Waterfowl Production Areas (8.2%). Larger field size, greater distance from water, lower nest densities, good vegetative cover on CRP believed to contribute to lower rates of predation. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kantrud, H. A., and K. F. Higgins PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Nest and nest site characteristics of some ground-nesting non-passerine birds of northern grasslands SOURCE: Prairie Naturalist 24(2):67-84. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Fields with numerous wetlands were more attractive to upland- nesting shorebirds than were similar fields where wetlands were more distant. All species studied used native grassland for nesting. Fourteen species nested in seeded grasslands and croplands. Nest success rates did not differ among habitat types for any species. Except for killdeer, few nests were in annually tilled croplands. Current management practices on lands devoted to wildlife should benefit from occasional management activities to maintain stand vigor. Results suggest that about one third of bird species studied, mostly shorebirds, nested predominantly in shorter sparser cover of pastures rather than taller idle grasslands. Few species attracted to recently burned fields. To maintain grassland bird species diversity and abundance large, scattered areas of grasslands in northern great plains should not be protected from periodic disturbance that reduce vegetation height, litter and the invasion of woody plants. Modern livestock grazing systems can increase habitat quality for many species of non-game birds on mixed-grass prairies in North Dakota. However, some species seem attracted to fields where vegetation height and density are reduced by grazing during one or more previous growing seasons even though these fields may be relatively unattractive when cattle are present. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kantrud, H. A., and R. L. Kologiski PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: Effects of soils and grazing on breeding birds of uncultivated upland grasslands of the northern Great Plains SOURCE: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Research Report 15. Washington, D.C. 33 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Livestock grazing on lands set aside for wildlife can be used as a management measure to increase populations of game species and increase diversity of plant or animal species. Light to moderate grazing resulted in increased species richness. Species richness was significantly reduced by heavy grazing the northern Great Plains. Grazing by domestic livestock generally decreased average vegetative height and increased exposure of bare soil, in lightly grazed plots height of vegetation seemed to decrease because of shading effect of large amounts of litter. Increased richness was associated with plots in which the height of vegetation was not appreciably reduced and the percentage of bare soil not greatly increased by excessive grazing. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Keeland, B. D., J. A. Allen, and V. V. Burkett PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Southern forested wetlands SOURCE: Pages 216-218 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kelly, C. R., and J. A. Loden PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Federal farm program conservation initiatives: Past, present, and future SOURCE: Natural Resources and Environment 9(3):17-19. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: From its New Deal beginnings farm policy has been primarily designed to stabilize commodity prices and to support farm income. Natural resources capitol on which agriculture is dependent has not been the primary concern of those who have guided federal farm policy for the past 60 years. Conser- vation initiatives have largely served to gain political support or otherwise assist in achieving a given programs= economic objectives. Although economic well-being will be predominant concern of federal policy, conservation is likely to assume a greater importance because agricultural impacts are receiving greater attention. Budgetary constraints and international competition will accelerate market-orientated policies diminishing the programs' tradition role in supply management. Paying farmers for adopting conservation practices is likely to expand replacing other mechanisms for supporting farm income. Political problems of green-payments: Favored recipients of green payments are not likely to be the same farmers favored by current income transfers. Larger farmers are favored by current programs. Current programs favor producer in midwest. Green payments are likely to be greatest where environmental problems are greatest and nearest to population centers resulting in shift to coasts and major watersheds. May not provide benefits to small farmers because it can be argued that attention should be greatest to those who farm the most land. No guarantee that green payments would provide sufficient income to satisfy farmers. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kennedy, C. L., and K. F. Higgins PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Effects of grazing on nongame breeding birds, insects, and vegetation in Conservation Reserve Program grasslands in North Dakota SOURCE: Annual meeting of the Society of Range Management 48:32-33. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kimmel, R. O., A. H. Berner, R. J. Welsh, B. S. Haroldson, and S. B. Malchow PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Population responses of grey partridge (Perdix perdix), ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and meadowlarks (Sturnella sp.) to farm programs in Minnesota SOURCE: Pages 797-806 in M. Birkan, editor. Proceedings of Perdix VI, First International Symposium on Partridges, Quails, and Francolins. Giber Fauna Sauvage, Volume 9. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: King, J. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on selected wildlife populations in southeast Nebraska SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 39 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: King, J. W., and J. A. Savidge PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on wildlife in southeast Nebraska SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(3):377-385. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Pheasant numbers in southeast Nebraska higher in areas with approximately 20% of cropland in CRP than in areas with <5% Meadowlark numbers and cottontail numbers did not differ between areas. No differences found between numbers of birds or avian richness between cool-season and warm-season cover types. Vegetation structure and amount of cover were more important in determining bird densities and richness than was plant diversity. No relationship between bird numbers and vegetation diversity suggesting that structure may be more important than species composition. In general vegetation was taller in warm-season grass fields than cool-season fields. Suggest burning every 3-5 years to rejuvenate fields. Fields seeded to single grass species generally become more dense as they mature resulting in decline in habitat quality. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kirsch, L. M., H. F. Duebbert, and A. D. Kruse PUBL. YEAR: 1978 TITLE: Grazing and haying effects on habitat of upland nesting birds SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 43:486-497. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Klett, A. T., H. F. Duebbert, and G. L. Heismeyer PUBL. YEAR: 1984 TITLE: Use of seeded native grasses as nesting cover by ducks SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 12(2):134-138. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Klett, A. T., T. L. Shaffer, and D. H. Johnson PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Duck nest success in the prairie pothole region SOURCE: Journal of Wildlife Management 52(3):431-440. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Klute, D. S., and R. J. Robel PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Comparative avian usage of rowcrop, burned and unburned CRP fields, and grazed pastures in eastern Kansas SOURCE: Horned Lark 20(4):4 (abstract only). CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Knopf, F. L. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Conservation of steppe birds in North America SOURCE: ICBP Technical Publication 7:27-41. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Only 9 avian species are wholly endemic to the tall and short grass prairies. An additional 19 species have strong affinities to the grasslands but also occur in adjacent vegetation types. Endemic species spend entire year within the grassland the remaining species tend to migrate into brush- land and other habitats in Mexico and central America. About 260 species of birds regularly breed in the grasslands of North America, however most are associated with wetlands or man-altered landscapes. Locally, bird communities within grassland average only three to five species during the breeding season with substantial seasonal and annual variation in densities. Programs should identify the needs of the area dependent stenotopic specie for a locale when planning steppe purchases. Invasion by woody species provides habitat for birds more typical of eastern deciduous forests which accelerate patterns of avifaunal mixing at potential of primary and most secondary species of steppe birds. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Knopf, F. L. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Conserving the biotic integrity of the Great Plains SOURCE: In Conservation of Great Plains Ecosystems. Western Governor's Association. Denver, Colorado, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Kansas City, Kans. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Koford, R. R. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Nest success in Conservation Reserve Program fields in North Dakota and Minnesota SOURCE: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Information Bulletin 43. 2 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kurzejeski, E. W., L. W. Burger, Jr., M. J. Manson, and R. Lenkner PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Wildlife conservation attitudes and land use intentions of conservation reserve program participants in Missouri SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 20(3):253-259. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Sixty-two percent of respondents indicated wildlife was an important consideration in choice of farming practices. Only 9.4% of all respondents enrolled land in permanent wildlife habitat. Fifty-six percent of respondents indicated that they were unaware of this practice. Increased educational efforts to promote wildlife management options should target both landowners and administering agencies. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kramer, C. S., B. J. Elliott, L. M. Rubey, and G. E. Rossmiller PUBL. YEAR: TITLE: The political economy of U.S. agriculture: Challenges for the 1990s SOURCE: Pages 267-281 in C. S. Kramer, editor. The political economy of U.S. agriculture: Challenges for the 1990s. National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy. Resources for the Future. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Kruse, A. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: A bargain for the U.S. taxpayer SOURCE: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jamestown, N. Dak. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Langer, L. L. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Land use changes and hunter participation: the case of the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 54:382-390. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Lauber, B. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Birds and the Conservation Reserve Program: A retrospective study SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. University of Maine, Orono. 252 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Little, T., and R. A. Hill PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: CRP having an impact SOURCE: Iowa Conservationist September/October:4-9. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Description of agricultural and settlement impacts to wildlife habitats in Iowa. General description of CRP benefits to wildlife. Converting as little as 4% of county from rowcrops to CRP significantly increased pheasant numbers seen on survey routs. Higher numbers of pheasants attributed to greater over-winter survival due to CRP. More than 15 nests of non-game birds per 40 acres of CRP compared less than one in same area of rowcrops. Nest success of bird in CRP 33% as compared to 20% in hay fields. Waterfowl nest success in CRP as good, or better, than wildlife management areas. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Luttschwager, K. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Effects of two haying provisions on duck nesting in Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) fields in South Dakota SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings. 51 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Evaluation of 1988, 1989 release of eastern South Dakota CRP fields effects on duck nest density and success. Nest densities in idled (non-hayed) strips and non-hayed fields were significantly greater than in hayed strips. Nest densities in idled and hayed blocks were similar. Nest success was lowest in idled strips which apparently attracted predators as well as ducks. Recommends leaving a minimum of 25% of hayed fields in non-hayed cover in a block rather than strips. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Luttschwager, K. A., and K. F. Higgins PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Nongame bird, game bird, and deer use of Conservation Reserve Program fields in eastern South Dakota SOURCE: Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 71:31-36. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Luttschwager, K. A., K. F. Higgins, and J. A. Jenks PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Effects of emergency haying on duck nesting in Conservation Reserve Program fields, South Dakota SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 403-408. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Lysne, L. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Small mammal demographics in North Dakota conservation reserve program plantings SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. University of North Dakota, Grand Forks. 48 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Mankin, P. C. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Agricultural land use and the eastern cottontail in Illinois SOURCE: Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 94 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: McKean, J. R., and R. L. Johnson PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Can increased migratory bird hunting offset negative economic impacts of the CRP in northeast Colorado? SOURCE: Colorado State University Experiment Bulletin. Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: McKean, J. R., E. Ekstrand, and R. L. Johnson PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Recreational fishing offsets to the negative economic impacts of the CRP in Wisconsin SOURCE: Colorado State University Experiment Bulletin. Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Miller, E. J. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Wildlife management on Virginia Conservation Reserve Program land: the farmers' view SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. 91 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Seventy-two percent of respondents indicated that they wanted to improve wildlife habitat on retired land. Most respondents indicated that they had not been informed about improving habitat on CRP land. USDA personnel were primary source of habitat information for program participants. Only 5% of land was planted to permanent wildlife habitat. Mowing of entire CRP acreage was primary means of weed control. Leasing of CRP land to hunters was uncommon. Results indicate high level of interest in wildlife and need for getting more detailed information to landowners from USDA and wildlife agencies. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Miller, E. J., and P. T. Bromley PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Wildlife management on Conservation Reserve Program land: The farmer's view SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 44(5):438-440. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Survey results from CRP participants in Iowa and Virginia. Results indicate that CRP participants in sample population have high interest in improving wildlife habitat. Lack of information and education about how to specifically improve lands for wildlife appeared to be an important limitation. Objection to regulations and Ared tape@ may constrain acceptance of programs to stimulate improvement in habitat quality. Improvements in wildlife issues on CRP lands will require aggressive information and education efforts by wild- life agency staff (rather than USDA county staff) who can furnish precise information useful for improvement in habitat values. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Miller, M. S., D. J. Buford, and R. S. Lutz PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Habitat use, productivity, and survival of Rio Grande wild turkey hens in southwestern Kansas SOURCE: Page 27 in 1991 Noxious brush and weed control: range and wildlife management. Texas Tech University, Lubbock. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Mills, R. C. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: CRP grassland and wildlife management SOURCE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Missouri Bulletin No. MO300-3-1. Columbia. 9 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Minnesota Extension Service PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The CRP in the Midwest: What should we do next? SOURCE: University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 16 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Miranowski, J. A., and R. L. Bender PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: Impact of erosion control policies on wildlife habitat on private lands SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 37(5):288-291. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Moulton, R. J. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Sorting through cost-share assistance programs SOURCE: Tree Farmer. November/December 1994. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Moulton, R. J., B. Baldwin, and J. Snellgrove PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Impacts of Conservation Reserve Program tree planting on biological diversity SOURCE: Annual meeting of southern forest economists. February 20-22, 1991. Washington, D.C. n.p. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Sample of CRP plantations in southeast showed that most were comparatively small and over 70% were not adjoined by existing pine stands and none adjoined pine on all four sides. Trees replaced what had been continuous cropland or extension of cropland on 80% of observations. Over 2.2 million acres of trees planted under CRP in 41 states and Caribbean. However, the majority are in southeastern states. Trees represent >90% of CRP in Florida and Georgia, 79% in South Carolina and >50% in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and North Carolina. 97.3% of all trees planted are softwoods (loblolly and slash pine).Over 70% of CRP pine plantations were free- standing, not adjacent to other stands of pine on any side. 22% joined plantations on one side. CRP pine replaced cropland in 80% of cases. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: National Audubon Society PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Investing in wildlife, multiple benefits for agriculture and the American people SOURCE: 27 pp. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: National Biological Survey PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: CRP and wildlife: Preliminary report on CRP benefits to wildlife SOURCE: Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, Fort Collins, Colo. np. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: National Research Council PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: Impacts of emerging agricultural trends on fish and wildlife habitat SOURCE: National Academy Press. 244 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Newtow, J. A., and J. S. Beck PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program fish and wildlife benefits. State of Oregon report to local Soil and Water Conservation Districts SOURCE: Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Salem. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Nowak, P. J., M. Schrepf, and R. Barnes PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: When Conservation Reserve Program contracts expire...A national survey of farm owners and operators who have enrolled land in the Conservation Reserve SOURCE: Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, Iowa. 80 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: O'Connell, M. A., and R. F. Noss PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Private land management for biodiversity conservation SOURCE: Environmental Management 16(4):435-450. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: For the purpose of conservation ecosystem diversity must be defined on basis of geographically recognizable, or mappable, units representing commonly associated flora and fauna. Species profiting from habitat diversification are generally least in need of conservation efforts (e.g, species assoc- iated with diversification in cover types) Managers have customarily enhanced local species diversity by maintaining numerous edges between habitat types, which is usually to the detriment of endemic species. Maintenance of diversity from regional and global perspective actually permits more flexi- bility in land-use options than a strategy that considers sites in isolation. Loss of a species from a specific site may not have detrimental effects of biodiversity if the species is regionally or globally abundant. Regional bio- diversity management does not preclude habitat manipulation to favor certain species, however, standards for private land management consistent with goal of conserving biodiversity are not simple to delineate.Paper provides specific steps and guidelines for identification of biodiversity priorities on private lands. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: O'Connor, R. J., and M. Shrubb PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Farming and birds SOURCE: Cambridge University Press, Great Britain. 290 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ogg, C. W., M. P. Aillery, and M. O. Ribaudo PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Implementing the Conservation Reserve Program: analysis of environmental options SOURCE: U.S. Forest Service, Economic Research Service, Agriculture Economic Report 618. 26 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Osborn, C. T., F. Llacuna, and M. Linsenbigler PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program, enrollment statistics for signup periods 1-11 and fiscal years 1990-92 SOURCE: Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Statistical Bulletin Number 843. Washington, D.C. 86 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Osborn, C. T., M. Schnepf, and R. Keim PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: The future use of Conservation Reserve Program Acres: A national survey of farm owners and operators SOURCE: Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, Iowa. 47 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Owens, R. A., and M. T. Myres PUBL. YEAR: 1973 TITLE: Effects of agriculture upon populations of native passerine birds of an Alberta fescue grassland SOURCE: Canadian Journal of Zoology 51:697-713. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Disturbance of fescue grasslands by mowing for hay or grazing by cattle reduced or eliminated Baird' sparrow and Sprague's pipit but permitted ingress of horned lark and chestnut- collared longspur. Total elimination of native grassland by plowing and cultivation for cereal crops eliminated all passerine species except the horned lark. Peripheral disturb- ance of areas resulting from cultivation such a field boundaries and ditches may have benefitted species that tend to occur in edge habitats. Vegetation physiognomy is probably factor determining the distribution of grassland passerine species. Prairie passerines which evolved to exploit original grass- land environments have been forced to make use of various habitats created by agriculture. Species dependant upon dense- grass situations are largely eliminated when grazing is heavy. Variable grazing intensities will affect habitat distribution differently resulting in changes in composition of grassland bird community. Under grazing practice which area aimed at maintaining range in good condition the full range of prairie passerines may occur. Under heavier than normal conditions species that favor short grass conditions will predominate. Some species will be present under any condition (meadowlarks). This study suggests that passerine avifauna which evolved on plains is adapted to survive in habitats which are the product of gazing by native ungulates and periodic fires. Therefore, areas managed to preserve grass- lands and native avifaunas must allow these factors to operate to create similar conditions. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Patterson, M., and L. B. Best PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Avian abundance and productivity on Conservation Reserve Program lands in central Iowa SOURCE: Proceedings of the Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference 55:171 abstract only). CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Patterson, M. P., and L. B. Best PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Bird abundance and productivity in Iowa CRP fields: the importance of vegetation structure and composition SOURCE: Am. Midland Nat. 135:153-167. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Although many bird species frequent row-crop fields abundance is relatively low and few species nest there. Because of predation, parasitism, and farming activities bird repro- duction in row crops may be below levels needed to sustain populations. CRP likely has contributed to an increase in abundance of many bird species in central Iowa because the row crop habitats were replaced by permanent cover. CRP fields are better nesting habitat for grassland birds than roadsides, grassed waterways, and other covers ts associated with Iowa agriculture. Presence of diverse vegetation structure and composition, large block nature, and reduced agricultural activity are believed to account for benefits to avian species. Recommendations: that species planted on CRP fields should be selected based on the structural and composition attributes to which birds respond; mowing and spraying of CRP fields for weed control be deferred until after July; plant a variety of grass species, avoid mono- cultures: maintain whole field enrollments; effects of disturbances (disking, burning, grazing and interseeding) need to be evaluated. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Pajak, P. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Fisheries implications of the 1990 Farm Bill SOURCE: Fisheries 16(4):4. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Pajak, P., and J. Bauman PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Fisheries resources: Opportunities for enhancement through the Conservation Title SOURCE: The social, economic, and environmental consequences of the conservation components of the Food Security Act of 1985. Soil and Water Conservation Society Symposium, March 1-2, 1989. Columbus, Ohio. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Paoletti, M. G., D. Pimentel, B. R. Stinner, and D. Stinner PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Agroecosystem biodiversity: matching production and conservation biology SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40:3-23. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Pimentel, D., L. Mclaughlin, A. Zepp, B. Lakitan, T. Kraus, P. Kleinman, F. Vancini, W. J. Roach, E. Graap, W. S. Keeton, and G. Selig PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Environmental and economic effects of reducing pesticide use SOURCE: Bioscience 41(6):402-409. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Pimental, D. U. Stachow, D. A. Takacs, H. W. Brubaker, A. R. Dumas, J. J. Meaney. J. A. S. O'Neil, D. E. Onsi, and D. B. Corzilius PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry systems SOURCE: BioScience 42(5):354-362. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Reichelderfer, K. PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Environmental protection and agricultural support: Are trade-offs necessary? SOURCE: Pages 201-230 in K. Allen, editor. Agricultural policies in a new decade. Resources for the Future and National Planning Association. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Traditional means of supporting farm income tend to exacerbate environmental problems. Under current programs agricultural protection and environmental protection reflect conflicting societal preferences. Public reaction to environ- mental problems suggests that non-farm population believes that it has a right to a clean, safe and healthy environment which may be infringed upon by farming activity. Long-run environmental goals of American public conflict with the short-run profit objectives of individual farmers. Adoption of new technologies requires capital investment high adjustments cost increased operating costs, or some for- feiture of yield any of which can reduce farm income, at least in the short run. Efforts must focus on increasing the cost-effectiveness of the current or reduced levels of funding to meet policy objectives. Farm bill has proved to provide consistency between environmental and agricultural policy objectives, but it could be better. Farm Programs: For over 50 years programs that support commodity prices and transfer of income to farm sector have formed the core of US agricultural policy. Until recently these programs included no explicit conservation objectives. Main objectives of agri- cultural policy are to support farm income and ensure a stable and reasonably priced food supply. These multiple objectives are achieved through a system of farm programs that insulate the farm sector from the market economy by arti- ficially supporting certain commodities prices and managing those supplies. Each mechanism employed to achieve farm and supply control has unique secondary and unintentional effects on environmental quality. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Renner, R. W., R. E. Reynolds, and B. D. J. Batt PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: The impact of haying Conservation Reserve Program lands on productivity of ducks nesting the Prairie Pothole Region of North and South Dakota SOURCE: Ducks Unlimited, Inc. Bismarck, N. Dak. Unpublished report. 25 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Reynolds, R. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Evaluation of the effect of CRP on duck recruitment in the Prairie Pothole Joint Venture Area of FWS, Region 6 SOURCE: 1992 Progress Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bismarck, N. Dak. 6 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Report on results of 1992 pilot effort to evaluate waterfowl production in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Nest success estimated to be about 2 to 3 times higher in CRP grasslands than in Waterfowl Production Areas. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Reynolds, R. E., T. L. Shaffer, J. R. Sauer, and B. G. Peterjohn PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: Benefit for grassland birds in the northern plains SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 59:328-336. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ribaudo, M. O. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Water quality benefits from the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: U.S. Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report 606. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Riddle, M., M. D. Skold, and W. L. Trock PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: The future of the Conservation Reserve Program in Colorado SOURCE: Agricultural Experiment State Cooperative Extension Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics Technical Report TR94-5. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 41 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Survey of contractees to ascertain expectations related to future of CRP. Most important reason for enrolling in CRP was the income the program provided. Soil conservation also an important consideration. Expected that if program expired that about 38% of land would return to production and about same amount would remain in grass. Economic factors were the most important reason for program participation. Infra- structure to accommodate livestock generally not available on CRP grasslands. New fences and development of water resources would be needed to convert CRP grassland to grazing. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Rietveld, W. J. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: When CRP contracts expire: alternative strategies to encourage environmentally acceptable land use SOURCE: Pages 89-96 in Proceedings of the Great Plains Agricultural Council. Annual meeting, June 2-4, Rapid City, S. Dak. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Riley, T. Z. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Ring-necked pheasants and food plot size SOURCE: Prairie Naturalist 24(3):185-189. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Riley, T. Z. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Effects of CRP on ring-necked pheasants in Iowa (1985-91) SOURCE: Proceedings of the Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference 55:172 (abstract only) CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Riley, T. Z. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Association of Conservation Reserve Program with ring-necked pheasant survey counts in Iowa SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(3):386-390. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Pheasant numbers in Iowa increased 30% during first 5 years of CRP compared to a similar period prior to program. Numbers increased 34% in counties with >70% of cropland and 26% in counties with 50-70% cropland. Increases not detected in counties with <50% in cropland. Pheasant numbers positively related to CRP but also influenced by percent cropland and cumulative snowfall. Positive association between pheasant survey counts and CRP land enrollment may have resulted from an increase in nesting and winter cover. Addition of idle grass-forb fields provided by program might have improved survival of females and enhanced reproductive success by increasing amount and dispersion of roosting and nesting cover. Association of pheasant counts with % CRP probably a function of % cropland. Value of existing grass cover and that added by CRP may have been reduced by the persistence of snow cover. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Rodiek, J., and G. DelGiudice PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Wildlife habitat conservation: Its relationship to biological diversity and landscape sustainability: a national symposium SOURCE: Landscape Urban Planning 28(1):1-3. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Robinson, A. Y. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Agriculture and wildlife in 2020 SOURCE: Pages 67-76 in T. J. Peterle, editor. 2020 Vision: Meeting the fish and wildlife conservation challenges of the twenty-first century. Symposium Proceedings, 53rd Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference, December 3, 1991. Des Moines, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Robinson, R. A., L. L. Atkins, C. R. Kirby, P. A. Dommel, F. J. Schaefer, Jr., and J. D. Hall PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: Cost effectiveness is uncertain SOURCE: Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives. U.S. General Accounting Office. GAO/RCED-93-132. Washington, D.C. 14 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Rodenhouse, N. L., L. Best, R. J. O'Connor, and E. K. Bollinger PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Effects of temperate agriculture on neotropical migrant landbirds SOURCE: Pages 280-295 in D. M. Finch and P. W. Stangel, editors. Status and management of neotropical migratory birds. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report RM-229. Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Rodgers, R. D. PUBL. YEAR: 1983 TITLE: Conservation tillage impacts on wildlife SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 38:212-213. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Roseberry, J. L., and L. M. David PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program and northern bobwhite population trends in Illinois SOURCE: Illinois Department of Conservation, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Job Completion Report. Project W-106-R. 64 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Roseberry, J. L., and L. M. David PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program and northern bobwhite population trends in Illinois SOURCE: Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 87(1, 2):61-70. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Contributions of CRP to improvements in Illinois quail habitat less than expected. CRP land positively contributed to local habitat quality but in some situations CRP may have neutral or negative effects. CRP land comprises small proportion of total habitat base. CRP contribution to quail habitat could be improved if there is less mid-summer mowing, more weedy vegetation as a consequence of strip discing and burning, and less planting of cool-season grasses. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ryan, M. R. PUBL. YEAR: 1985 TITLE: Nongame management in grassland and agricultural ecosystems SOURCE: Pages 117-136 in J. B. Hale, L. B. Best, and R. L. Clawson, editors. Management of nongame wildlife in the midwest: a developing art. Proceedings of a symposium held at the forty-seventh Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference, Chelsea, Mich. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Low faunal richness in prairie communities. Acquisition, reclamation and proper management of grassland resources must become a priority if we are to conserve the genetic diversity of native prairie flora and fauna. Must further define the role of agriculture in prairie wildlife con- servation and develop effective management strategies. Modern views of grasslands may be distorted by the remaining grassland tracts that are too small to show the characteristic variability of natural prairie ecosystems. Grasslands contain substantial habitat diversity primarily in the horizontal plane. View of grassland ecosystem as a mosaic of habitat types influenced by soil moisture and grazing intensity are the primary controlling factors and set the stage for the development of wildlife management goals and strategies. Opportunity to mange prairie tracts of sufficient size to include all aspects of the prairie vegetation continuum is rare. Alternative is to manage smaller tracts as components of the overall prairie mosaic. Goal of nongame grassland management should be the conservation of wildlife species native to prairie habitats. Management actions must be defined on a state or region wide level. If richness of species indigenous to prairie eco- systems is objective the management plan must be developed on large scale and implemented through integrated management at the local unit level. A large block of similar habitat will contain and conserve more species than a small unit. However, there is controversy around the question of whether a large tract will maintain more species than several small tracts that, combined, equal the larger tract. Ranking of sites for selection 1: sites that regardless of size contain rare species or habitats that could support them; 2 large tracts containing a variety of habitat conditions that maintain a mosaic of habitat types; 3 clusters of small tracts that provide, or can be managed for, a variety of components of the prairie mosaic. 4 large homogeneous blocks of grassland, and 5 small highly isolated units of grassland. Monotypic seeded fields are less likely to be of value to nongame wildlife than multi-species fields. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Ryan, M. R., L. W. Burger, Jr., E. W. Kurzejeski, and T. D. McCoy PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: The relationships of forage quality and land capability class with vegetation on CRP lands in northern Missouri SOURCE: Final Rep. to the Missouri Dep. Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO. 47pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Sample, D. W., and M. J. Mossman PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Preliminary management recommendations for grassland bird habitat on CRP and ACR (set-aside) fields in southern Wisconsin SOURCE: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Research, Monona. 2 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Sample, D. W., and M. J. Mossman PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Conclusions from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources study of grassland bird use of CRP and ACR (set-aside) fields SOURCE: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Research, Monona. 2 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Saunders, D. A. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Can we integrate nature conservation with agricultural production? SOURCE: Landscape and Urban Planning 28:63-71. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Schramm, H. L., Jr., L. M. Smith, F. C. Bryant, R. R. George, B. C. Thompson, S. A. Nelle, G. L. Valentine PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: Managing for wildlife with the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Management Note 11. Texas Technical University, Lubbock. 6 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Schenck, E. W., and L. L. Williamson PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program effects on wildlife and recreation SOURCE: Pages 37-42 in L. A. Joyce, J. E. Mitchell, M. D. Skold, editors. The Conservation Reserve - yesterday, today and tomorrow. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-203. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Soil Conservation Service PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: LTP - Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) National Bulletin No. 300-2-15 SOURCE: Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Soil and Water Conservation Society PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Implementing the Conservation Title of the Food Security Act SOURCE: Final report. Ankeny, Iowa. 76 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Soil and Water Conservation Society PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: When Conservation Reserve Program Contracts Expire: the policy options SOURCE: Ankeny, Iowa. 143 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Stauffer, D. F., G. A. Cline, and M. J. Tonkovich PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Evaluating potential effects of CRP on bobwhite quail in Piedmont Virginia SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 55:57-67. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Conversion of cropland to permanent introduced herbaceous cover is likely to have a positive effect on the quality of quail habitat. But beneficial effects are likely to be maintained only while a suitable grass-forb mixture is maintained. If grasses such as tall fescue dominate and form dense sod benefits effects will be reduced. As croplands are converted to pine plantations the quality of habitat for quail will decline over time. For the first 5-7 years after conversion plantations typically will furnish suitable herbaceous cover. As pines mature and canopy begins to close the quality of habitat will decline due to minimal understory cover for nesting, brood rearing, cover and food. When conversion of cropland to CRP increases the overall habitat diversity adds components previously lacking and increase in quail populations can be expected. But when overall diversity is reduced quail populations are likely to decline. The large amount of CRP being placed in pine plantations is likely to cause substantial local declines in quail. Addition of woody cover in the form of pine plantations will lower overall habitat diversity. Consider- ation needs to be given to juxtaposition and interspersion of CRP. Also a large amount of cropland converted to CRP may not be beneficial if large fields are converted; more diversity in habitat will be created by converting many smaller fields rather than fewer large fields. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Thomas, M. B., S. D. Wratten, and N. W. Sotherton PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Creation of "island" habitats in farmland to manipulate populations of beneficial arthropods: Predator densities and species composition SOURCE: Journal of Applied Ecology 29:524-531. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Trenbath, B. R., G. R. Conway, and I. A. Craig PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Threats to sustainability in intensified agricultural systems: analysis and implications for management SOURCE: Pages 337-365 in S. R. Gliessman, editor. Agroecology: researching the ecological basis for sustainable agriculture. Springer-Verlag, New York. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Agricultural intensification usually results in 1) a greater proportion of available land more intensively farmed; 2) level of technological input elevated; and 3) a given area is used more often. The combination of these effects is often accompanied by damage to the natural resource base. May damage nonagricultural systems within or outside the developed area as well as other agricultural systems down- stream of the area. Intensive exploitation of available area has led to increases in productivity but commonly leads to decline in wildlife populations associated with less intensive kinds of use. Where wildlife viability is dependent upon relatively large patches of less disturbed habitat populations may disappear. The more frequent use of land is a common aspect of intensi- fication that is potentially exhaustive of land capability. With shorter fallow period between crops natural soil processes may be unable to regenerate fertility and there may be a build up of pests. Both require greater use of agro- chemicals to alleviate problem. Use of pesticides may lead to spectacular increased of yield, but experience shows that after a number of years of application pesticides may progressively lose effectiveness. Decline due to an increased proportion of pest genotypes in population that are resistant to chemicals. If use continues, especially with higher dosages, the proportion of resistant genotypes increased rapidly to point where the pesticide must be replaced by new chemical. Emergence of pesticide resistance reduce profit- ability through crop losses and need for different inevitably more expensive chemical the less obvious and some times delayed effects on the environment, particularly wildlife may be substantial. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Targeting environmental priorities in agriculture: Reforming program strategies SOURCE: OTA-ENV-640. Washington D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 72 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Agriculture, Trade, and the Environment: Achieving Complementary Policies SOURCE: OTA-ENV-617. Washington D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 241 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. General Accounting Office PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Farm programs: Conservation Reserve Program could be less costly and more effective SOURCE: Report to the Chairman, Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry. U.S. Senate. GAO/RCED-90-13. Conservation Reserve Program. 79 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: USDA could improve effectiveness of CRP by targeting cropland eroding at the highest rates and land that contributed most to surface water and groundwater contamination. CRP cost will be offset to some extent as farmers enroll acres that would otherwise be used for growing crops covered by price and income income support programs. USDA incurred additional cost in tree planting initiative by increased rental rates in 5 southeaster states most suitable for tree planting to increase the numbers of acres planted to trees. Higher rental rates were paid to all farmers in 5 states whether or not they planted trees. USDA instructions to local county offices allowed CRP rental rates in many area to exceed local rental rates. Recommends that USDA implement competitive bid system and modify the 25% limit on acreage to allow more flexibility in program enrollment. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. General Accounting Office PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: Alternatives are available for managing environmentally sensitive cropland SOURCE: GAO/RCED-95-42. Washington D.C. 68 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. Department of Agriculture PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Agricultural resources: Cropland, water, and conservation situation and outlook SOURCE: Resources and Technology Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. AR-19. 55 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. Department of Agriculture PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Conservation in the 1990 Farm Bill SOURCE: FACTA Fact Sheets 1-9 November. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: U.S. Department of Agriculture PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: 12th sign-up statistics SOURCE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service. Washington, D.C. 16 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Warner, R. E. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Nest ecology of grassland passerines on road rights-of-way in central Illinois SOURCE: Biological Conservation 59(1):1-7. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Availability of suitable grassland cover has decreased in response to increase in rowcrop farming. Fescue sustained relatively few breeding birds. Where farming is diversified and habitat conditions are more favorable rights of way and other linear habitats are used more extensively by birds. Use is influenced by habitat conditions in vicinity of strip and regional land use. Managed roadsides were important to passerines even where hay was present because most nests in hay are destroyed during harvest. Management practices to benefit grassland birds: 1 seed to brome-alfalfa and or native grasses and forbs; 2 delay mowing until after August 1; 3 maximize strip width; 4 establishment of shelterbelts and woody plants should be encouraged in some areas to enhance diversity of species attracted to strip vegetation. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Warner, R. E. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Agricultural land use and grassland habitat in Illinois: Future shock for grassland birds? SOURCE: Conservation Biology 8(1):147-156. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: During the period of most intensive agricultural production grasslands existed only as linear edges with resultant low density and diversity of grassland nesting birds. Nest densities and species diversity were highest where grassland was nearby, cover types heterogeneous, and where corridors connected grasslands in surrounding landscape. Too simplistic to conclude that linear habitats compared to field settings are predator traps. Nest destruction high in years when both predators and nesting pheasants were concentrated in relatively little grassy cover. The percentage of pheasant nests hatched annually from 1973 to 1981 was positively cor- related with the amount of grassland per hen in spring where grassland consisted of both edge habitats (including roadsides) and fields of hay and small grain. Landscape characteristics associated with use of edges by nesting birds and reproductive success. Nest densities and species diversity increased relative to degree of spatial hetero- geneity and to how well plots were connected to surrounding landscape by corridors. Potential for enhancing use of grassy farmland edges by establishing filter strips border fields and existing edges and by locating hay and small grains near wider grassland corridors. Not all linear habitats are predator traps. Predation rates vary with predatory-prey assemblages, density of birds in nest habitats and extent to which other cover and prey attract predators away from relatively attractive nest sites. Landscape-level phenomena poorly understood at this time. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Warner, R. E., and S. L. Etter PUBL. YEAR: 1985 TITLE: Farm conservation measures to benefit wildlife, especially pheasant populations SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 50:135-141. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Three spatial factors are key in understanding interaction of agriculture and pheasants, FIELD: primary site for particular biological needs; FARM: represents a unit of land management and describe cover types near sites of biological activity; REGIONAL: mosaic of cover over an extended area that en- compasses several farms. All scales are significant to occurrence, location, and outcome of specific events in the life of pheasant. Scales vary in importance from season to season depending upon weather, type of farming, and biological activity. Regional scale important to movement during crop harvest and fall tillage and to winter grouping and spring dispersal. Farm scale important during brood rearing and establishment of territories. Field scale most relevant to nest success, roosting, predation. Optimal management practice should extend over several contiguous townships. Permits movements of bird from farm- to-farm in response to individual management activities. Conservation measures must be extensive and long-term to significantly benefit pheasant populations. Addressing factors that are critical during the reproductive season are first priority (suitable undisturbed vegetative cover of sufficient area). ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Warner, R. E., and S. L. Etter PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: The dynamics of agriculture and ring-necked pheasant populations in the cornbelt, USA SOURCE: World Pheasant Association Journal 11:76-89. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Weitman, D. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Water quality improvement and wetlands restoration SOURCE: Pages 20-22 in When Conservation Reserve Program contracts expire: The policy options. Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Westemeier, R. L. PUBL. YEAR: 1983 TITLE: Responses and impact by pheasants on prairie chicken sanctuaries in Illinois: A synopsis SOURCE: Pages 117-122 in R. T. Dunabe, R. B. Stiehl, and R. B. Kahl, editors. Perdix III: Gray partridge and ring-necked pheasant workshop, Campbellsport, Wis. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Western, D. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Conservation without parks: Wildlife in the rural landscape SOURCE: Pages 158-165 in D. Western and M. C. Pearl, editors. Conservation for the twenty-first century. Oxford University Press, New York. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: White, B. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Managing CRP grasslands for bobwhite quail SOURCE: U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Biology Technical Note MO-14. 5 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Whiteside, R. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1983 TITLE: Aspects of the ecology and management of pheasants in the high plains of Texas SOURCE: Ph.D. Dissertation. Texas Tech University, Lubbock. 65 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Whitworth, M. R., and D. C. Martin PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Instream benefits of CRP filter strips SOURCE: Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 55:40-45. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Wildlife Management Institute PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Achieving agriculture conservation/commodity balance: recommendations for the 1990 Farm Bill SOURCE: Washington D.C. np. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Wildlife Management Institute PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: America needs the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Washington D.C. 20005. 16 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Wildlife Management Institute PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: How much is enough? A regional wildlife habitat needs assessment for the 1995 Farm Bill SOURCE: Washington, D.C. 30 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Wildlife Society PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: 1995 Farm Bill: Wildlife options in agricultural policy SOURCE: Wildlife Society, Technical Review 95-1. Bethesda, Md. 23 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Williams, C. F., and J. W. Myelde PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Conducting a financial analysis of quail hunting within the Conservation Reserve Program SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 22:233-241. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: Upsurge in outdoor recreation has strained the public land system. Public hunting lands remain in short supply. The greatest opportunity to supply quality hunting lies in the development of opportunities on private land. ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Willson, G. D. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: The Great Plains SOURCE: Pages 295-296 in E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac, editors. Our living resources: A report to the Nation on the distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, animals, and ecosystems. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service. Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Young, C. E., and C. T. Osborn PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program: an economic assessment SOURCE: U.S. Economic Research Service. Agriculture Economic Report 626. Washington, D.C. 32 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Young, L. S. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Effects of agriculture on raptors in the western United States: an overview SOURCE: Pages 209-218 in Proceedings of the Western Raptor Management Symposium and Workshop. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Young, R. E., G. M. Adams, and B. Willcott PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Extending CRP contracts vs. commodity program costs SOURCE: Pages 30-34 in Proceedings of the Conference: When Conservation Reserve Program Contracts expire: The policy options, Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: ============================================================================== AUTHOR: Zinn, J. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The next generation of U.S. agricultural conservation policy SOURCE: Soil and Water Conservation Society White Paper. Ankeny, Iowa. 40 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: Northern Prairie COMMENTS: White paper based on results from National SWCS forum (March 14-16 1993) of stakeholders and interest groups to assess how current agricultural policies are working. Provides detailed summaries of current strong and weak points pertaining to effects of agricultural policies on environmental issues. Regional focus group results present summary of problems and potential solutions to agriculturally related issues. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: McCoy, T. D. PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Avian abundance, composition, and reproductive success on Conservation Reserve Program fields in Northern Missouri SOURCE: M.S. thesis, Univ. of Missouri-Columbia CONTRIBUTOR: Betty Euliss (bettyeuliss@nbs.gov) on Thursday, January 23, 1997 at 21:44:08 (GMT) COMMENTS: Grassland bird species richness higher on structurally diverse CP1 fields than on CP2. CP2 were tall, dense monocultures of warm season grass (switchgrass). In areas where grass monocultures exist disturbances to decrease the height and density of vegetation and increase plant diversity may be beneficial. Provisions for periodic haying and grazing may enhance habitat value. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Millenbah, K. F., S. R. Winterstein, H. Campa III, L. T. Furrow, and R. B. Minnus PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Effects of Conservation Reserve Program field age on avian relative abundance, diversity, and productivity SOURCE: Wilson Bull. 108(4), pp. 760-770 CONTRIBUTOR: Betty Euliss (bettyeuliss@nbs.gov) on Thursday, January 23, 1997 at 21:40:13 (GMT) COMMENTS: ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Delisle, J. M., and J. A. Savidge PUBL. YEAR: 1997 TITLE: Avian use and vegetation characteristics of Conservation Reserve Program fields SOURCE: Journal of Wildlife Management 61(2):318-325 CONTRIBUTOR: Betty Euliss (bettyeuliss@nbs.gov) on Wednesday, July 02, 1997 at 13:09:14 (CDT) COMMENTS: Comparison of avian use of cp1 (cool season grasses and legumes)and cp2 (warm-season, native grasses in southeastern Nebraska. Total bird abundance did not differ between cp 1 and 2 In winter and breeding season cp2 had taller denser vegetation than cp1 fields. Bobolinks more abundant in cp1 common yellowthroats sedge wrens more abundant in cp2 fields. American tree sparrows and pheasant most abundant species during winter and most abundant in cp2. Meadowlarks most abundant in cp1. Sedge wrens preferred fields with structurally complex vegetation but disappeared after these fields had been mowed or burned. Yellow throats associated with tall vegetation and were more abundant in cp2. Grasshopper sparrow disappeared from fields as litter depth increased and dead vegetation accumulated. CP2 field that maintain consistent grasshopper sparrow numbers was mowed 3 out of 4 years. CP2 preferred by pheasants for winter cover. Native plantings alone could provide habitat for all native birds if some fields were managed more intensively to simulate historical disturbances. CP1 provided best habitat for species that nest directly on ground and prefer low vegetation height and litter depth. CP2 use predominantly by species that nest higher in veget- ation and prefer dense growth. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Klute, D. S., and R. J. Robel PUBL. YEAR: 1997 TITLE: Will Conversion of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) Lands to Pasture be Detrimental for Grassland Birds in Kansas? SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist, 137:206-212 CONTRIBUTOR: Betty Euliss (betty_euliss@nbs.gov) on Tuesday, July 29, 1997 at 13:21:02 (CDT) COMMENTS: ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Delisle, J. M., and J. A. Savidge PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Reproductive success of grasshopper sparrows in relation to edge SOURCE: Prairie Naturalist 28:107-113 CONTRIBUTOR: Douglas H. Johnson (Douglas_H_Johnson@nbs.gov) on Monday, September 08, 1997 at 08:22:59 (CDT) COMMENTS: ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Robles, Marcos D., and Ingrid C. Burke PUBL. YEAR: 1997 TITLE: Legume, grass, and Conservation Reserve Program effects on soil organic matter recovery SOURCE: Ecological Applications 7:345-357 CONTRIBUTOR: Douglas H Johnson (Douglas_H_Johnson@nbs.gov) on Monday, September 15, 1997 at 10:35:51 (CDT) COMMENTS: ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Berthelsen, P. S., and L. M. Smith PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Nongame bird nesting on CRP lands in the Texas Southern High Plains SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 50(6) 672-675 CONTRIBUTOR: Betty Euliss (betty_euliss@usgs.gov) on 4:30 pm on Monday, January 5, 1998 COMMENTS: ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Kantrud, H. A., R. R. Koford, D. H. Johnson, and M. D. Schwartz PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program: good for birds of many feathers SOURCE: North Dakota Outdoors August 1993:14-17 CONTRIBUTOR: Betty Euliss (Betty_Euliss@usgs.gov) on 3:54 pm on Tuesday, June 20, 2000 COMMENTS: ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Allen, A.W. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contributions to avian habitat. SOURCE: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Aid Report, National Biological Survey, National Ecology Research Center, Fort Collins, CO. 19 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Summary of CRP contribution to distribution and quality of habitat for game and non-game birds affiliated with agri- cultural ecosystems. Report concentrates largely on species endemic to grassland ecosystems. Presents discussion of identification of CRP contracts furnishing greatest potential benefits, landscape planning, and management recommendations. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Angelstram, P. PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Predation on ground-nesting birds' nests in relation to predator densities and habitat edge. SOURCE: Okios 47: 365-373. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Discussion of how predators utilize different habitats. As the size of habitat islands decrease influences from surrounding cover become increasingly important. Since relative amount of edge increases as patch size decreases the predation rate should be inversely related to the size of patch. Permanently high densities of generalist predators are often a consequence of human activities (agriculture). Edges in more productive habitats will experience greater predation than edges in less productive habitats. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Ball, I.J., R.J. Eng, and S.K. Ball PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Population density and productivity of ducks on large grass- land tracts in north-central Montana SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 23(4):767-773. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Analysis of variation in duck productivity associated with block size and effects of the presence of red fox versus coyotes. Productivity of dabbling ducks on large grassland tracts with relatively low populations of predators was higher than recorded where habitat fragmentation and high populations of predators supported by alterations in habitat were more severe. Attempts to improve nest success at an inappropriately small scale may be counterproductive if hens and predators are attracted to same limited area. Increasing surface water area where low rates of nest success prevail attracts pairs to areas where mortality exceeds recruitment. Due to foraging strategies and prey preferences productivity of dabbling ducks can be expected to be higher in large grassland tracts where coyotes are primary predator. More fragmented habitats where red fox is dominant predator can be expected to have lower waterfowl productivity. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Barker, J.R., G.A. Baumgarder, D.P. Turner, and J.J. Lee. PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Carbon dynamics of the Conservation and Wetland Reserve Programs. SOURCE: J. Soil and Water Conservation 51(4):340-346. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Data from Conservation and Wetland reserve programs analyzed to quantify carbon (C) dynamics of cropland converted to grassland or forest land. Cropland converted to forest land gained C at a rate about 7 times greater than cropland converted to grassland. Maintaining existing CRP grassland will provide substantial C sequestration on a national scale due to large area enrolled in long-term set aside. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Berner, A.H. PUBL. YEAR: 1984 TITLE: Federal land retirement program: a land management albatross. SOURCE: Trans. North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conf. 49:118-130. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Acreage reduction portion of Soil Bank and Feed Grain Program did not require seeding of grass-legumes on retired acres. Annual programs have emphasized administrative flexibility in commodity control to the detriment of soil and wildlife conservation. Most acres in these programs are fallow or disked by the end of July to the determent of both game and non-game species. Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) regulations require most fields be planted late (>June 15)and covers destroyed by mowing, disking, or plowing before grain matures (usually mid July). Present land retirement programs are narrow in scope dealing exclusively with controlling production of domestic commodities. Policies tend to encourage conversion of non-cropland to cropland even if those lands are highly erodible. Uncertainties of program structure across years make planning difficult, therefor farmers tend to prepare all acres for planting exposing even retired acres to erosion. Recent annual land retirement programs (1961-1983) have aggravated soil erosion and wildlife habitat problems and encouraged unwise use of land. Long term retirement options, resulting in grass-legume stand virtually eliminate soil erosion and provide secure habitat for many species of wildlife associated with farmland landscapes. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Berner, A.H. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Federal pheasants - impact of federal agricultural programs on pheasant habitat, 1934-1985. SOURCE: In Pheasants: Symptoms of wildlife problems on agricultural lands. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Federal agricultural programs designed to assist farmers through cropland diversion and deficiency payment programs have significantly impacted the amount and quality of pheasant habitat over the last 50 years. Pheasants have responded positively to multi-year cropland diversion programs but negatively to annual cropland set-aside programs that allow poor cover management and require periodic disturbance. Programs that require the annual set- aside of lands for commodity production such as the Feed Grain Program (FGP) and Wheat Production (WHP) result in habitat destruction. Although potentially beneficial to some species but early destruction of cover, prior to seed head development greatly reduced set aside value as safe nesting and brood-rearing cover. In Minnesota pheasant population data indicate that set aside lands have a pronounced nega- tive effect on pheasants. Beneficial or negative effects are dependent on if the cover is left through the nesting season and summer. Majority of fields are fallow or are lightly seeded to small grain in early June and destroyed by July 15. Nesting cover on set aside lands was absent, poor or fair on about 80% of lands and good to excellent on about 20%. Hunting cover and winter cover were about 4.4% fair, 7.4% good, and 2.8% excellent. Proper management of these lands could greatly benefit game and non-game populations. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Best, L. B., H. Campa, III, K.E. Kemp, R. J. Robel, M. R. Ryan, J. A. Savidge, H.P. Weeks, Jr. and S. R. Winterstein PUBL. YEAR: 1997 TITLE: Bird abundance and nesting in CRP fields and cropland in the midwest: a regional approach. SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 25(4):864-877 CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Comparison of abundance and nesting success of avian species in CRP and rowcrop fields over 5 years (91-95) in 6 midwest states (IN, KS, MO, MI, NE, IA). Bird abundance 1.4 to 10.5 times great in CRP than rowcrop. Nests of 33 bird species found in CRP with only 10 species in rowcrops, number of nests found 13.5 times greater in CRP. Nest success was 40% in CRP. Nest success in rowcrops similar to that of in CRP but total number of nest found in rowcrop was 7.4% of that in CRP. Predation was greatest cause of nest failure. Long- term farm set-aside programs that establish perennial grass cover provide many benefits for grassland birds including several species for which conservation is a great concern. Recommend further investigation of species specific habitat requirements in relation to planting, management and spatial configuration of CRP. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Best, L.B., R.C. Whitmore, and G.M. Booth. PUBL. YEAR: 1990 TITLE: Use of cornfields by birds during the breeding season: the importance of edge habitat. SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 123:84-99. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Elimination of woody vegetation from fencerows and other habitat adjacent to crop fields will affect assemblage of bird species found within fields. The amount of linear edge relative to field area has a major effect on field use by birds, larger fields are use proportionately less. The proportion of linear field edge decreases as field size increases has important implications on bird use of cropland because of trend in last decades to consolidate fields and increase size of cropping units. Bird abundance greater in wooded edges than in herbaceous edges. More bird species and about five times more birds used the perimeters of cornfields than the centers, demonstrating a significant edge effect. Continued land use practices that increase crop field size and eliminate woody vegetation from edge habitats will affect both richness and abundance of avifauna affiliated with agricultural ecosystems. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Boatman, N.D. and N.W. Sotherton. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: The agronomic consequences and costs of managing field margins for game an wildlife conservation. SOURCE: Aspects of applied biology 17:47-56. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Removal of weeds, either through herbicides or mowing decreases insect density and diversity associated with cereal crops. Increased use of herbicide in recent decades has removed host plants of many insects and more recently the use of insecticides has caused direct mortality of other species of insects. Consequently there has been a reduction in the numbers and diversity of insect species which are the primary forage of early age class chicks of uplands species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Bock, C.E., V.A. Saab, T.D. Rich, and D.S. Dobkin. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Effects of livestock grazing on neotropical migratory land- birds in western North America. SOURCE: Pages 296-309 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September 12-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Strongly encourage finding ways to make present CRP grasslands valuable to owners, possibly encouraging moderate grazing by livestock or controlled haying. Would be especially desirable if program could be coupled with creation of livestock exclosures in other areas such as National Grasslands. Substantially increase the amount of public rangeland from which all livestock grazing is excluded. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Bogenschutz, T.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: An evaluation of corn and sorghum as a winter food source for ring-necked pheasants. SOURCE: M.S. Thesis. University of South Dakota, Bookings. 65 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Corn and sorghum furnish higher quality winter food for pheasants than do natural wild foods and soybeans. Natural foods are high in fiber and low in digestible energy. Soybeans contain trypsin, a digestive inhibitor that lowers the metabolizable energy content of the diet. Sorghum provides better winter cover due to vegetative structure. Best option in most cases would be to include both corn and sorghum in food plots. If winter cover is not limiting corn is a better option. If little to no winter is nearby food plots dominated by sorghum are preferred. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Bohning-Gaese, K, M.L. Taper, and J.H. Brown PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Are declines in North American insectivorous songbirds due to cause on the breeding range? SOURCE: Conservation Biology 7(1):76-86. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Predation on breeding grounds in North America has played a larger role in decline of migratory songbirds than deforest- ation on wintering grounds in topics. Predation pressure had a major impact on population trends and terrestrial mammals were perhaps the most important predators. Vulnerability traits of low and open nests and high parasitism by cowbirds had additive effects. Suggest that even a small effects of cowbird parasitism could be enough to push a songbird population experiencing high predation rate to a negative replacement rate and population decline. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Bolen, E.G., L.M. Smith, and H.L. Schramm Jr. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Playa lakes: prairie wetlands of the southern high plains SOURCE: Bioscience 39(9):615-623. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: When inundated playas form shallow lakes and wetlands that significantly increase plant and animal diversity in an intensively cultivated landscape. With rare exceptions each playa and it's watershed is a closed system. Avifauna dominates the vertebrate animal life in playas. Lagomorphs reach high densities in playa habitat. Playas developed for agriculture have lower insect production than do unmodified basins do to reduction in fluctuation of water level. The value of playas as habitat lies in the diversity of vegetation and associated fauna. Playas receiving irrigation runoff had increased interspersion of vegetation and open water resulting in higher habitat quality. Cultivation of playas decreases their value as wildlife habitat. Reduction of vegetation surrounding lakes can influence water quality. Establishment of pits reduces abundance and diversity of vegetation that require alternating wet and dry periods. Majority of phyto- plankton associated with aquatic macrophytes important for production of macroinvertebrates and forage for wintering waterfowl. Pits diminish value of lakes as waterfowl habitat which often prefer densely vegetated sites. Losses of vegetation in littoral zone and of island of vegetation reduce nesting habitat and waterfowl production. Loss of food production both invertebrates important to breeding, wintering waterfowl and shorebirds and seed production. Loss of tall emergent and woody vegetation reduces roosting and nesting habitat for other birds. Conversely, modified lakes hold water during dry seasons and may support greater plant biomass and diversity. Modified playas may provide high quality habitat particularly during periods of drought. However, wildlife benefits remain contingent on the extent of the modification and on the temporal aspects of water-level fluctuations. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Bollinger, E.K. and T.A. Gavin. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Eastern bobolink populations: ecology and conservation in an agricultural landscape. SOURCE: Pgs 497-506 in J.M. Hagen III, and D.W. Johnston, eds. Ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds. Smithsonian Inst. Press. Washington DC 609 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Bobolink abundance was greatest in old hayfields (<8 yr). Abundance increased exponentially with hayfield size. Conservation practices designed for grassland birds should concentrate on creating or maintain large habitat patch that resemble old hayfields. Recommendations: create or maintain patches of relatively sparse grass-dominated cover with some broadleaf forbs. Fewer, larger patches tend to contain more breeding bobolinks than numerous small ones. May be because nest predation and parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds tends to be higher in small patches of grassland. Manage to prevent encroachment of woody vegetation. These practices should help populations of declining grassland species as well. Eastern meadow lark, upland sandpipers, Henslow's sparrow, and grasshopper sparrow, were all positively correlated with bobolink densities. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Boutin, C. K.E. Freemark, and D.A, Kirk. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Farmland birds in southern Ontario: field use, activity patterns and vulnerability to pesticide use. SOURCE: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 72(239-254). CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Three factors are major determinants of bird distribution in agricultural land, type of crops grown, configuration and physical structure of non-crop habitat, and frequency and extent of agricultural practices such as tillage, pesticide application and harvest. The lack of data on avian use of cropland in different agricultural landscapes is a major obstacle in assessing the effects of agriculture in many areas of North America. Most species surveyed used edge habitat significantly more than expected. More arthropods found in field edges than in interiors. Many field margins or herbaceous borders are either sprayed directly for control of pests or are subjected to spray drift. Impacts of spraying on edges has diminished diversity of plants and insects important for young birds. Especially critical in agricultural landscapes already depauperate in vegetative diversity. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Bowen, B.E. and A.D. Kruse. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Effects of grazing on nesting by upland sandpipers in south central North Dakota. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 57(2):291-301. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Results suggest that grazing during the late spring an early summer has a detrimental effect on reproduction, especially, nest density of upland sandpipers in the northern great plains. Grazing should be delayed until at least mid to late June. Traditional season-long grazing June - October should be avoided. Autumn grazing at high stocking rates may be an acceptable alternative. In some cases vegetation may be too tall. In central Great Plains sandpipers nested in grazed fields rather than in ungrazed fields where vegetation was too tall. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Brennan, L.A. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: How can we reverse the northern bobwhite population decline. SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19(4):544-555. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Bobwhite populations have declined at an alarming rate in the past 3 decades. Every population index indicates significant downward trends in 77% of the states within geographic range of species. Most precipitous declines have occurred in the southern region of the US. Clean farming practiced and forest management systems that maximize basal area are most likely causes. Increasing size of farms have eliminated weedy fence rows and millions of acres of small fields. Marginal farmlands in SE have been converted to pine plantations. Pesticides have been implicated as a possible bobwhite mortality factor. Indirect effects of pesticides on quail are poorly understood. Agricultural chemicals indirectly affect game population by suppressing arthropod populations that are key food resources for broods. Weeds provide food and feeding substrates that are essential for growth and development of chicks. CRP: Potential for CRP to enhance habitat is far from being realized. Required mowing during peak nesting season is a major problem. Conversion of cropland to pine plantations also major problem. Periodic disturbance of CRP is essential to maintain annuals and forage production. Strip-disking a good option. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Brennan, L.A. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Future directions for bobwhite quail and wildlife research in the southeastern United States. SOURCE: Proceedings of the 1993 Tall Timbers Game Bird Seminar. Tall Timbers Research Station. Tallahassee, FL. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Increase in arthropod abundance in response to burning and strip-disking. Herbicides disrupt the food chain and limit populations. Widespread application of herbicides suppresses weed population so well that sufficient insect populations are not available for hens and chicks. Modification of herbicide application, e.g., Conservation Headlands substantially increased production of partridge in GB. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Brennan, L.A. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Strategic plan for quail management and research in the United States: Introduction and background. SOURCE: Pgs. 160-169 in Quail III: National Quail Symposium. Kansas Department of Wildl. and Parks. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Habitat management by the private sector is apparently having little broad-scale impact on bobwhite populations. Need leadership from professionals with creative vision for solving problems caused by changing land use patterns. Large and growing interest in quail. Detrimental effects of Federal Agricultural Policies: annual spring burning, summer mowing, cool-season grasses (e.g., tall fescue and brome), extensive stands of monoculture pine and lack of flexibility in management are limiting value of CRP. Paper provides detailed recommendation for modification in Federal agricultural policies to improve conditions for quail. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Burger, L.D., L.W. Burger, and J. Faaborg. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Effects of prairie fragmentation on predation on artificial nests. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 58(2):249-254. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Artificial nests in smaller prairies smaller depredated more than those in larger prairies 37 vs 13.9%. Although highest predation rates were observed in smallest prairie size classes and prairie size had an effect on predation, proximity to woody cover was a more important factor affecting predation rates on artificial nests. Smallest prairies may have had higher predation rates due to higher proportion of area near woody cover. The potential effects of prairie size and woody vegetation on success of ground-nesting birds should be considered in decisions of acquisition and management of prairie habitats. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Cable, T.T. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Windbreaks, wildlife, and hunters. SOURCE: Pgs. 35-55 in J.E. Rodiek and E.G. Bolen, eds. Wildlife and habitats in managed landscapes. Island Press. Washington DC. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Even though their value is widely recognized windbreaks continue to be lost due to removal for farming and deterior- ation of condition and quality. Loss of hedgerows in five midwestern states being lost at a rate of 0.6 to 3.1%/yr. Degree of importance of windbreaks varies according to needs of specific wildlife species. Important to resident species as well as migrants. Less than 3% of great plains is forested. Although woodland habitats are scarce, woodland birds account for 46% of avifauna in western Kansas. Functions of windbreaks: reproductive, escape, protective cover, particularly important during severe winter weather. Shelterbelt presence may result in higher rates of predation on ground nesting birds in vicinity wooded cover. Shelterbelts provide additional sources of food both seed and insects. Number of species and individuals that were completely or partially insectivorous increased as the size of the windbreak increased. Windbreaks serve as wooded islands in agricultural landscape that can serve as travel corridors and dispersal habitat between riparian habitats and other wooded covers. Value of shelterbelts to wildlife typically a function of size, number of rows, plant diversity, height. Location, better for wildlife if located in or adjacent to grain fields rather than grazed pasture. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Carmichael, D.B., Jr. PUBL. YEAR: 1997 TITLE: The Conservation Reserve Program and wildlife habitat in the southeastern United States. SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 25(4):773-775. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Discussion on lack of significant wildlife benefits of CRP in southeastern states compared to that realized in midwest and great plains. Discussion of limitations of pine plantations and tall fescue as CRP covers in souther states. Pine plantations ultimately represent loss of early successional and agri- cultural habitats. Fescue forms dense sod that is impenetrable by smaller animals. Both practices have provided only limited benefits to wildlife. Provides summary of recommendations to improve new CRP and need for FSA and wildlife professionals to commit to improvement in regional conservation policies. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Carroll, C.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: The interface between natural areas and agroecosystems. SOURCE: Pages 365-383 in C.R. Carroll, J.H. Vandermeer, and P. Rosset eds. Agroecology. McGraw-Hill. New York. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Farming systems generate weedy phenotypes including plants animals and pathogens that may become invaders of natural areas. Furthermore crops may become important food sources for certain species thereby distorting their impact on other populations of wildlife. For example, crows, jays, racoons whose enhanced populations seriously threaten nesting bird populations. Agricultural landscapes may distort the natural history of embedded natural areas. Expansion of agriculture disrupts natural areas in three ways. Natural ecosystems become fragmented. Fragmentation increases boundary phenomena resulting in exacerbation of edge impacts. Loss of natural areas generally means that remaining patches are increasingly isolated, consequently re-colonization is difficult increasing likelihood of local extinctions. Most of these impacts are cumulative and proceed as a consequence of many independent decisions hat are made without regard to possible combined effects. Little attention given to analysis of long term and broad scale effects. In absence of active ecological management most small natural areas begin to degrade and become less representative of the original ecosystem. Small sites typically require more management effort per unit area than is required for large areas. Long term security of natural areas in agricultural landscape will strongly depend on the way that the land surrounding the natural area is used. Must be economically sustainable, socially equitable, and explicitly linked with management objectives in the embedded natural area. Factors that should be addressed in agricultural buffer zones around natural areas: Design of agricultural areas should be explicitly related to the ecological management goals of the natural area. Should minimize activities and processes that degrade the habitat such as invasion by weeds and fire. Buffer zone activities should be able to be modified to meet new contingencies. Programs should be flexible so that change can be made without drastically disrupting local economy. Buffer should not be sensitive to rapid change in market prices, rising production costs, decreasing returns, nor should it rely on intensive use of agrochemicals fire or other methods that may strongly impact nearby natural areas. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Clark, R.G. and T.D. Nudds. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Habitat patch size and duck nesting success: the crucial experiments have not been performed. SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19(4): 534-543. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Authors argue that there is conflicting evidence concerning relations between patch size and nest success of upland nesting birds. Some studies show that nest success increases with greater area and lower density of nests while others indicate that there is no positive relationship between area and success. Argue that more information about relations between patch size and composition of managed habitats and duck nesting success is needed. Key questions include: what kind of cover needs to be planted and how much; are ducks doing better in managed patches than in unmanaged patches, what is the standard of comparison (e.g, nest success, duckling survival); are programs cost effective? Their review of literature does not clearly support or refute the hypothesis that duck nesting success should be greater in larger patches. Questions the rational of establishing relatively small (<300 ha) areas of cover. Instead it might be better to redirect effort and limited funds to other programs, for instance, to management alternatives which could direct changes in agricultural policy. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Clark, W.R., R.A. Schmitz, and T.R. Bogenschutz. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Site selection and nest success of ring-necked pheasants as a function of location in Iowa landscapes. SOURCE: J. Wildlife Management 63(3):976-989. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Managers should strive to provide undisturbed grassland in blocks of >15 ha (40 ac)for nesting pheasants. Success was highest in fields >160 ac. Cover in several large blocks is better than one large block. Both probability of nest-site selection and success influenced by configuration of habitat within 1 home range radius of nest site. Specific vegetation type at nest location was not predictive of selection or success.Biologists must understand how landscape configuration is influenced by agricultural policy if managers are ultimately to influence wildlife populations. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Claassen, R., L. Hansen, M. Peters, V. Breneman, M. Weinberg, A. Cattaneao, P. Feather, D. Gadsby, D. Hellerstein, J. Hopkins, P. Johnston, M. Morehart, and M. Smith. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Agri-environmental policy at the crossroads: guideposts on a changing landscape. SOURCE: Agricultural Economic Report Number 94. USDA, Economic Research Service. Washington, D.C. 66 pp CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Agricultural policies implemented over the last 20 years have played an important role in reduction of soil erosion, protection and restoration of wetlands and crating wildlife habitat. Emerging agri-environmental issues , evolution of farm income policies and limits imposed by trade agreements may point toward reformulation of agri-environmental policies. Report identifies types of policy tools available and design features that have enhance effectiveness of current programs. Agri-environmental payments are analyzed in depth as a potentially important tool for future policies. Agri-environmental payments that pay producers who achieve good environmental performance or who use environmentally sound practice have bee proposed but have been the subject of only limited formal analysis. Such payments bay be useful in addressing environmental issues and boosting farm income. In a multi-objective policy there is considerable risk of conflict among potential objectives. Consistency between income support and environmental objectives has enhanced through compliance mechanisms. Continued coordination among all farm programs is needed to minimize contradictory or duplicative efforts. Performance base payments may be advantageous because only environmentally relevant actions are subsidized and producers have flexibility to select low-cost alternatives. One-size- fits-all solutions are unlikely to be successful with agri- environmental problems. Performance based payments will focus activity on the practices that are effective in a given resource setting, reduce costs by allowing selection of least cost alternatives. These methods bay involve high cost of planning and enforcement because farm or fields specific plans must be devised. Incentives to expand crop production can undermine agri- environmental program performance. Payments for good performance or practices can encourage expansion of crop production onto previously uncropped land. In the absence of a sodbuster-type provision this problem can be severe. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Cline, G.A. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Habitat relationships of bobwhite quail and cottontail rabbits on agricultural lands in Halifax county, Virginia. SOURCE: MS Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Blacksburg. 99pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Evaluation of a Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model. Wooded fallow fields, length of pasture/fallow, forest/forest edge, and total number of all edges present were positively related to quail presence. Management recommendations maximize the number of different edges and number of fallow fields in early successional stages. Cultivation of field borders, corners, waterways and other idle areas should be discouraged. A large number of small fields, each with a fallow or brushy border, is better than same acreage encompassed in only a few fields. Concluded that model can correctly predict which habitats are preferred by bobwhite. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Cowardin, L.M., D.S. Gilmer, and C.W. Shaiffer. PUBL. YEAR: 1985 TITLE: Mallards and agricultural programs. SOURCE: Trans. North American Wildlife and. Natural Resource Conferece 49:132-140. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Declining quality of wildlife habitat has not been considered a high priority problem by ASCS committees charged with allocating Agricultural Conservation Program dollars. Prior to the farm bill biologists from 12 of 14 midwestern states documented declines in habitat quality due primarily to changing land use and agricultural practices. Species population data revealed 91% decrease in pheasant, 72% decline in cottontail, and 83% decline in bobwhite. Large increase in acreage of row crops at cost of area in quality nesting cover, small grains, pasture, and non- farmed cover types. Loss of edge, old farmsteads wetlands and idle areas. Increased farm and field size. Major shift from diversified farms to simplistic agricultural landscapes. Provides summary of weak points of agricultural programs (e.g., Payment in Kind) and basic wildlife recommendations for 1985 Farm Bill. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Cox, R.R., Jr., D.H. Johnson. M.A. Johnson, R.E. Kirby, J.W. Nelson, and R.E. Reynolds. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Waterfowl research priorities in the northern Great Plains. SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(3):558-564. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Waterfowl Working Group identified the following as high priority issues for future research in Northern Great Plains: Determine effects of landscape factors on demographic and recruitment of ducks in Prairie Pothole region. Studies needed that quantitatively assess ow landscape characteristics influence breeding pair density, spring summer survival, and recruitment rates. Develop and improve estimates of important parameters use in models for management and planning. Refinement in variables that describe habitat characteristics (preference for various cover types and corresponding nest success rates) needed for species other than the mallard. Evaluate waterfowl management activities at regional scales. Greater attention to multiple or large-area application of management treatments needed to correspond to large scale management plans (e.g., Prairie Habitat Joint Venture, North American Waterfowl Management Program) needed. Direct studies of species of concern. Some species have shown little response to increased presence of wetlands in recent years (e.g., pintail, lesser scaup). Studies to identify factors limiting populations of these species are needed. Evaluation of applicability of bird-conservation area concept to waterfowl. Assumption that core areas of excellent habitat in landscapes with little hostile habitat will maintain viable populations of breeding birds as it applies to waterfowl needs to be evaluated. Need to identify population source and sink habitats and how they may be configured or manipulated to benefits ducks. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Curtis, J., T. Profeta, and L. Mott. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: After silent spring: the unsolved problems of pesticide use in the United States. SOURCE: Natural Resources Defense Council. New York, NY. 56 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: In 1991 2.2 billion pounds of pesticides were applied in the US - 8 pounds for every man, woman and child in the country. Seventy-one active ingredients in pesticides that have been found to cause cancer in animals or humans are used on food crops. EPA estimates that 10% of public water supply wells contain pesticides, 440,000 rural private water wells contain pesticides. At a minimum 1.3 million people drinking water contaminated with one or more pesticides. Agriculture is generally considered the largest source of surface water pollution in the US and pesticides are one of the principle contaminants. Recent USGS study of Mississippi river basin showed that carcinogenic herbicide atrazine was detected in 100% of samples and exceeded the federal drinking water standard in 27% of samples. Atrazine levels 3x the legal limit in Platte river. Herbicides are used on corn and soybeans on 95% of farms.In 1991 amount of active ingredients applied to farmland was 2.7 lb/ac. 25,000 chemical products on market today containing approximately 750 active ingredients. Groundwater source of drinking water for 97% of rural resident and more than 50% of total US population. EPA (1988) documented 74 different pesticide in groundwater of 32 states. Since 1962 number of resistant insects and mites has risen from 137 to 447. Additionally over 100 species of plant pathogens and 48 species of weeds have developed pesticide resistance. Pesticide use can be reduced from 25 to 80 % on nine major US crops by using currently available practices including Integrated Pest Management, biological control and crop rotations, cover crops, biological control, ridge-till. In 1990 38% of US food samples contained pesticides. An underestimation because the five most commonly used laboratory tests can detect only half of pesticides used on foods. At least 300 different pesticides are used on food as many as 71 are known carcinogens. Others are neurotoxic and reproductively toxic causing premature birth and low birth weight. Of 426 pesticides FDA has identified as likely to leave residues in food routine methods can only detect 203. Children getting larger doses of pesticides because their food intake is larger percentage of body weight. Average toddler drinks 31 times more apple juice as percentage of body weight than mother. Recent (1992) NOAA report documents fish kills, and decreased mean density and diversity of species due to runoff of 35 commonly used agricultural pesticides into coastal waters. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Danielson, B.J. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Habitat selection, interspecific interactions and landscape composition. SOURCE: Evolutionary Ecology 6(5):399-411. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Author describes three types of habitat 1) source: reproduction exceeds mortality, 2) sink limited reproduction but will not, on average, compensate for mortality, 3) unusable, comprises the matrix of all habitats that are never exploited by the species. Patches of source and sink habitat are embedded in usable habitat. Preserving population and community characteristics that have evolved under natural conditions by restoring landscapes to natural state is rarely possible. May be able to compensate for fragmentation where unusable habitats have been increased by clustering patches of usable habitat and connecting the patches with dispersal corridors. Spatial dimensions of landscape must be defined by the ecology of the species in question. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Davis, C.A., T.Z. Riley, R.A. Smith, H.R. Suminski and M.D. Wisdom. PUBL. YEAR: 1979 TITLE: Habitat evaluation of lesser prairie chickens in eastern Chaves county, New Mexico. SOURCE: Dept. Fish. Wildl. Sci., New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station. 141 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Recommended 64 ha exclosures to insure sufficient habitat for winter cover and nesting. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Dillaha, T.A. III, J.H. Sherrard, and D. Lee. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Long-term effectiveness of vegetative filter strips. SOURCE: Water, Environment and Technology. pp. 418-421. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Summary of filterstip effectiveness. Taller weeds shaded desirable grasses and reduced effectiveness. Mowing, herbicides and reseeding or combinations of the three could improve effectiveness. Cattle decrease quality and effectiveness of filter strips. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Dion, N., K.A. Hobson, and S. Lariviere. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Interactive effects of vegetation and predators on success of natural and simulated nests of grassland songbirds. SOURCE: The Condor 102:629-634. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: The type of predator or predator community is critical in determining the influence of cover on nest fate. Successful natural nests had greater forb and lesser grass cover than unsuccessful nests. High predator diversity may reduce the chance of safe nest sites and suggests that the behavior of low-level predators may change when top-level predators are removed. Use of simulated nest for assessing effects of vegetation requires caution as vegetative characteristics of simulated nests may not reflect those of natural ones. Parental activity may attract some predators. Vegetation differences perceived by birds and predators may have been undetected in sampling. Most predators depredated nests with different vegetation characteristics after medium sized carnivores were removed. Nest success of grassland songbirds did not improve significantly following removal of duck nest predators (Dion et al 1999). Nature and diversity of the local predator community can interact with vegetative cover at nests and these two factors are closely linked. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Doak, D.F., P.C. Marino, and P.M. Kareiva. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Spatial scale mediates the influence of habitat fragmentation on dispersal success: implications for conservation. SOURCE: Theoretical Population Biology 41(3):315-336. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Heterogeneity has different and conflicting effects on animal movement at different scales. Explicit consideration of scale is essential in discussion of habitat fragmentation and of optimal conservation strategy. Major impact of fragmentation is disruption of animal dispersal. Dependent upon two scales; the relative size of the habitat fragments and the spatial scale at which these fragments are arranged. When fragmentation is unavoidable, dispersal mortality may be minimized by clustering habitat fragments. The spatial scale of clustering must be defined. Clustering seems to have a positive influence on dispersal success. Scale effects risks of mortality, degrees of connectedness or independence among patches an the influence of environmental catastrophes. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Doering, O. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Federal policies and incentives or disincentives to eco- logically sustainable agricultural systems. SOURCE: Pages 21-36 in R.K. Olson, editor. Integrating sustainable agricultural, ecology and environmental policy. Haworth Press, New York. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Sustainable agriculture involves less use of off-farm inputs while introducing new management and cropping systems that better utilize on-farm resources. Until recently federal farm policies have not been concerned with environmental issues but have reflected goals of increased farm income and low cost food for the nation. Federal policies had other goals such as improving rural conditions, increasing rural income, improving farming operations, and conserving natural resources as part of the base of agricultural productivity. At times policies have conflicted. Future policies must be concerned with the environmental impact of agriculture. Five year average input prices amount of increase (1950-1985): land +710%, pesticides +45%, fertilizer +88%, labor +387%, +fuel 372%, machinery +921 %. Increase in quantities of farm inputs 1950-1987: fertilizers and pesticides +426%, lb/ac nitrogen +950%, phosphate +136%, labor -71%. Government commodity programs in the past have rewarded farmers for producing the primary commercial food and feed grain crops, encouraged farmer towards monocultures. Since world war II fertilizers and pesticides have become comparatively cheaper compared to labor fuel machinery encouraging greater use. The CRP has reduced environmental problems but the program does not address sustainability or environmental concerns relative to those acres remaining in production and the long-term use of CRP acres. What is required is a much more strongly held view by the general public that they have interest in long-term decisions about land use and resources. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Ervin, D.E. PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Constraints to practicing soil conservation: land tenure relationships SOURCE: Pages 95-107 in S.B. Lovejoy and T.L. Napier. Conserving soil: insights from socioeconomic research. Soil Conservation Society of America. Ankeny, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Farmland tenancy in U.S. experienced three changes during the 1970's: percentage of total farmland owned by non-operator landlords rose, use of fixed-cash rental contracts increased, and landlords contributed a lesser share of total farm production and capital expenditure. These events imply increased separation of ownership from management of farmland. The tenants only incentive is to invest in soil erosion control if the productivity benefits or input cost saving outweigh erosion control expenses during the time he rents the land. Landlords may under-invest in soil erosion control because benefits will be captured by tenant who do not share in the costs. Unless tenant operators expect to rent land for an extended period of time or intend to purchase the land a program oriented to renter will miss the long-term incentives that owners have. Attempts to persuade landowners and tenants that conservation is a good thing without sound data may succeed in short run but approach will ultimately fail when the real benefits and costs are realized. 40% of US farmland is leased. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Fawcett, R.S. PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: Weed control strategies under different tillage regimes. SOURCE: Pg. 12 in R.B. Dahlgren, compiler, Proceeding of Midwest Agricultural Interfaces with Fish and Wildlife Resources Workshop. Iowa Cooperative Research Unit. Ames. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Use of selective herbicides has allowed reduction in the amount of tillage performed by farmers resulting in improved weed control. Increased crop yields but losses of habitat and forage. Herbicides have little direct effect on wildlife. About 97% of all corn and soybeans in Iowa are treated with herbicides. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Frawley, B.J. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: The dynamics of nongame bird breeding ecology in Iowa alfalfa fields. SOURCE: Ms thesis. Iowa State University, Ames. 94 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Eight non-game bird species (dickcissle, red winged blackbird, western meadowlark, common yellow throats, sedge wrens, grasshopper sparrow and vesper sparrow) established territories in alfalfa fields before mowing. Mowing reduced numbers and density. Only dickcissles, grasshopper sparrow, w. meadowlarks and vesper sparrows attempted to nest in second growth alfalfa fields. Common yellowthroats selected the tallest densest vegetation with relatively high coverage of grass, grass hopper sparrows used areas of sparse vegetation. Western meadowlark abundance seemed unrelated to vegetation changes. Needs of ground nesting birds difficult to integrate with forage management practices. Highest yields are obtained by harvesting alfalfa with maximum quality is obtained by harvest in early June in Iowa. Typically harvested two more times at 5 1/2 week intervals. Forage production on private lands will continue to intensify with greater production, new cultivars and earlier mowing. New species of cultivars have permitted earlier mowing and still maintain yields. CRP provides some compensation for losses of habitat in alfalfa. Mowing of CRP in nesting season negates potential benefits of CRP. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Freemark, K. PUBL. YEAR: 1988 TITLE: Agricultural disturbance, wildlife and landscape management. SOURCE: Pgs 77-84 in M.R. Moss ed. Landscape ecology and management. Canadian Soc. for Landscape Ecology and Management Symposium, Univ. Guelph. Ontario. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Investigation of bird species richness and reproduction in forested habitats impacted by agricultural production. Wildlife in agricultural landscapes are subject to a number of disturbances such as habitat fragmentation and pesticide use which have impact on their spatial and temporal distribution. Understanding relations between landscape structure, disturbance and distribution of wildlife is needed to develop better management strategies to minimize potential impact and to enhance the persistence of wildlife community. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Freemark, K.E., J.R. Probst, J.B. Dunning, and S.J. Heji. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Adding a landscape ecology perspective to conservation and management planning. SOURCE: Pgs 346-352 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September 21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Populations within individual habitat patches can decline, become extinct, and become reestablished by dispersal of individuals from other patches. The set of local populations which interact through dispersal is a meta-population. Within a landscape the probability of local extinction within a habitat patch is inversely related to size of the patch population which is proportional to the size and habitat quality within the patch. Probability of re-colonization is proportional to proximity and connectedness to similar habitat patches and permeability of the intervening matrix. Effective conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds may require preservation of suitable but intermittently unoccupied habitat. Management plans should protect the diversity of habitats and landscapes used, not just where the species is most common. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Gard. N.W., M.J. Hooper, and R.S. Bennett. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Effects of pesticides an contaminants on neotropical birds. SOURCE: Pages 013-413 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September 21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 p CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Provides summary of potential effects of chemicals on migratory birds. More is unknown than is known and problems or affects of chemical applications and pollution remain difficult to assess. Recommends standardization of monitoring programs and selection of specific species as indicators. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Gatti. PUBL. YEAR: TITLE: Nest cover for pheasants and ducks. SOURCE: Final Report, Study No. 127. Project W-141-R. Wisconsin Department Natural Resources. Madison. 51 pp CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Nest success not consistently related to field size, shape, distance to water, cover height density, plant diversity, or cover type. Nest success was lower for nests closest to cover edges. Duck nest density negatively related to plant diversity and positively related to height density of residual cover. Pheasant use was higher in fields with lower diversity of plant species, greater structural diversity, more irregular in shape and further from water. Widespread establishment of switchgrass nest cover and management of existing duck nest cover towards monotypic stands of switchgrass not justified based on costs, use or nest success. Recommend management for diversity of cover types. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Gillespie, G.W. and F.H. Buttel. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Understanding farm operator opposition to government regulation of agricultural chemicals and pharmaceuticals: the role of social class, objective interests, and ideology. SOURCE: American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 4(1):12-21. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Based on 1982 survey of farmers in New York. Farmer opposition to government regulation of agricultural chemicals is primarily due to farmer ideology and has little relationship with whether farmers actually use the chemicals. Farmer activity increasingly affected by forces external to agriculture including increased role of manufactured inputs into agricultural production. Farmers tend to have conservative socio-political orientation. Farmers are concerned about the externalities of agricultural chemical use, primarily due to health and safety rather than concern about environmental quality. General strong tendency for farmers to oppose regulation. Opposition to government regulation of agrochemicals tends to be associated with operating large farms, with full time farming and denial of possible side effects of chemicals. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Gliessman, S.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1984 TITLE: An agroecological approach to sustainable agriculture. SOURCE: Pages 160-171 in W. Jackson, W. Berry and B. Coleman, editors. Meeting the Expectations of the Land: Essays in sustainable agriculture and stewardship. North Point Press, San Francisco. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: An agroecological approach in research addresses the questions of how can agriculture be more in balance with the natural environment and depend less on costly inputs. Must establish a framework for long-term sustainability of agricultural systems. Agricultural ecology, is based on premise that the short-term, mainly economic focus, of food production must be redirected toward long-term management systems base on cycles and interactions found in natural systems. As agriculture has become increasingly viewed as a production system linked closely with economics with the consequence of loss of the strong ecological foundation upon which agriculture originally developed. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Granfors, D.A., K.E. Church, L.M. Smith. PUBL. YEAR: TITLE: Eastern meadowlark nesting in rangelands and Conservation Reserve Program fields in Kansas. SOURCE: J. Field Ornithology 67(2):222-235. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Comparison of microhabitat, nest-site selection and nest success on Kansas rangelands and CRP. Daily nest survival rates and numbers fledged per female did not differ significantly between land use types. Mowing CRP fields was source of nest failure and induced adults to abandon some fields. CRP had significantly higher values for depth and density of litter cover, taller herbaceous canopy, less herbaceous cover and more standing dead cover than rangelands. CRP has increased the diversity of available nesting habitats. Meadowlarks selected sites with greater litter cover, higher proportion of grass, more uncompacted litter, and more structural homogeneity that on random plots. Delay of mowing and burning recommended to enhance and maintain habitat suitability in CRP fields. Management recommendations: mowing caused undesirable build up of litter and, depending on time of year, may cause abandonment of fields and direct failure of nest. Partial mowing of fields recommended over complete mowing of field. Spot mowing after July 15 recommended. Disadvantage of grazing is increased probability of trampling and attracting cowbirds. Prescribed burning can reduce litter and increase the proportion and vigor of native grasses while decreasing percentage of cool-season grasses and forbs. Recommend spring burning every 3-4 years. May cause temporary early-season loss in habitat quality but increased grass cover and reduction of litter should enhance quality in later season and subsequent years. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Graul, W.D. PUBL. YEAR: 1980 TITLE: Grassland management practices and bird communities. SOURCE: Pgs. 38-47 in Management of western forests and grasslands for nongame birds. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rept INT-86. Intermountain For. Range Expt. Stn., Ogden UT. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Grasslands contain relatively few bird species. However, there are many subtypes of grass lands that occur in a mosaic and different species are restricted to different subtypes. Consequently, a general habitat category can contain considerably more species. Grassland bird communities tend to be numerically dominated by one or two abundant, widespread species. Grassland types contain species with extremely restricted habitat characteristics. Viable approach to grassland management is to consider the habitat requirements of avian species with most restrictive needs and maintain enough suitable habitat to support substantial numbers of the species. Assumed that species with broader habitat requirements will find suitable habitat. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Helmers, D.L. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Shorebird management manual. SOURCE: Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network, Manomet, MA. 58 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Disappearance or degradation of spring stopover habitats (many associated with agricultural ecosystems) may be detrimental to entire populations. Altered wetlands have been changed by impoundment or alteration in watersheds. Associated uplands used by nesting shorebirds are dominated by short, sparse vegetation. Twelve shorebird species breed within the great plains geographic region. Nest site range from bare sand or gravel substrates associated with fresh, alkaline, or saline wetlands. A mosaic of wetland types from ephemeral to semipermanent interspersed with short to moderate height grassland provide reproductive and brood rearing habitat for many of the shorebirds utilizing the great plains. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Henry, J.J. PUBL. YEAR: Ring-necked pheasant response to habitat improvements. TITLE: 1986 SOURCE: Ohio Dept. Natural. Resources., Div. Wildl. Final Report Federal Aid in Wildl. Restoration. Project. W-301-R-72 through R-92. 37 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Ideally nesting cover should only be established in areas within 1/4 mi of secure winter cover. Minimum goal of 25 ac/section or 900 acres/township should be goal (4% of area). To maximize benefits of intensive habitat restoration program knowledge of land-use patterns and habitat deficiencies must be identified within township level and within each section in management area. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Heard, L.P., A.W. Allen, L.B. Best, S.J. Brady, W. Burger, A. J. Lesser, E. Hackett, D.H. Johnson, R.L. Pederson, R.E. Reynolds, C. Rewa, M.R. Ryan, R.T. Molleur, and P. Buck. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: A comprehensive review of Farm Bill contributions to wildlife conservation, 1985-2000. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Wildlife Habitat Management Institute, Technical Report, USDA/NRCS/WMI-2000. 208 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: A comprehensive review of scientific literature describing wildlife responses to USDA programs established under the Conservation Title of the 1985and 1990 and 1996 amendments. Annotated literature and summaries are provided for the CRP, Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP), and Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). In general, wildlife have showed a positive response to these programs. Programs are making significant contributions toward conservation on fish and wildlife resources. Most literature deals with CRP studies. Fewer documentation sources for other programs exist due to lack of scientific investigations focused on these programs. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Herkert, J.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Breeding bird communities of midwestern prairie fragments: the effects of prescribed burning and habitat area. SOURCE: Natural Areas Journal 14:128-135. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Study competed in Illinois. Comparison of relative importance of habitat area and prescribed burning showed that habitat area had a much greater influence on breeding bird community composition than prescribed burning. Large prairie fragments must be managed to provide a mosaic of burned and unburned areas to ensure the availability of suitable habitat for species experiencing significant population declines and predominately restricted to large grassland areas. Benefits of burning include increased in above ground plant biomass which may provide greater concealment for nests thereby decreasing predation success. Higher densities of insects also present in burned prairies as compared to unburned prairies. Management of large fragments of prairie is more complex than that of smaller fragments due to the presence of burn-sensitive species. The habitat requirements of these species can be addressed by providing a mosaic of habitat types. General guidelines; conduct prescribed burns on large prairie fragments (>80 ha) on rotation of 20-30% of area annually. On small fragments larger percentage may be burned but probably should not exceed 50-60% of area, especially if burn sensitive species are present. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Herkert, J.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: The effects of habitat fragmentation on midwestern grassland bird communities. SOURCE: Ecological Applications. 4(3):461-471. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Breeding bird species richness patterns significantly increased with fragment size. Eight of 15 bird species had distributions among fragments influenced by habitat area. Estimates of minimal area requirements for five area sensitive species ranged from 5 to 55 ha. Absence of area sensitive grassland bird species from some small fragments may result from limited availability of habitat. All five area sensitive species regularly avoided structurally suitable habitat on small grassland fragments. Habitat fragmentation is likely to have caused midwestern grassland bird declines especially for area-sensitive species. Both area and vegetation structure significantly influence midwestern grassland bird populations. Management directed toward minimizing breeding season disturbances and controlling features that attract nest predators, woody encroachment, and attention to needs of area sensitive species would be major benefits to midwestern grassland birds. Local or regional extinctions are likely if loss and fragmentation of midwestern grassland habitat continues. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Herkert, J.R., D.W. Sample, and R.E. Warner. PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Management of midwestern grassland landscapes for the con- servation of migratory birds. SOURCE: Pgs. 89-116 in F.R. Thompson, III, ed. Management of mid- western landscapes of the conservation of neotropical migratory birds. USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. St. Paul, MN. General Technical Report NC-187. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Avian species of high priority for conservation were associated with a variety of grassland habitats including dry prairies, pastures, old fields, hayfields, wet prairies, sedge meadows and grasslands with interspersed shrubs. Diverse habitat associations of bird species with high management concern suggests that problems facing grassland birds are widespread and involve variety of grassland habitats. One common feature was sensitivity to habitat fragmentation. Declines in grassland bird numbers significantly correlate with declines in regional acreage of pastures and hay fields. Grassland nest success highest 2-3 years following prescribed fire. Mid length (3-5) year rotational burn program appears to be optimum under most circumstances. Need greater understanding of winter ecology and habitat requirements of grassland bird species. Relatively few avian species use fields with monotypic grass cover. Pastures are regions= most abundant grassland habitat accounting for 7.8 million ha (5.7% of regions land area). Provide important habitat because when not over-grazed they can support diverse assemblages of grassland bird species including those with declining populations. Pasture/hayfield reached peak in midwest in early 1900's but have declined ever since. Large scale, diverse grassland management is needed to meet the habitat needs of migratory grassland bird species of the greatest conservation concern in midwest region. Habitats of highest management concern will vary regionally. Management should focus on providing habitat for large populations of area-sensitive species to increase the likelihood of long-term persistence of populations. Good discussion on effects of grazing, burning. Conclusions are, however, that results can be highly variable depending on extent of management, season, species etc. Mosaic of burned and unburned, mowed, un-mowed grassland provide full range of habitat preferences. Managed under a rotational system will provide best long-term conditions. Still not enough data regarding individual species' prediction about the way various species respond to differing management practices under varying conditions. Information on short-term responses common but little available on long-term effects. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Homan, H.J., G.M. Linz, and W. Bleier. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Winter habitat use and survival of female ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) in southeastern North Dakota. SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 143:463-480. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Study monitored winter habitat selection and survival of female pheasants in SE North Dakota. Relatively heavy snows forced pheasants from upland CRP grassland cover into cattail cover associated with large Class IV wetlands. CRP grasslands in study area often contained wetlands which became foci of wintering pheasants during milder periods of winter weather. CRP grassland cover became unsuitable in more severe snow periods when cover in upland and small embedded wetlands became snow-packed. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Horn, D.J. and R.R. Koford. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Relation of grassland bird abundance to mowing of Con- servation Reserve Program fields in North Dakota. SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(3):653-659. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Evaluation of haying of CRP fields in central North Dakota. Compared relative abundance of birds in idled and mowed portions of fields one year after mowing. Results consistent with other evaluations that show bird species responding to differing characteristics of fields as defined by height and structure of vegetation. Some species more abundant in idled portions of fields while other species were more abundant in hayed portion of field. By late spring of the year following mowing portions of fields that were hayed had vegetation 2 height of idled portions of fields (This supports the conclusion of Allen et al 2001 that fields recovered to pre- haying conditions by two years following harvest.) Recommend partial mowing of CRP fields to provide a mosaic of grassland habitats of with different physical characteristics to meet need of diverse population of avian species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Hubbard, M.W. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Habitat changes in central Iowa and their relationship to ring-necked pheasant populations, 1981-1990. SOURCE: Masters Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames. 64 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model evaluated by relating outputs to pheasant numbers using multiple regression. 133,000 ha in analysis. Pheasant numbers negatively related to alfalfa/hay acreage and positively related to pasture lands. Only one variable, area in roadside and spring VOR was positively related to pheasant numbers. Other influences affected relationships between model output and numbers of birds (e.g., weather, population numbers). Pheasant populations have undergone widespread declines in the northern plains states since mid 60's as consequence of habitat loss due to increased mechanization and conversion of non-crop acreage to croplands. Original HSI model appeared to of winter food for pheasants. Three variables disked corn, chiseled corn and disked soybeans were incorporated into the model. Model source is not described, nor is the model presented. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Hughes, J.P. R.J. Robel, K.E. Kemp, J.L. Zimmerman. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Effects of habitat on dickcissel abundance and nest success in Conservation Reserve Program fields in Kansas. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 63(2):523-529. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: CRP fields studied dominated by indian grass, big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats, switchgrass, and western wheatgrass. These grasses comprised over 95% of all vegetation. Dickcissel abundance was associated significantly with field-level vegetation characteristics, field edge characteristics, and land use surrounding CRP fields. Nest success was associated withfield-level vegetation variables only, specifically those associated with vegetation volume. Responded positively to increased litter cover but negatively to live and grass canopy covers. Forbs have been recognized as referred nesting substrates. Forbs were relatively uncommon in CRP fields evaluated. Efforts to enhance dickcissel habitat should focus on modification of vegetation structure within fields. Positive relation to litter cover which would increase under less frequent burning regimes. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Hughes, J.P., R.J. Robel, and K.E. Kemp. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Factors influencing mourning dove nest success in CRP fields. SOURCE: Journal of Wildlife Management 64(4):1004-1008. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Evaluation of dove nesting success in northeastern Kansas CRP fields. Daily nest survival rates were associated positively with height of live vegetation and negatively with percent grass cover and percent live vegetation cover. Management practice that produce sparse overall cover but tall vegetation may increase dove nest success in CRP fields. Evaluated fields planted to CP2 native warm season grasses (indiangrass, big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, switchgrass and western wheatgrass). Dove nests found in 7 of 9 fields evaluated. In 1994 and 8 of 9 fields in 1995. Nest success did not differ between years. Apparent nest success = 55.6% in both years. Good success rate compared to other studies. Daily nest survival rates were influenced by field- level vegetation structure, but not field-edge characteristics or surrounding land use variables. Dove appeared to have higher success in fields with tall live vegetation and low amounts of grass and live vegetation cover. Recommend intermediate level of disturbance that provides low amounts of live vegetation and grass cover but high height of vegetation. Recommend spring burning every 3 years. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Hultquist, J.M. and L.B. Best. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Bird use of terraces in Iowa rowcrop fields. SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 145 (2):275-287. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Bird abundance in terraces was less than that recorded in other strip cover habitats such as grassed waterways and roadsides but greater than that in rowcrops. The relative contribution of terraces to grassland bird conservation is minor. Changes in current management practices of terrace would not likely improve conditions for bird nor be economical. Dominant cover on terraces was smooth brome. The species is main one recommended by NRCS. Bird species richness and abundance may be lower in terraces because terraces are narrower than other strip-cover habitats and vegetation is less diverse. Bird densities in terraces higher than recorded in CRP because of greater concentration of birds in narrow strip covers than in block-cover CRP. Conclusion is that relative contribution of terraces to grassland bird conservation is minor. Bird abundance is low and productivity is poor compared to other strip cover habitats. Use is, however, greater than recorded in rowcrops. Bird use and species composition also may improve is plant species were diversified in terrace seedings rather than brome monocultures ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Hurley, R.J. and E.C. Franks. PUBL. YEAR: 1976 TITLE: Changes in the breeding ranges of two grassland birds. SOURCE: Auk 93:108-511. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Changes in the ranges of the dickcissel and horned lark attributed to man-made environmental changes. Dickcissel attracted to alfalfa but this cover is a biological trap because harvesting typically coincides with prime nesting period. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Hurley, T.M., B.A. Babcock, R.E. Reynolds, and C.R. Loesch. PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Waterfowl populations and the Conservation Reserve Program in the Prairie Pothole Region of North and South Dakota. SOURCE: Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames. Working Paper 96-WP 165. 30 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Estimates of density of waterfowl breeding pairs under current distribution of CRP land only 12.5% greater than what would have been realized had land been randomly enrolled in program. Suggests that old enrollment rules did relatively poor job of targeting best waterfowl habitat. Estimates of improved targeting to waterfowl habitat of higher quality would double density of breeding pairs. Further improvement in pair density may be realized if CRP land were associated with Wetland Management Districts that furnished better waterfowl habitat. More important to focus targeting efforts within multiple county regions rather than between regions. Benefits of such planning would extend to wildlife species other than waterfowl. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Igl, L.D. and D.H. Johnson. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Dramatic increase of Le Conte's sparrow in Conservation Reserve Program fields in the Northern Great Plains. SOURCE: Prairie Naturalist 27(2):89-94. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Substantial increase in Le Conte=s sparrow numbers in CRP in 1994 compared to 1990-1993. Changes in habitat associated with drought from 89-93 and above normal precipitation from mid 1993 to mid 1994 likely produced favorable breeding conditions for this species in CRP fields. CRP may provide important habitat only under wet conditions. Influence of emergency mowing and grazing of CRP fields on breeding bird populations remains poorly understood. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Igl, L.D. and D.H. Johnson. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Le Conte's sparrows breeding in Conservation Reserve Program fields: precipitation and patterns of population change. SOURCE: Studies in Avian Biology 19:178-186. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Breeding Le Conte=s sparrows studied in CRP grassland fro 1990 to 1996. Status changed from an uncommon breeding species to one of the most abundant species recorded in last two years of study. Results emphasize importance of range-wide conservation efforts and long-term observations of grassland birds. In 6 year study period 111 species of birds recorded using CRP grasslands during the breeding season. Dramatic increase in populations of this sparrow coincided with occurrence of wet conditions in northern Great Plains. Geographically large conservation programs such as the CRP important for long-term conservation of grassland birds. Attribute the program to benefitting many species of grassland birds. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Ignatiuk, J.B. and D.C. Duncan. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Nest success of ducks on rotational and season-long grazing systems in Saskatchewan. SOURCE: Nest success of ducks on rotational and season-long grazing systems in Saskatchewan. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Rotational grazing systems implemented to increase duck production in the Canadian prairie pothole region have had limited success. Comparison between one-over rotational systems and season-long pastures in Saskatchewan failed to reveal differences in nest survival between grazing systems. Rotational systems could be beneficial if they preserve or improve grassland areas, attract more ducks from less productive habitats, or increase duck survival. Strong evidence that pastures have high success of nest compared to most other habitat types including small plots of planted cover. Conversion of cropland to pasture and retaining existing pastures recommended to improve duck production. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Johnson, D.H.,S.D. Haseltine, and L.M. Cowardin. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Wildlife habitat management on the northern prairie landscape. SOURCE: Landscape and Urban Planning 28:5-21. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Summary of European settlement impacts to northern prairie landscapes and wildlife habitat. Regional management of wildlife can not be effective on public lands alone. Partnerships with private landowners need to be developed. Wildlife managers need to base management activities on explicit, quantifiable objectives that furnish measures of survival, reproduction, and distribution of species. Description of potential landscape-level management options presented. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Johnson, D.H. and L.D. Igl. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Contributions of the Conservation Reserve Program to populations of breeding birds in North Dakota. SOURCE: Wilson Bull. 107(4):709-718. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Evaluation of projected changes in North Dakota breeding bird populations if CRP land was converted back to agricultural production. Of 18 species common on CRP, crop fields, or both, 12 were more abundant in CRP. Six of these species had suffered significant decline in populations. None of species common in cropland cover types had declined significantly. Termination of CRP and return of lands to cultivation projected to cause population declines for sedge wren, grasshopper sparrow, savannah sparrow, dickcissel and lark bunting. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Johnson, D.H. and L.D. Igl. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Area requirements of grassland birds: a regional perspective. SOURCE: Auk 118(1):24-34. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Grassland habitat loss is only one concern affecting avian breeding success. Degradation remaining grasslands due to improper or inadequate management, disruption of natural disturbance regimes, encroachment of woody and exotic vegetation, and fragmentation are other key issues influencing habitat quality. Three fragmentation factors affect avian grassland habitat quality patch-size, edge, and isolation. Study is an evaluation of influence of fragmentation and isolation of CRP grassland fields of grassland breeding bird populations in the northern Great Plains. Fields were planted with perennial grasses and legumes usually wheatgrasses, brome grasses and alfalfa. Breeding bird assemblages associated with these fields were very similar to those in idle native grasslands in the same region. Authors conclude that locating a CRP field near existing grassland, or establishing one large CRP field rather than several small ones would benefit more grassland bird species than would creating small isolated CRP fields. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Kamler, J.F. and P.S. Gipson. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Home range, habitat selection, and survival of bobcats, Lynx rufus, in a prairie ecosystem in Kansas. SOURCE: Canadian Field Naturalist. 114:388-394. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Bobcats in Kansas (Fort Riley) prefer grassland habitats in summer due to a greater diversity and possibly higher abundance of small mammals and found within woodlands. More restricted to woodlands during winter when competition with other predator species was higher. Coyotes may be more tolerant of bobcats in summer when prey was more abundant. Resident male bobcat used grasslands more than females possibly because of larger body size reduced risk of predation by coyotes. Transient bobcat used open areas more and woodland areas less than residents. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Kaufman D.W. and G.A. Kaufman. PUBL. YEAR: 1989 TITLE: Nongame wildlife management in central Kansas: implication of small mammal use of fencerows, fields, and prairie. SOURCE: Trans. of the Kansas Academy of Science 92(3-4):198-205. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Prairie-cropland ecotone provides suitable habitat for several native small mammals. Fencerows between prairie and cropland are potentially valuable habitats. Fencerows between prairie and cropland furnish better habitat than fencerow with same cover type on both sides. Provides food, cover, and access to other cover types as well as dispersal corridors. Prairie- cropland fencerows supported an abundant, diverse assemblage of native small mammals. The association of these species was apparently dependent on tall, dense vegetation, deep litter, and ready access to food in cropfields. Interiors of cropland, even when fallow, were insufficient to support most species of small mammals. Small ungrazed herbaceous and woody habitats scattered within a matrix of cultivated fields would maintain a higher density diversity of small mammals than would be found if these habitats were removed. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Kessler, W.B., H. Salwasser, C.W. Cartwright, Jr., and J.A. Caplan. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: New perspectives for sustainable natural resources management. SOURCE: Ecological Applications 2(3):221-225. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Management of public lands and resources requires knowledge about ecosystems, including relationships to human values, activities, patterns of use, closer partnerships with managers to complete large-scale studies, and adaptive management of public lands and resources. Managers must respond to more complex views of public lands and their roles in meeting human needs and aspirations. Need to define objectives that relate to ecological and aesthetic conditions of the land a desired future condition to sustain land uses and resource yields. Must recognize that grasslands are sustainable in nature by dynamic forces such as fire, flood and grazing. These forces continually change vegetation patterns and processes having major effects on biological diversity, water quality, and other values. The public must be fully informed about the conditions, capabilities, and options for lands and resources and share in knowledge that professionals accrue through research and management experience. Science must take into consideration the values and needs of people rather than concluding what is good or bad for society from their own technical perspectives. Changes in perspectives must address cumulative effects of management and landscape fragmentation. Systems must be looked at as a whole rather than individual parts. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Klute, D. S. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Avian community structure, reproductive success, vegetative structure, and food availability in burned CRP fields and grazed pastures in northeastern Kansas. SOURCE: Ms. thesis. Kansas State University, Manhattan. 168 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Comparison of avian community structure, reproductive success, vegetative structure, and food availability in burned CRP fields with local dominant cover type, burned, grazed, native grass pastures. During summer, relative abundance of avian species was significantly greater in grazed pastures than in CRP fields. Differences primarily due to vegetative structure. Vegetative height an biomass (VOR) greater in CRP than grazed fields. Total invertebrate biomass during summer was significantly grater in grazed pasture than CRP. Greater forb coverage in grazed pastures may have contributed to greater invertebrate biomass in grazed pastures over CRP. During winter relative avian abundance did not differ significantly between CRP and grazed pastures. Mean species richness greater in CRP. Winter CRP fields had taller vegetation and more bare ground than grazed pastures. Total biomass of available seed did not differ significantly between CRP and grazed pastures, however, CRP contained more seeds which are preferred food items for wintering birds. CRP overall better winter habitat. Moderate grazing of CRP may contribute to reduced vegetative height, increased total canopy overage, and increased forb coverage which should improve habitat for grassland birds. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Knopf, F.L. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Avian assemblages on altered grasslands. SOURCE: Studies in Avian Biology. 15:247-257. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: As a group, populations of endemic grassland bird species have declined more than other (including neotropical migrants) in the last quarter century. Unlike most forest species, that winter in the neotropics most birds that breed in North American grasslands also winter on the continent and problems driving declines in grassland species are associated almost entirely with North American processes. Eastern tallgrass prairie virtually obliterated, western shortgrass prairies fragmented. During last 25 years grassland species have shown steeper, more consistent and geographically widespread declines than any other behavioral or ecological guild of North American species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Knopf, F.L. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Faunal mixing, faunal integrity, and the biopolitical template for diversity conservation. SOURCE: Trans. N. American Wildl. Conf. 75:330-342. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Conservation biologist striving to protect a diversity of habitats and species in the increasingly altered landscapes of NA, primarily by protecting samples of the biota in natural preserves. At many locations local species assemblages have been affected addition of new species from contiguous or distant sites. Shifts in the composition of native biological diversity can lead to declines in regionally unique species. Often augmented faunas are viewed by the public and local fish and Game agency personnel as indicative of good wildlife conservation. Future conservation of faunal integrity requires enhanced coordination among natural resource agencies. Faunal mixing is dilemma for biologists dedicated to protecting the integrity of native, endemic faunas. Dichotomy between preserving the biological diversity of and enhancing vertebrate populations. Traditional policies of natural resource agencies favor the spread of ecological-generalist species across landscapes. Most popular game species are characteristic of early succession respond favorably to greater edge and diversity in habitat. Enhancing species richness through fragmentation in landscape is no longer favored and growing evidence suggests that increasing the quality of edge can harm the composition of some wildlife communities. Ecological consequences of species substitutions are masked in management that focus purely on species richness. Actions for conservation of biological diversity: 1 minimize practices promoting site- specific diversity, 2 emphasize between-habitat diversity on management units and implement a step-down (national/regional/ local) approach to conservation of biological diversity. Conservation of biological diversity must complement the conservation of endangered species. Despite the extinction of many species and a general decline in the biological diversity of north America many local faunas contain more species today than historically present. Introduction and range expansion into altered landscapes have augmented local species richness. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Knopf, F.L. PUBL. YEAR: 1986 TITLE: Changing landscapes and the cosmopolitanism of the eastern Colorado avifauna. SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 14:132-142. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Development of riparian forests on the Great Plains has provided corridors for movement of forest birds across grass- lands that have historically y served as an ecological barrier to dispersal. Illustrates relevance of current conservation theory to decisions on local management and the need for interstate regionalization of management plans. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Knopf, F.L. and F.B. Samson. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Conserving the biotic integrity of the Great Plains. SOURCE: Pgs. 121-133 in S.R. Johnson and A Bouzaher, eds. Conservation of Great Plains Ecosystems: Current Science, Future Options. Kluwer Academic Press. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Despite relatively simplistic composition of endemic avifauna in the Great Pains, endemic species are currently showing steeper more consistent and geographically widespread declines than any other group of North American species. Of 32 grassland bird species 10 declined at a statistically significant rates from 1966-1991. Principle processes that shaped endemic plant and animals on the great plains have been drought, grazing and wildfire. These factors favored broad expanses of monotypic vegetation with minimization of ecological edges. Activities that have had universal effects on native diversity include fragmentation of grasslands, drainage of wetlands, invasion or introductions of alien and exotic species, and water development activities. Impoundment of rivers and elimination of natural fire regimes has had severe consequences to native flora and fauna of the western Great Plains than has the most agricultural production. Ninety percent of breeding bird species in northeastern Colorado did not breed there at the turn of the century. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Knopf, F.L. and M.L. Scott. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Altered flows and created landscapes in the Platte River Head- waters, 1840-1990. SOURCE: Pgs 70-74 in J.M. Sweeney, ed. Management of dynamic ecosystems. North Cent. Sect., The Wildl. Soc., West Lafayette, Ind. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Impoundment has altered flow dynamics with annual runoff peaks and total discharge severely reduced. Deciduous gallery forest provides local habitats for more wildlife species than currently occur elsewhere, or historically in the headwaters. Unique characteristics of riparian ecosystems is the pulsed flow resulting from spring runoff and linear connectively across elevational gradients. Stabilization of hydrodynamics regimes in headwater streams drastically alters the characteristic fluvial processes that shaped these ecosystems. Annual floods tend to maintain wide, shallow, and active river channels with high sediment loads. Changes in hydrology can be attributed to removal of beaver, water development for agriculture, municipal and industrial use. VEGETATION RESPONSE TO ALTERED FLOWS: Woody vegetation on pristine rivers occurred as widely scattered stands of cottonwood and willows. Hydrologic conditions controlled the patterns of establishment and growth of woody riparian species. Crop irrigation recharge to the river raised local water tables and favors created perennial, lower flow. ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES: Enhanced summer low flows have been the driving ecological force in Platte rivers and have enabled dramatic movements of faunal assemblages at the local and regional level. Connectivity proved by the riparian corridor has allowed western expansion of species such as white-tailed deer, fox squirrel and numerous small mammals and avian species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Koford, R.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Density and fledgling success of grassland birds in Con- servation Reserve Program fields in North Dakota and west- central Minnesota. SOURCE: Studies in Avian Biology 19:187-195. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: CRP fields were suitable breeding habitat for several species whose populations declined prior to program. Habitat furnished appeared to be as secure as other suitable habitats in federal Waterfowl Production Areas within these states. Additional cover provided by CRP may have lowered breeding densities in all habitats with possible benefits if reproduction is density dependent. Additional habitat also may have allowed birds to breed that otherwise would not have bred such as second year birds thereby supporting higher growth of populations. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Koford, R.R., and L.B. Best. PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Management of agricultural landscapes of the conservation of neotropical migratory birds. SOURCE: Pgs. 86-88 in F.R. Thompson, III, ed. Management of mid- western landscapes for the conservation of neotropical migratory birds. USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. General Technical Report NC-781. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Thirty eight neotropical migratory birds are common in midwest agricultural landscapes. Most species depend on herbaceous or wooded habitats which are declining as average size of farms increase. Recommendations: minimize cultivation, encourage moderate grazing, delay spring mowing of hay, increase acres in grassed waterways and roadsides, avoid nighttime mowing, encourage longer intervals between mowings, avoid fall mowing and annual mowing of grassed waterways and roadsides, retain fencelines, maintain idle land, and change configuration of idle land to enhance species richness and nesting success. Immediate effect of tillage is exposure of arthropods and other prey to foraging birds, long term effect is reduction in abundance of litter-dwelling arthropods. Conventionally tilled fields have lower arthropod abundance than no-till or idle areas. Herbicides can affect birds by reducing availability of seeds. Insecticides reduce abundance and diversity of foliage-dwelling arthropods. Strip cover: grassed waterways, terraces, fencerows roadsides and windbreaks/shelterbelts usually provide habitat that is more long term than that provided by areas enrolled in crop-retirement programs. Strip cover has decreased in recent years. Orientation of crop rows relative to grassed waterway influenced disturbance. Nest densities greater when rows parallel to waterways. Management objectives: Conserve remnants of prairie and savannah that still exist. Large scale restoration impractical but remnants can be saved for education and research. Increase crop residues, CRP, minimize tillage, diversify crops. Encourage moderate grazing of pastures with prescription for species needs of those in most trouble. Delay spring mowing of hay as long as possible, avoid night mowing, increase intervals between mowing. Maintain idle land in blocks rather than strips, increase species composition of vegetation, On terraces improvements can be made through flattening of back- slopes, improve grass stands and planting alternative vegetation. Don't burn all ditches roadsides in same year, Encourage fencerows greater than 3 m wide. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Kurzejeski, E. W. PUBL. YEAR: 1996 TITLE: Vegetation structure and avian species composition in diverted farmland. SOURCE: Federal Aid Project No W-31-R-05. Final Report. Missouri Department of Conservation. Jefferson City. 75 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Comparison of vegetative conditions, avian abundance, composition and productivity on CP1, CP2, and rowcrop fields in northern Missouri. Total bird abundance, grassland bird abundance, nest density and number of nesting species all lower on crop than on CRP fields. Bird community using crop fields differed from that of CRP fields with short grass and open-ground feeding birds predominant on crop fields. The conservation value of CRP fields for declining grassland bird species was higher for CP1 fields than CP2 fields. Monotypic stands of both warm-season and cool-season grasses should be avoided to increase the potential wildlife benefits of CRP and other idle grassland habitats. Management recommendations: cost sharing of grass plantings should be limited to multi- species seedings. Periodic haying and grazing may increase habitat value of monotypic fields and non-game bird habitat. Mowing may effectively decrease height and density of vegetation, however. litter build up an accelerated grass succession may negatively affect wildlife values of fields. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Leddy, K.L., K.F. Higgens, and D.E. Naugle. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Effects of wind turbines on upland nesting birds in conservation reserve program grasslands. SOURCE: Wilson Bull 111(1):100-104. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: CRP grasslands without turbines and areas located 180 m from turbines supported 4 x higher densities of grassland birds than areas within 80m of turbines. Recommend that turbines be placed in cropland that support lower densities of grassland passerines than found in CRP grasslands. Human disturbance, noise, and physical movements of turbines may have disturbed nesting birds. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Lewis, T. PUBL. YEAR: 1969 TITLE: The diversity of insect fauna in a hedgerow and neighboring fields. SOURCE: J. Applied Ecology 6(3):453-458. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Hedgerows contribute to enriched insect fauna in neighboring fields. In terrestrial insect communities, diversity was greatest in hedge, lower in beans, and least in pasture. Diversity of aerial insects decreased with increasing distance from the hedge. Presence of hedge enriched aerial population for a distance from trees to 10 times height on downwind side and one to two times on upwind side. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Lokemoen, J.T. and J.A. Beiser. PUBL. YEAR: 1979 TITLE: Bird use and nesting in conventional, minimum-tillage, and organic cropland. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 61(3):644-655. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Seasonal use by birds and nesting evaluated in fallow, sunflower, and wheat fields among conventional farms, minimum tillage farms, reduced tillage, and organic farms (no synthetic pesticides). Spring bird densities were highest in minimum-tillage, fallow fields that provided food and cover. No differences in bird densities among crops of field types in fall or winter but mean densities in summer were highest in fallow fields. Fallow fields also had greater mean number of nesting species and highest mean densities of nests probably due to increased amounts of plant litter cover. Mean number of nesting species and nest densities were higher in minimum tillage and organic fields. Overall hatching success low for waterfowl and shorebirds and low nest success for passerines. Nest losses due to predation and farming activities. Hatch success higher in minimum tillage fields for passerines and wheat fields for shorebirds. Nest densities in CRP were 6 times larger than that found in minimum tillage stubble and organic fallow and 11 times larger than densities in other field types and crops. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Madden, E.M., R.K. Murphy, A.J. Hansen, and L. Murray PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Models for guiding management of prairie bird habitat in northwestern North Dakota. SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 144(2):377-392. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Remains difficult to summarize effects of management on individual bird species due to differences in environmental conditions (moisture, soils, plant species composition). Vegetation attributes are important determinants of grassland bird abundance. Vegetation structure and to a lesser extent composition can be manipulated by managers. Paper gives specific characteristics of vegetation (shrub cover, herb cover, VOR) for a number of prairie bird species. Authors conclude that most public grasslands devoted to wildlife traditionally have been managed to promote tall, dense, nesting cover for game birds. Some avian species of importance are most associated with native bunch grasses rather than the broad-leaved, exotic grasses often planted for duck nesting cover. Vegetation attributes preferred by these endemic species are characteristic of grasslands receiving periodic defoliations such as those produced by fire or grazing. Need of mosaic of available vegetation types to maximize avian biodiversity. Visual obstruction (VOR), presence of grass, forb, or shrub cover were important features for all specialized species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Mankin, P.C. and R.E. Warner. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Responses of eastern cottontails to intensive row-crop farming. SOURCE: J. Mammalogy 80(3):940-949. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Home ranges averaged 2.3 times larger during growing season that in non-growing season. During non-growing season home- steads were major component of home ranges. Less than 2% of study area but comprised 23% of home ranges and 40% of rabbit locations. Declines in rabbit numbers have been most pronounced in most intensively farmed regions where row crop agriculture has replace pasture and other early successional permanent vegetation, forage crops, small grains, and miscell- aneous uncropped land. Loss of cottontail habitat in midwest also attributed to greater use of herbicides and intensive fall tillage. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: McCoy, T.D., M.R. Ryan, E.W. Kurzejeski, and L.W. Burger. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: source or sink habitat for grassland birds in Missouri. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage 63(2):530-538. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Further documentation of CRP effects on bird populations are needed. Relative value of CRP can be assessed by comparing reproductive habitats. Data from CRP habitats are limited. Claims that CRP is a panacea for grassland wildlife are overstated, but CRP likely has contributed to conservation of many species including several of special concern. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: McCoy, T.D., M. R. Ryan and L.W. Burger, and E.W. Kurzejeski. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Grassland bird conservation: CP1 vs. CP2 plantings in Conservation Reserve Program fields in Missouri. SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 145(1):1-17. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Comparison of relative value of different CRP plantings for breeding grassland and winter birds in CP1 and CP2 fields in northern Missouri. Differences in species abundance were evident between season but overall species richness, abundance, and nesting success of grassland birds during the breeding season and total bird use in the winter did not differ between conservation practices. Shorter more diverse cool-season grass fields were equal or better habitat than taller, more vertically dense switchgrass-dominated fields for grassland birds including several of high conservation concern. Single species plantings of warm or cool season grasses should be avoided to maximize potential benefits to wildlife. Authors concluded that CP2 fields did not differ from CP1 in value as reproductive and winter habitat for birds. CP2s=, however, were switchgrass monocultures. Greater value may be realized with a mix of warm-season native species. All 8 switchgrass fields were monocultures whereas CP1 fields had been planted to orchard grass/lespedeza, or timothy/clover. One field was planted to fescue. Mowing in late summer and early fall results indicated that CP1 fields had sufficient regrowth of cool season grasses, legumes and annual weeds to provide cover and food for wintering birds. Dominance of warm-season grasses was reduced for at least the following two summers after CP2 fields were mowed resulting in structural and vegetational diversity until switchgrass again dominated fields. Landowners are not likely to intensively manage CRP for wildlife unless this is a condition of the contract and/or there is a monetary incentive to do so. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: McMaster, D.G. and S.K. Davis. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: An evaluation of Canada=s permanent cover program: habitat for grassland birds? SOURCE: Journal of Field Ornithology 72 (2):195-210. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: In the early 90's Agriculture Canada's Permanent Cover Program (PCP) converted over 445,000 ha of cropland to perennial vegetative cover. PCP sites supported higher avian species richness than cropland and 9 of 10 commonly detected grassland bird species occurred at higher frequencies in PCP than cropland. PCP sites were characterized by taller, denser vegetation and less bare ground than cropland sites. Hayed and grazed PCP site differed significantly in vegetative structure an avian community composition, but did not differ in species richness or evenness. Unlike the CRP, the PCP allows use of forage produced on program lands. PCP vegetation most commonly comprised of combinations or wheatgrass, brome, alfalfa, and crested wheatgrass. Habitat maintained in a mosaic or successional stages will provide habitat for the richest diversity of grassland species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Millenbah, K.F. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: The effects of different age classes of fields enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program in Michigan on avian diversity, density, and productivity. SOURCE: MS thesis. Michigan State University, East Lansing. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Avian communities and vegetative characteristics examined in 6 age class fields (1-6 growing seasons) in central Michigan to determine relations between field age and characteristics of avian communities. Younger CRP fields characterized by forbs and bare ground supported greater avian densities and diversities than older fields. Older fields supported greater high of grasses and litter cover. Implications - grassland birds may require a diversity of age classes of CRP fields in agricultural landscapes to meet habitat requirements. Results suggest relationship between age of field and relative avian abundance, diversity and productivity. Younger fields maintained the greater diversity and density of avian species. Older fields with greater litter cover and grass cover supported the greatest productivity. One year old CRP fields supported greatest diversity of avian species. As fields aged diversities declined but productivity increased. Both the number of active nests and successful nests were greatest in older fields. Litter cover serves as mechanical barrier to seedlings decreasing the amount of light energy available for growth. On new fields horizontal cover is sparse. As forb and grass cover increased through the fourth growing season, horizontal cover increased. As fields became more grass- dominated and sparser during years 5 and 6 horizontal cover decreased. Insects: Greater biomass and diversity of insects were available on younger fields. Few significant differences found among field age classes but mean insect diversities and biomass generally decreased as fields aged. Younger fields supported greater diversity. Landowner attitudes: 70% of surveyed landowners gave improvement of wildlife habitat at least some importance in enrollment into CRP. Recommendations: controlled disturbance in years 4-6. Perturbations which provide multiple successional stages may best provide for simultaneous high density, diversity and productivity of avian species. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: O'Leary, C.H. and D.W. Nyberg. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Treelines between fields reduce the density of grassland birds. SOURCE: Natural Areas Journal 20(3):243-249. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Fragmentation of grassland by fencerows could be a factor contributing to decline of grassland birds, especially those species that are area sensitive. Recommendations to maintain habitat quality for grassland birds: reduce woody vegetation within fields, replace woody vegetation separating fields with grass, connect fields to furnish larger interior area. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Pimentel, D., H. Acquay, M. Biltonen, P. Rice, M. Silva, J. Nelson, V. Lipner, S. Giordano, A Horowitz, and M. D'Amore. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Environmental and Economic costs of pesticide use. SOURCE: Bioscience 42(10):750-760. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: In U.S. approximately 600 different types of pesticides are used annually. Approximately 160 million ha/yr receives a heavy pesticide dose, averaging 3 kg/ha. Estimates are that without pesticides pests would account for 10% of crop loss with specific crop losses ranging from 0 to nearly 100%. Despite widespread use of pesticides, insects, plant pathogens, and weeds destroy 37% of all potential food and fiber crops. Tenfold increase in insecticide use from 1945 to 1989 but total crop loses from insect damage have nearly doubled from 7 to 13%. Rise in insect damage is in part due to changes in agricultural practices. Natural predators play a major role in keeping populations of many insect pests under control. These species are adversely affected by pesticides. Pesticide applications disrupt natural biological control. Fungicides can contribute to pest outbreaks when they reduce fungal pathogens that are naturally parasitic on many insects. An estimated $520 million/yr can be attribute to costs of additional pesticide applications and increased crop losses following destruction of natural enemies by pesticides applied to crops. Three most common pesticides found in groundwater are insect- icide aldicarb and herbicides alachlor and atrazine. Estimates are that nearly 1/2 of ground water and well water in US has potential to be contaminated. Adding monitoring and cleaning costs the total cost of pesticide polluted groundwater is approximately $1.8 billion/yr. High pesticide concentrations in water directly kill fish, low-level doses kill susceptible fry and essential foods of fish and eliminated. Pesticides washed into aquatic system by runoff and soil erosion. Few if any of the widespread and more frequent low-level pesticide poisoning are dramatic enough to be observed. Therefore most of unrecognized and unreported. A low estimate of annual losses is 24 billion/yr. Probably several times this amount. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Renner, R.W., R.E. Reynolds, and B.D.J. Batt. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: The impact of haying Conservation Reserve Program lands on productivity of ducks nesting in the Prairie Pothole region of North and South Dakota. SOURCE: Trans. North American Wildl. Nat. Resource. Conf. 60:221-229. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Comparison of nest success and duck production in hayed versus non-hayed portions of CRP fields. Production higher on non-hayed portions. Suggest that effects on litter depth and vegetation structure may effect nesting through entire year following haying. Recommend haying no more than once every 5 years to maintain vegetation quality and habitat diversity. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Ribic, C.A., R.E. Warner, and P.C. Mankin. PUBL. YEAR: 1998 TITLE: Changes in upland wildlife habitat on farmland in Illinois 1920-1987. SOURCE: Environmental Management 22(2):303-313. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Developed index to evaluate changes in agricultural ecosystems as they affected wildlife habitat. Indices at county level have potential to be used in a multi-scale analysis to investigate the impact of policy changes on large-scale areas of the midwest and to develop regional perspectives of the impacts of agriculture on upland wildlife and habitats. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Riley, T.Z. and J.H. Schultz. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Predation and ring-necked pheasant population dynamics. SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 29 (1):33-38. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: To improve pheasant survival an recruitment a predator removal program would require a significant reduction in predator number during March-July the nesting and brood rearing seasons. Control area would have to be extensive to prevent rapid recolonization by predators. Widespread reductions in predator number may be an unacceptable option to much of the public due to an increasing appreciation of the ecological role of predators. Benefits of predator control programs last only as long as the predator control program remains in effect. Habitat management focused on winter availability of suitable cover is key in provision of sufficient density of hens in reproductive season. Landscapes dominated by rowcrops should have 25-30% grass cover. New national farm legislation must recognize that quality winter habitat may be limiting pheasant survival on one farm while brood-rearing habitat may be limiting on nearby farms. Flexibility must continue to be a part of, and expanded, to allow optimal management of agricultural lands for pheasants. Increased reliable knowledge about the effectiveness of farm program is essential to design more effective programs. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Robinson, S.K., J.A. Grzybowski, S.I. Rothstein, M. C. Brittingham, L.J. Petit, and F.R. Thompson. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Management implications of cowbird parasitism on neotropical migrant songbirds. SOURCE: Pages 93-102 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September 21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Cowbirds benefit directly from human activities resulting in population increases that now potentially threaten populations of many neotropical migrant songbirds. Recommend development of broad-scale approaches to management such as landscape-level management , consolidation of ownerships to preserve large tracts of land minimizing edge habitat. Best preventative measure is to manage large areas on a landscape level. Bigger tracts are preferable to smaller ones and compact shapes (square)are better than complex shapes with high ratios of edge to interior. Prairie habitats: maintain and restore extensive areas of contiguous grassland. Acquisition should focus on inholdings to minimize fragmentation. Woody fencerows, snags and corridors within and adjacent to prairie should be removed. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Rodenhouse, N.L. and L. B. Best. PUBL. YEAR: 1983 TITLE: Breeding ecology of vesper sparrows in corn and soybean fields. SOURCE: Am. Midl. Nat. 110(2): 265-275. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Nesting success in corn and soybean fields low. Nest losses due primarily from agricultural operations and predation. Nest predation was higher near agriculturally nonproductive areas due to increase use by and density of predators. On cultivated land, nest predators use linear nonproductive area as travel lanes, thus higher predation near or in these remaining areas can be expected. Breeding success would be greater if the number of tillage operations was reduced and crop residue was retained on the fields. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Rodenhouse, N.L., L.B. Best, R.J. O'Connor, and E.K. Bollinger. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Effects of temperate agriculture on neotropical migrant landbirds. SOURCE: Pages 280-295 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangle, eds. Status and management of neotropical migratory birds; 1992 September 21-25; Estes Park, CO. Gen Tech. Rep. RM-229. Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 422 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Ecology of neotropical migrant landbirds is reviewed for purpose of developing management recommendations. Migrants constitute about 71% of bird species using farmland and 86% of bird species nesting there. Number and abundance of migrants using farmland are greatest in uncultivated edges with trees and shrubs less in uncultivated, grassed areas and least in rowcrops. Increasing agricultural mechanization and chemical use have probably lowered the breeding productivity of migrants. Homogeneous, larger farms specializing in few commodities have created ecosystems that often lack suitable interspersion of required habitat resources. Practices that promote greater productivity include reduced tillage, inorganic fertilizer application, and use of integrated pest management. Most migrants using temperate farmland are field or edge species. Agriculture is implicated in decline of all nine neotropical migrants currently listed ta threatened or endangered or that are candidates. How agriculture has contributed to this is not entirely clear but farmland structure and types of crops grown are probably major factors. The percentage of farmland in hay or pasture or in uncultivated semi-natural habitat has decreased in proportion to increased in area of intensively cultivated rowcrops. Migrant richness abundances are greater in wider strips of uncultivated edge vegetation. Uncultivated wooded areas include wooded fencerows or the edges of fields bordering woodland, grassed edge includes some fencerows, waterways, terrace berms, road edges and most land in the CRP. Breeding productivity of migrants in farmland often low relative to number of offspring estimated needed to balance adult and juvenile mortality. Percentage of county area in the CRP was positively associated with the abundance of 19 migrant species 12 of which were field specie. Many migrants are wholly or partly insectivorous. Abundance of litter-dwelling arthropods greater in fields where plant litter on soil surface is more dense. Herbicides and insect- icides reduce potential forage. Areas in permanent cover, even if only grasses and no-till cropland often support higher arthropod abundance than conventionally tilled fields. Arthropod abundance greater near permanent vegetated field edges and greater in fields surrounded by complex habitats. Weed seeds more abundant near uncultivated areas because seeds disperse from uncultivated areas and because permanent vegetation concentrates wind dispersed arthropods and seeds. Homogenization of farmland lowers diversity and abundances of plants, seeds, arthropods within field and the landscape. Presence of sheltering vegetation may be needed for some migrants particularly edge species to use farmland during breeding and migration. Farmland complexity declining in most agricultural regions due to increased use of large equipment, larger field size, trends toward producing and rotating fewer crops, consolidation of farms and increased average size of farms. All contribute to reduction in spatial diversity. Absence of safe nesting sites may be the factor most limiting reproduction and survival of migrants in cropland. Agricultural increased the spatial concentration of nesting birds as well as predators. FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE: Two scenarios likely; some farms will become larger, externally owned and intensively managed, others will remain small, owner operated )often part-time( and less intensively managed. Changes in practices and landscapes envisioned for small farms might benefit migrants but the extent of benefit will depend on the relative areas of the two farm types. Establishment of native prairie grasses as forage crops, production of livestock, polyculture, reductions in the frequency and intensity of tillage, more permanent cover, reduced field size, green manures and crop rotations all will be of benefit to migrants. Addition and increased use of legumes may result in decreased use of inorganic fertilizers and lower use of pesticides. Long term programs such as CRP are needed because they allow opportunities for research an increase diversity in the agricultural ecosystem. MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS: Key to acceptance is that recommendations do not reduce and perhaps enhance farm profits. Must consider farmland structure as well as agri- cultural practices and be approached in an interdisciplinary manner. Agricultural practices; maintain as much crop residue as possible, use integrated pest management, reduce the number of field operations that destroy nests, delay spring mowing as long as possible, prevent night mowing, space mowing as widely as possible in time to permit maximum success of nests. Farmland structure: encourage complex vegetation structure in uncultivated edges, maintain and enhance farmland diversity, increase crop diversity, reduce field size, CRP land could be allocated to strip cover within fields for along field edges, preserve wetlands and encircle them with broad buffers of herbaceous vegetation. CRP was associated with significantly more migrant species than resident species. Migrants strongly dominate the bird communities of farmland and numerous major crops are positively associated with some migrant species. Uncultivated edge, CRP important habitat components for these species. RESEARCH NEEDS; Priority needs to be placed on definition of dynamics of neo tropical migrants in farmland, including identification of required habitat features, effects of agricultural practices and farmland structures that may create and maintain population sources and or sinks. Special emphasis should be placed on determining effects of agriculture on abundance and activities of nest predators. CRP provides these opportunities. Long term programs such as the CRP are needed because they provide opportunities for research on bird responses to farm management. Must get technical information to users in a form that is understandable and useable to the farming public. Information can not be restricted to technical or professional journals. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Ryan, M.R., L.W. Burger, and E.W. Kurzejeski. PUBL. YEAR: 1998 TITLE: The impact of CRP on avian wildlife: a review. SOURCE: Journal of Production Agriculture 11(1):61-66. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Review of quantitative data on grassland bird occurrence (species richness) and abundance and reproductive success in CRP during breeding season in central USA. Over 90 species were documented using CRP planting during breeding season. Evidence of nesting by more than 40 species. CRP supported 1.4 to 10.5 time the number of individual birds as did crop fields. Nest abundance was from 8.8 to 27 times higher in CRP fields than in crop fields. Overall CRP produced about 14 times a many songbirds as did crop fields. Waterfowl nesting in CRP fields similar to those covers managed for waterfowl production. Pheasant numbers 3 to 5 times higher after CRP plantings were established. Nest success of pheasants in CRP was greater than necessary for population growth. Although use of CRP by bobwhites was substantial direct evidence of CRP contributing to quail population growth was lacking. Overall, CRP provide high-quality breeding habitat for many grassland birds, including several that have experienced long- term declines in populations. Avian response to CRP is sufficient to justify efforts to maintain long-term set aside provisions in future federal legislation. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Sample, D.W., and M.J. Mossman. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Habitat management guidelines for grassland birds on public and private land in Wisconsin. SOURCE: State of Wisconsin Memorandum, Bureau of Research. Monona. 13 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Likely major cause of decline of grassland birds is loss or breeding habitat due to conversion of pasture to rowcrops and early and frequent mowing of alfalfa. Primary goal of habitat management for grassland birds should be to maximize the diversity and viability of grassland bird populations statewide, or on a regional basis. Special attention should be given to identifying current or potentially large tracts suitable for management. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Sampson, F., and F. Knopf. PUBL. YEAR: 1994 TITLE: Prairie conservation in North America. SOURCE: Bioscience 44(6):418-421. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Since European settlement declines in the area of native prairie range up to 99.9%. In addition to direct loss over- grazing and recreation use add to the stress on remnant prairie. 55 grassland species currently threatened. Advocates inventory and monitoring of remaining prairie ecosystems, discouragement of establishment of woody plants and woody corridors within prairie dominated ecoregions, and realignment of administrative an ecoregion borders to increase efficiency in inventory and monitoring. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Sargeant, A.B. PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: A case history of a dynamic resource - the red fox. SOURCE: Pgs. 021 -731 in G.C. Sanderson, ed. Midwest furbearer management. Proc. 34rd Symp. Midwest Fish and Wildl. Conf. Wichita, KS. Dec. 1981. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Red fox major predator of upland nesting birds. Factors contributing to expansion of range and increase in population: westward expansion of agriculture furnished highly diversified habitat and reduction of coyote reduced inter- specific competition. Agricultural expansion created landscape high in diversity and edge resulting in a more broad-based food supply of greater stability. Red fox generally increase in abundance in response to declines in coyote numbers. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Sauer, J. R., G. W. Pendleton, and B. G. Peterjohn. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Evaluating causes of populations change in North American Insectivorous songbirds. SOURCE: Conservation Biology 10(2):465-478. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Results of Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) analysis do not provide evidence that predation on breeding grounds played a causal role in population changes. Results show that more species of Neotropical migrant birds have increased than have declined since the BBS began, general declines have been recent and limited to eastern part of continent. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Schmitz, R.A. and W. R. Clark. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Survival of ring-necked pheasant hens during spring in relation to landscape features. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage.63(1):147-154 CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Density of edge between grassland and other habitats was predictive of the hazard rate and odds of mortality which increased 2% for every 10m/ha of additional edge in the home range. Management to reduce vulnerability to predation should be targeted to areas with high measures of edge. Reduction in edge density by increasing field size of permanent cover would increase spring survival. Need to estimate how landscape changes at township scale if full advantages of agricultural policies are expected. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Schmutz, J.K. PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: The effect of agriculture on Ferruginous and Swainson's hawks. SOURCE: J. Range Manage. 40(5):438-440. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Raptors are important an component of plains ecosystems. Summarization of the effects of cultivation and agricultural activity on hawk density in prairie region of Alberta. Density of ferruginous hawks declined with increasing cultivation. In contrast, Swainson 's hawk density was higher in areas of moderate cultivation (11-03%) than in grassland (<10% cultivation). Swainson's hawk tolerated high levels of cultivation (<90%) ferruginous did not. Ferruginous hawks have great affinity for land with sparse and short vegetation and avoid areas where grasses are replaced by dense and tall crops. In contrast, Swainson's hawks are more highly adapted to smaller prey common in ungrazed grassy borders of ponds, roads, and farmsteads than in intensively grazed pastures. If small patches of natural or semi-natural cover containing trees or shrubs are strategically distributed in agricultural areas Swainson's hawks are likely to remain in reasonable numbers. Ferruginous hawks require grassland and will be common only where this land use is dominant. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Sieg, C.H., C.H. Flather, and S. McCanny. PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Recent biodiversity patterns in the Great Plains: Implications for restoration and management. SOURCE: Great Plains Research (Fall 1999): 277-313. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: 95% of land in the U.S. portion of the Great Plains is in private ownership making private lands in this region particularly important to the conservation of imperiled species and habitats. Grassland nesting birds had the highest overall rate of loss and the proportion of grassland species that declined (>44%) was greatest in the southern plains. An average of 9% of the wetland bird species have declined across the region between 1966 and 1996. Much uncertainty associate with plans to restore an maintain biodiversity of the Great Plains. For most aspects of biodiversity we lack a comprehensive understanding of past and current status. We have a relatively poor understanding of the role that disturbances (drought, fire, grazing, flooding) played in shaping various prairie types and their distinct landscape components. We know even less about how to incorporate disturbances into landscapes vastly altered by intensive land use, fragmentation, and the introduction of dozens of exotic species. Properly planned grazing regimes are appropriate components of a strategy to restore biodiversity throughout the Great Plains. Grazing systems should be tailored to a particular ecosystem and include variation in grazing duration and intensity. Restoration of fire in management plans should be considered with prescriptions based on historical patterns including burning at varying intervals and in different seasons. Management designed to conserve biodiversity should focus on provision of a diversity of habitats with varying successional and structural stages. Monitoring and evaluation of management actions will be critical in developing future management options and policy guidelines. Public policies that focus on ecosystem protection and furnish private landowners with incentives to manage their property to meet conservation objectives are needed to assure long-term sustainability of Greta Plains ecosystems. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Snyder, W.D. PUBL. YEAR: 1985 TITLE: Survival of radio-marked hen ring-necked pheasants in Colorado. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 49(4):1044-1050. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Lowest monthly survival occurred in April due to avian predation. Great horned owls, Cooper's hawks,and prairie falcons, were primary avian predators. Coyote and feral house cats primary mammalian predators. Presence of trees contributed to high rates of avian predation. Concealment quality of early spring residual cover was important factor in survival of hens. Study area contained extensive tree and shrub plantings that attracted wintering pheasants and avian predators. Pheasants associated with trees incur a higher rate of avian predation than counterparts in habitats not containing trees. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Soutiere, E.C. PUBL. YEAR: 1984 TITLE: Farm wildlife production: what does it cost? SOURCE: Trans. North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 49:159-163. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Issues that negatively influence farmers' willingness to produce wildlife: harassment and problems associated with increased hunting pressure and demand; increased crop damage; and loss of income from diverted lands. Delayed haying: Effects of delayed haying; lower tonnage and hay that is of lower digestibility and protein content. Dairy cows fed late-cut hay will require 1.5 -2 times more grain supplement and the grain mixture needs to contain an additional 5% protein. Can it be expected that farmers will carry the cost of providing wildlife habitat? The answer is reflected in the continued removal of wetlands, idle areas and fencerows. If the costs of wildlife are compared to the costs of agricultural products (grain, hogs) the costs of production on prime farmland are very high. Raising pen reared birds is a comparative bargain at these prices. Compensation to the farmer for wildlife habitat would probably need to be at least equal to 75-80% of the market value of the yield per acre of crop normally produced on set-aside land. Meaningful increase in wildlife numbers probably require that at least 5% of land be devoted to wildlife habitat. Any solution to production of wildlife on farmland must include the acceptance of farming practices that produce wildlife as a no-cost, by-product of production. Agencies need to aggressively advocate and demonstrate farming technologies that help both the farmer and wildlife. The best approach for farmland wildlife management is to deal with resources and programs that encourage sound land use for all resources over the long term. Wildlife's only hope on prime farmland is farm practices, programs and policies that bring reduced costs or added income to the individual farmer. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Sovada, M.A., M.C. Zicus, R.J. Greenwood, D.P. Rave, W.E. Newton, R.O. Woodward, and J.A. Beiser. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Relationships of habitat patch size to predator community and survival of duck nests. SOURCE: Journal of Wildlife Management 64(3):820-831. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Evaluation of duck nest success an predator community composition in relation to size of discrete patches of nesting cover in the Prairie Pothole region. Study focused on CRP grasslands in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Activity patterns of red fox, badger, striped skunks, coyotes, and Franklin=s ground squirrels related to patch size and daily survival rate of upland duck nests. Estimated annual mean daily survival rates generally greater in larger habitat patches. Although authors believe a positive relationship between habitat patch size and nest success probably exists, they conclude that absolute proof remains elusive. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Swanson, D.A., D.P. Scott, and D.L. Risle PUBL. YEAR: 1999 TITLE: Wildlife benefits of the Conservation Reserve Program in Ohio. SOURCE: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 54(1):390-394. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Use of CRP by grassland-dependent species was related to availability of CRP. More than half of fields sampled were mowed during the nesting season. Twenty-one of 40 fields were disturbed prior to August. On average disturbed fields had 51% of acreage mowed or burned. Disturbed fields had significantly lower values for VOR, percent grass canopy cover and mean herbaceous height. Mean age of fields was five years (2-7). Mean field size 20 ac (8.1 ha). Contract species dominated with 82.5% in timothy, orchardgrass and clover. Forty-three breeding bird species used CRP fields. Use by eastern meadowlarks and bobolinks significantly larger in nonused fields. All species were numerically more abundant in CRP fields contiguous with other grassland habitat. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Swanson, T.M. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Wildlife and wildlands, diversity and development. SOURCE: Pages 1-14 in T.M. Swanson and E.B. Barbier, eds. Economics for the wilds. Island Press, Washington DC. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Diversity and development need not be mutually exclusive, in fact maintaining the diversity of wild resources is a necessary condition for sustainable development. Wild resources should be treated as a input to the development process and cannot be excluded. The conservation of biodiversity implies the need to conserve not only a given stock of wildlife but the capacity for the species to mix and evolve in an ongoing interactive process. In other words, the habitat must be provided that will meet the needs of the targeted species across the landscape as well as through time. Important to integrate the value of wildlife/biodiversity into the economic process rather than shield them from it. The economic value of resources will be the key to their continuing survival. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Szentandrasi, S., S. Polasky, R. Berrens, and J. Leonard. PUBL. YEAR: 1995 TITLE: Conserving biological diversity and the Conservation Reserve Program. SOURCE: Growth and Change 26:383-404. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Effective protection of wildlife species will oftern take place on land used primarily for purposes other than wildlife habitat. CRP lands currently are targeted to regions (e.g. midwest and great plains) that have relatively few threatened and endangered species. Paper describes method to re-target CRP to address T&E species concerns in Oregon or other regions where there are greater numbers of these species. Need for improved targeting if CRP is to continue to provide important environmental benefits. Primary agencies involved in management and monitoring of he CRP (USDA) do not have a t raditional wildlife-oriented mission, consequently species preservation and habitat protection considerations have been relatively under-investigated. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Taylor, M.W., C.W. Wolfe, and W.L. Baxter. PUBL. YEAR: 1978 TITLE: Land use change and ring-necked pheasants in Nebraska. SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 6(4):6226-230. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Positive relationships between spring densities of hens and km of fencerows, hectare of pasture and hay, and wheat and wheat stubble. Populations inversely related to area of row crops, percent of land fall-tilled and hectares being irrigated. Irrigation generally involves extensive land leveling or clearing which eliminated idle areas, fence rows, old farm- steads, wetlands and other habitats of high value. Tillage of crop residue in fall, especially wheat stubble, reduced cover for wildlife. Interspersion index useful for predicting pheasant habitat quality and density of birds presented. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Thomas, M.B., S.D. Wratten, and N.W. Sotherton. PUBL. YEAR: 1991 TITLE: Creation of island habitats in farmland to manipulate populations of beneficial arthropods: predator densities and emigration. SOURCE: J. Applied Ecology 28(3):906-917. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Replacement of natural vegetation by crop monocultures can eliminate many indigenous insects. Diversity in habitat structure on both macro and micro scales will enhance abundance and diversity of insect populations. Decrease in diversity of habitats resulting from larger fields results in lower density of insects in interiors of larger fields. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Thompson, F.R., S.J. Lewis, J. Green, and D. Ewert. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Status of neotropical migrant landbirds in the midwest: Identifying species of management concern. SOURCE: Pages 145-158 in D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangel, eds. Status and Management of neotropical migratory birds. USDA Gen Tech Rept RM-229. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Encourage ecosystem management that addresses the needs of the many species of high management concern in the midwest. Grasslands one of several habitats that deserve special management attention. Grassland species identified as special management concern in order of decreasing importance; Bairds' sparrow, dickcissel, mountain plover, bobolink, long-billed curlew, grasshopper sparrow, lark bunting, upland sandpiper, burrowing owl, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Swainsons= hawk, lark sparrow. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Trautman, C.G. PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: History, ecology and management of the ring-necked pheasant in South Dakota. SOURCE: South Dakota Dept. Game and Parks. Pierre. 118 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Winter concentrations are invariably near weed patches, grain stubble, cornfields and other food sources. Distances traveled rarely exceed 1/4 mi. The nearness to available food is dominant factor in choice of winter roosting sites. Marshlands provide high quality winter cover. Detailed presentation of ring-necked pheasant history, ecology and management in South Dakota. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: U.S. Department Agriculture. PUBL. YEAR: 1993 TITLE: Conservation Reserve Program: Cost-Effectiveness is Uncertain. SOURCE: U.S. General Accounting Office. GAO/RCED-93-132. Washington, D.C. 14 pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Precise balance between the costs and environmental benefits of CRP cannot be calculated because dollar value of the environmental benefits from the program cannot be precisely assessed. The USDA has not quantified the effect on the environment of removing enrolled acres from production. USDA will pay more than $91 billion to remove 63.5 million acres from production over ten year life of program. Benefits perceived be to only temporary. USDA goals of program were to reduce commodity production, support farm income and lastly to provide environmental benefits. As a result of these priorities, land with fewer environmental benefits was initially allowed into the program. Other USDA programs (Conservation Compliance, Agricultural Conservation Program, and Small watershed Program) were identified as covering more acres of cropland, cost less and provide more long-term environmental benefits. However, these programs are not intended to curb excess production and only indirectly support farm incomes. Advantages of these programs are that they do not take land out of production. (Implications to wildlife; less land set aside in permanent cover, probability of lower overall wildlife benefits). ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Vance, D.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1976 TITLE: Changes in land use and wildlife populations in southeastern Illinois. SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 4(1):11-15. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Summary of consequences of changes in land use (1939-1974) on wildlife populations in SE Illinois. Extensive grasslands and fencerows reduced by 48%. Intense cash-grain farming expected to cause further declines in habitat and populations. Soybeans have largely replaced grassland. Remaining grassland (1% of area) is over grazed pasture. Three major compo nents of habitat, grassland, woody cover, and edge reduced by intensification of agricultural production. What remains of edge is of little value due to lower structural diversity. Fourteen species of birds declined due to loss of grassland, edge and savanna type habitats. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Vickery, P.D. and J.R. Herkert. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Recent advances in grassland bird research: where do we go from here? SOURCE: Auk 118(1):11-15. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Although several species of grassland birds have shown benefits and positive response to the CRP other species have shown continuing declines in population. Continued declines point to the complexities in diagnosing reasons behind population declines. One or more of the following reasons may be the cause; CRP has not provided enough habitat to offset losses of grasslands, CRP fields may be too small, CRP grasslands are possibly population sinks, problems affecting the species that continue to decline are not limited to the breeding grounds. More research needs to be directed toward definition of problems on wintering grounds. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Voigt, D.R. PUBL. YEAR: 1987 TITLE: Red fox. SOURCE: Pgs 378-392 in M. Novak, J.A. Baker, ME. Obbard and B. Malloch, eds. Wild furbearer management in North America. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Toronto. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Increases in red fox numbers associated with declines in coyote. Competition with other canids, particularly coyote, strongly influence numbers of fox but not distribution. Foxes avoid raising pups in areas where coyotes had established a home range. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Voigt, D.R. and B.D. Earle. PUBL. YEAR: 1983 TITLE: Avoidance of coyotes by red fox families. SOURCE: J. Wildl. Manage. 47(3):852-857. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Foxes avoid raising pups in areas where coyotes traditionally travel and raise pups. Coyote ranges 5-7 times larger than fox territories may significantly limit the number of fox families in an area. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Warner, R.E. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Nest ecology of grassland passerines on road rights-of-way in central Illinois. SOURCE: Biological Conservation 59(1):1-7. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Availability of suitable grassland cover has decreased in response to increase in rowcrop farming. Fescue sustained relatively few breeding birds. Where farming is diversified and habitat conditions are more favorable rights of way and other linear habitats are used more extensively by birds. Use is influenced by habitat conditions in vicinity of strip and regional land use. Managed roadsides were important to passerines even where hay was present because most nests in hay are destroyed during harvest. Management practices to benefit grassland birds: 1 seed to brome-alfalfa and or native grasses and forbs; 2 delay mowing until after August 1; 3 maximize strip width; 4 establishment of shelterbelts and woody plants should be encouraged in some areas to enhance diversity of species attracted to strip vegetation. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Warner, R.E., L.M. David, S.L. Etter, and G.B. Joselyn. PUBL. YEAR: 1992 TITLE: Costs and benefits of roadside management for ring-neck pheasants in Illinois. SOURCE: Wildl. Soc. Bull. 20:279-285. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Mitigating the effects of agricultural land use on upland wildlife remains a foremost challenge to resource agencies. Successful habitat programs in agricultural environment are most likely those that are relatively compatible with farming operations. Habitat initiatives are rarely evaluated relative to response by target species, economics or the perceptions of cooperating landholders. Roadsides right-of-ways frequently mowed during the growing season have little habitat value for nesting pheasants. Paper summarizes economic costs and benefits of roadside seeding and maintenance in relation to improved habitat availability and production of pheasants. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Warner, R.E., S.L. Etter, L.M. David, and P.C. Mankin. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Annual set-aside programs: a long-term perspective of habitat quality in Illinois and the Midwest. SOURCE: Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(2):347-354. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Concludes that although the CRP has been beneficial, its future is uncertain because of its high cost. Long-term conservation strategies must include grassland preserves and development of relatively sustainable farming systems that accommodate needs of grassland dependent species. Short term contracts must be at least 3 years and support vegetative cover is present year to year. Relative benefits of native versus introduced grasses are presented as being unknown. Concludes that growing evidence exists that fields of cool-season grasses or forage legumes may be more attractive to nesting birds than are native species. Emphasis on native species may not be warranted when for typical landholder seeding of native species requires specialized equipment and several years for stand to become established. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Warner, R.E., P. Hubert, P.C. Mankin, and C.A. Gates. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: Disturbance and the survival of female ring-necked pheasants in Illinois. SOURCE: Journal of Wildlife Management 64(3):663-672. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Study conducted in east central Illinois in intensively farmed landscape; 93% rowcrops (corn and soybeans in equal proportion). Hens exhibiting disturbance-avoidance (farm operations, hunting, weather) behavior associated with extended movements coped well with hazards except during nesting. Relatively long-lived birds made extensive use of corn and soybeans while minimizing use of cover traditionally considered attractive to pheasants. Nesting season associated with high death rates of long-lived birds. Primary nest cover in study area was annual set-aside land planted to temporary cover crops(wheat, oats). Significant improvements in availability and permanence of quality cover must occur on farm by farm over larger space an time scales to improve survival rates and population stability in intensively farmed landscapes. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Whitmore, R. PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: Insect biomass in agronomic crops as food for ring-necked pheasant chicks. SOURCE: PhD. Diss. Univ. Nebraska. Lincoln. 64. pp. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Corn, soybeans and alfalfa had significantly lower amounts of insect biomass than wheat, oats, sweet clover and oats- sweetclover. Estimated # chicks/ha supported by insect biomass: corn 8; soybeans 10, sweetclover 64; oats 86; oats- sweetclover 106. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Willson, G.D. and J. Stubbendieck. PUBL. YEAR: 2000 TITLE: A provisional model for smooth brome management in degraded tallgrass prairie. SOURCE: Ecological Resotration 18(1):34-38. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: In warm season pasture and native prairies smooth brome is considered a highly competitive weed because of its rhizomatous sod-forming root system and prolific seed production. Brome exhibits two predominant periods of tiller emergence and development. Most active period of tiller emergence is after flowering in June and continues into fall. The less active period of tiller emergence occurs from about mid-March through early May. Tiller elongation begins in early May in the central Great Plains and Midwest in response to greater day length. Management: Clipping during its active period of growth will lower the production of aboveground biomass of brome. Mowing and raking in an Illinois prairie in late April resulted in significant decrease in seasonal growth of brome. 50% reduction in smooth brome tiller density after a prescribed burn in early may at time of tiller elongation. Early spring burns appear best to limit biomass production of brome. Herbicides also effective. Atrazine applied in late April at 1.9 lbs/ac reduced smooth brome by 91% and shifted dominance from cool to warms season grasses. Only atrazine was effective in reducing brome tiller density, possibly because the herbicide killed the whole plant. Burning at emergence does not affect secondary tiller (after treatment growth) density in years when precipitation is normal or below normal although in years with with above normal precipitation brome increases dramatically. Burning during other threes growth stages significantly reduces both tiller density and biomass, especially when repeated annually. Two factors that are particularly important in smooth brome management: post fire competition and seasonal timing of the fire. Single spring (Dill et al 1986) application oaf atrazine restored a pasture dominated by smooth brome when big bluestem and Indiangrass comprised only 20% of pre-treatment vegetation. Appears that warm-season tall grasses must comprise more than 20% of species mix of degraded site before a prescribed burn will effectively reduce brome. Fire alone will not restore a degraded tall grass site dominated by smooth brome. At severely degraded sites (CRP, former cropland) other methods must be used such as herbicide applications followed by seeding of warm season grasses. Annual spring burning can lower species diversity by eliminated or preventing establishment of cool-season forbs (Knapp and others 1998). A single burn before tiller elongation that removes most of the litter may increase growth of brome due to increased light reaching growing leaves. In situations where smooth brome is the dominant specie sand warm-season grasses are absent burning will have no long-term negative effect on smooth brome and may actually increase abundance of the species. Burning of smooth brome during spring tiller elongation provides the most immediate and persistent reduction in both tiller density and biomass. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Woodward, A.J.W., and S.D. Fuhlendorf. PUBL. YEAR: 2001 TITLE: Influence of landscape composition and change on lesser prairie chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) populations. SOURCE: American Midland Naturalist 145 (2):261-274. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Declining populations of lesser prairie chickens were associated with landscapes characterized by greater rates of total landscape change (11% per decade) and loss of shrubland cover types compared with landscapes in which populations did not decline. Amount of cultivation was not associated with population trends for 13 populations monitored in Texas, New Mexico and Oklahoma. Smaller land ownerships in Oklahoma increased the potential for more variable management and greater amounts of landscape change. Landscapes that have undergone the most rapid change over the past several decades also had the most intensive settlement patterns resulting in smaller land holdings. Management should focus on maintaining stability of land use and continuity of shrublands within 4.8 km of active leks. ============================================================================ AUTHOR: Wooley, J. R. George, B. Ohde, and W. Rybarczyk. PUBL. YEAR: 1982 TITLE: Nesting evaluations of native grass pastures and narrow-row soybeans. SOURCE: Pgs 5-6 in R.B. Dahlgren, compiler, Proceedings of Midwest Agricultural Interfaces with Fish and Wildlife Resources Workshop. Iowa Coop. Res. Unit. Ames, Iowa. CONTRIBUTOR: COMMENTS: Native grasses have a dense growth form similar to other types of pheasant nest cover and are unlikely to be mowed or grazed until after most eggs hatch. Leaving the recommended 20-25 cm (8-10 in) stubble to ensure optimum plant growth should provide residual cover for nesting the following spring. Pheasant nest densities high in both switchgrass and little bluestem, success greatest in switchgrass. Mowing operations in early June destroyed all nest and killed 8 of 11 hens nesting in alfalfa/orchard grass. Pheasant and passerine nest success higher in switchgrass that was not grazed or mowed the previous summer. Greater residual cover presumably more attractive to nesting females and resulted in greater numbers of successful nests. Switchgrass managed for nest cover should be left undisturbed. ============================================================================