References for a Scale Query Results

The scale Dactylopius confusus has the following references:

Andres, L.A. & Davis, C.J. 1973. The biological control of weeds with insects in the United States. Miscellaneous Publication (Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control) No. 6: 11-28. [AndresDa1973]
Notes: [Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Paul H. Dunn (Ed.), 4-7 October 1971, Rome, Italy.] This discussion briefly traces the development of the biological control of weeds in the United States, both in the Hawaiian Islands and on the mainland, as well as reviews several current weed projects. Dactylopius confusus is listed in a table as control agent for Opuntia spp.

Annecke, D.P. & Neser, S. 1977. On the biological control of some cape pest plants. Proceedings of the 2nd National Weed Conference of South Africa. Stellenbosch 303-319. [AnneckNe1977]
Notes: Dactylopius ceylonicus & opuntia were used for control of Opuntia vulgaris & ficus-indica.

Aquino P., G., García V., A., Corona T., T. & Bárcenas O., N.M. 1994. Estudio cromosomico de cuatro especies de "cochinillas del nopal" Dactylopius spp. (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae). [Chromosome study of four species of prickly pear cochineal Dactylopius spp. (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae).] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Agrociencia serie Fitociencia 5(1): 7-23. [AquinoGaCo1994]
Notes: The reproductive system, karyotype and meiotic sequences of four species of cochineal insects (Dactylopius spp.), three wild Dactylopius sp1, D. confusus and Dactylopius sp.2) and one cultivated D. coccus were studied. Testis and ovaries were stained with lacto-acetic-orcein 2%. Chromosome preparations were made using the squash technique. The reproductive system is sexual with both sexes diploid but physiologically haploid males. The chromosomes number in the wild species is 2n=10; four pairs of short and one pair of large chromosomes, the latter about three times the length of the short ones. The chromosome number of C. coccus is 2n=16; all of which are relatively short. The sum of the length of the four shortest chromosomes of D. coccus is similar to the length of the longest chromosome of the wild species. The length of the chromosome complement is similar in the four species. The meiotic sequence observed in these four cochineal species is of the Comstockiella type.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2006b. In: , A Systematic Catalogue of Eight Scale Insect Families (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of the World. Elsevier, Amsterdam et al.. i-xix, 1-368. [BenDov2006b]
Notes: A subtitle lists families covered: Aclerdidae, Asterolecaniidae, Beesoniidae, Carayonemidae, Conchaspididae, Dactylopiidae, Kerriidae and Lecanodiaspididae.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1893dd. Notes on the cochineal insect. American Naturalist 27: 1041-1049. [Cocker1893dd]
Notes: Descriptive and nomenclatural notes.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1893gg. Records of West Indian Coccidae, I. Journal of the Institute of Jamaica 1: 373. [Cocker1893gg]
Notes: N/A

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1896f. Notes and descriptions of the new Coccidae collected in Mexico by Prof. C.H.T. Townsend. Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Technical Series 4: 31-39. [Cocker1896f]
Notes: Describes 8 new species, 1 new variety; discusses 3 other scale insects.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1898v. The lower Sonoran cochineal. Science (n.s.) 8: 675. [Cocker1898v]
Notes: Coccus tomentosus newsteadi n. subsp.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1899n. Rhynchota, Hemiptera - Homoptera. [Aleurodidae and Coccidae]. Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 1-37. [Cocker1899n]
Notes: Collection and sometimes other notes on 164 scale insects, 2 tribes proposed, 2 new genera, 11 new species, 2 subspecies.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1899t. Some insect pests of Salt River Valley and the remedies for them. Bulletin of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 32: 273-295. [Cocker1899t]
Notes: Brief descriptive notes; hosts; control for eight species in seven genera.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1902k. A contribution to the knowledge of the Coccidae. Appendix. Some Brazilian Coccidae. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (Ser. 7) 9: 450-456. [Cocker1902k]
Notes: Describes 4 new genera, 1 new species, 1 new subspecies; reassigns 18 lecanine coccids; notes on 4 genera and 5 species.

Cockerell, T.D.A. 1929. Biological control of the prickly pear. Science (n.s.) 69: 328-329. [Cocker1929]
Notes: Dactylopius greenii new name for Coccus confusus capensis Green 1912, not Coccus capensis L. 1766; 6 other scale insects discussed.

Cook, L.G. & Gullan, P.J. 2004. The gall-inducing habit has evolved multiple times among the eriococcid scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Ariococcidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 83(4): 441-452. [CookGu2004]
Notes: The habit of inducing plant galls has evolved multiple times among insects but most species diversity occurs in only a few groups, such as gall midges and gall wasps. This phylogenetic clustering may reflect adaptive radiations in insect groups in which the trait has evolved. Alternatively, multiple independent origins of galling may suggest a selective advantage to the habit. We use DNA sequence data to examine the origins of galling among the most speciose group of gall-inducing scale insects, the eriococcids. We determine that the galling habit has evolved multiple times, including four times in Australian taxa, suggesting that there has occurred on Myrtaceae, we found that lineages feeding on Myrtaceae are no more likely to have evolved the galling habit than those feeding on other plant groups. However, most gall-inducing eriococcid species occur on Myrtaceae, we found that lineages feeding on Myrtaceae are no more likely to have evolved the galling habit than those feeding on other plant groups. However, most gall-inducing species-richness is clustered in only two clades (Apiomorpha and Lachnodius + Opisthoscelis), all of which occur exclusively on Eucalyptus s.s. The Eriococcidae and large genus Eriococcus were determined to be non-monophyletic and each will require revision.

De Haro, M.E. & Claps, L.E. 1995. (In Spanish). In: , [Knowing our fauna III: Dactylopiidae Family (Insecta: Homoptera): Morphology, biology and economic importance.] Universidad Nacional de Tucuman. Instituto Miguel Lillo. Serie Monográfica y Didáctica., Tucuman (Argentina). 19 pp. [DeHaroCl1995]
Notes: [Original title: Conociendo nuestra fauna III: Familia Dactylopiidae (Insecta: Homoptera): Morfología, biología e importancía económica.] This report includes the morphology and illustrations of various forms of this family. A key to six species of Dactylopius is provided.

De Lotto, G. 1974a. On the status and identity of the cochineal insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Dactylopiidae). Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 37: 167-193. [DeLott1974a]
Notes: Discusses 9 spp. of which 4 spp. are new; list & key to spp.; description; illustrations; affinities; hosts; distribution.

Dodd, A.P. 1927. The biological control of prickly pear in Australia. Bulletin (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Commonwealth of Australia) No. 34: 44 pp. + 9 pl. [Dodd1927]
Notes: Scale species discussed include Diaspis echinocacti, Dactylopius coccus, D. confusus, D. indicus, D. newsteadi and D. tomentosus.

Dodd, A.P. 1940. In: , The Biological Campaign Against Prickly-Pear. Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board, Brisbane, Qld, Australia. 177 pp. [Dodd1940]
Notes: Abstract: Contains section on cochineal; 6 scale insects discussed including histories of usage against prickly pear, hosts & enemies. Keywords: biological control.

Ferris, G.F. 1919a. A contribution to the knowledge of the Coccidae of Southwestern United States. Stanford University Publications, University Series. Palo Alto 1919: 1-68. [Ferris1919a]
Notes: Descriptions, redescriptions, or notes on 61 scale insects in 33 genera.

Ferris, G.F. 1955a. Atlas of the Scale Insects of North America, v. 7, the Families Aclerdidae, Asterolecaniidae, Conchaspididae Dactylopiidae and Lacciferidae. iii. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, California. 233 pp. [Ferris1955a]
Notes: Varied taxonomic treatment for 168 scale insects in 21 genera; 4 new genera and 18 new species described.

Fester, G.A. 1943. [Dyes of ancient Peru. 2nd communication.] Los colorantes del antiguo Perú. 2a Communicación. (In Spanish). Archeion 25: 195-196. [Fester1943]
Notes: Dactylopius confusus and D. coccus (Coccus cacti) are discussed in this paper.

Gill, R.J. 1993. In: , The Scale Insects of California: Part 2. The Minor Families (Homoptera : Coccoidea). California Department of Food & Agriculture, Sacramento, CA. 241 pp. [Gill1993]
Notes: [Subtitle: Margarodidae, Ortheziidae, Kerridae, Asterolecaniidae, Lecanodiaspididae, Asterolecaniidae, Cerococcidae, Aclerdidae, Kermesidae, Dactylopiidae, Eriococcidae, and Phoenicococcidae.] [Technical Series in Agricultural Biosystematics & Plant Pathology No. 2.] Intended as field guide and laboratory manual; all California minor scale spp. listed; field characteristics; spp. which are similar; keys; common hosts, distribution; biology; economic importance; biological control; 119 figs., and 108 plates in color.

Gilreath, M.E. 1985. In: , Population Ecology of Dactylopius confusus (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae). Texas A & M University, . 202 pp. [Gilrea1985]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis.] Field and laboratory studies were conducted to investigate the biology, ecology, and population dynamics of the native cochineal insect Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae) and the insect's potential as a biological control agent for pricklypear, Opuntia spp. (Cactaceae). Development, survivorship, and reproduction of D. confusus were monitored at constant temperatures of 26(DEGREES) and 22(DEGREES)C. Development was more rapid and fecundity was greater at 26(DEGREES) than at 22(DEGREES), but percent survival was similar at both temperatures. Generation time, T(,c), was 61 days at 26(DEGREES) and 83 days at 22(DEGREES). Net reproductive rate, R(,o), was 201 at 26(DEGREES) and 141 at 22(DEGREES). Spatial distributions of D. confusus and its hosts, Opuntia spp., were aggregated. Approximately one-third of the plants were infested by D. confusus. Colonies occurred more often near the plant base and in areas of dense grass cover. Both D. confusus and the similar native cochineal, D. opuntiae (Cockerell), exhibited distinct differences in survival and generation time on different Opuntia hosts. Of nine Opuntia species/semispecies evaluated, four were comparable hosts for D. confusus, one resulted in less survival, and four gave low survival or were not suitable hosts. D. opuntiae survived equally well on four hosts but also adequately utilized the other five hosts. Dactylopiid generation time was inversely related to host suitability for most insect/host relationships examined. The primary limiting factor to D. confusus density was predation. The most abundant predator was Laetilia coccidivora (Comstock) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and two common predators were Leucopis bellula Williston (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae) and Hyperaspis trifurcata Schaeffer (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). When predators were excluded, D. confusus density increased significantly, resulting in increases in Opuntia mortality and reductions in new growth. No parasites or pathogens of D. confusus were found. Abundance of D. confusus on a range site subjected to prescribed burning increased during the first postburn season but was similar to that on an unburned site in subsequent seasons. Reductions in pricklypear infestation during the first postburn season appeared to result more from fire damage than from increased D. confusus population density. Application of insecticides to deter predators had no effect on D. confusus density.

Gilreath, M.E. & Smith, J.W. 1987. Bionomics of Dactylopius confusus (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 80: 768-774. [GilreaSm1987]
Notes: Most widespread cochineal insect on prickly pear (Opuntia spp.); all life stages observed; measurements; adult longevity and oviposition related to temperature.

Gilreath, M.E. & Smith, J.W. 1988. Natural enemies of Dactylopius confusus (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae): exclusion and subsequent impact on Opuntia (Cactaceae). Environmental Entomology 17: 730-738. [GilreaSm1988]
Notes: Predators include Laetilia coccidivora, Leucopis bellula and Hyperaspis trifurcata.

Goeden, R.D. 1978. Part II: Biological control of weeds. 357-414. In: , Introduced Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds: A World Review. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.. 545 pp. [Goeden1978]
Notes: (Agricultural Handbook No. 480.) Eriococcus orariensis, Dactylopius ceylonicus, D. confusus, D. greenii, D. opuntiae and D. newsteadii are among the scale insects serving to control various weeds.

Goeden, R.D., Andres, L.A., Freeman, T.E., Harris, P., Pienkowski, R.L. & Walker, C.R. 1974. Present status of projects on the biological control of weeds with insects and plant pathogens in the United States and Canada. Weed Science 22: 490-495. [GoedenAnFr1974]
Notes: Dactylopius confusus and D. opuntiae are listed as biological control agents for Opuntia spp. and O. oricola, respectively.

Green, E.E. 1912a. On the cultivated and wild forms of cochineal insects. Journal of Economic Biology. London 7: 79-93. [Green1912a]
Notes: Coccus confusus capensis n. sp. described; the other 6 recognized forms redescribed; key.

Gullan, P.J. & Cook, L.G. 2001 (1999). Are cochineal insects Eriococcids? Entomologica 33(1999): 91-99. [GullanCo2001]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Scale insects of the genus Dactylopius Costa, which all feed on cacti, are commonly called cochineal insects. Currently there are nine described species placed in their own family, the Dactylopiidae, based on a few unique morphological features. Here we review available biological, morphological and karyotype information on Dactylopius and report on cladistic analyses of morphological data (from first-instar nymphs plus adult females, and adult males separately) and molecular data (from the nuclear gene 18S rDNA and the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase II) from Dactylopius and its potential relatives. We suggest that Dactylopius belongs with the eriococcids and we discuss the nomenclatural implications of this placement.

Hamlin, J.C. 1924a. Biological control of prickly-pear in Australia: contributing efforts in North America. Journal of Economic Entomology 17: 447-460. [Hamlin1924a]
Notes: Among the insects imported from the U.S. into Australia for control of prickly pear are Dactylopius confusus and D. tomentosus.

Hosking, J.R., McFadyen, R.E. & Murrray, N.D. 1988. Distribution and biological control of cactus species in eastern Australia. Plant Protection Quarterly 3(3): 115-123. [HoskinMcMu1988]
Notes: Maps are presented detailing present distributions of cactus species in eastern mainland Australia. Also included are the areas of origin, common names, plant features and the first recorded Australian occurrence for each species. Biological control agents for each cactus are listed along with information on whether these agents are established in Australia and the degree of control achieved by them. Biological control agents for Opuntia stricta and O. tomentosa include Dactylopius confusus and D. echinocacti.

Kozár, F. & Drozdják, J. 1998f. Dactylopiidae. 169-171 In: Kozár, F., Ed., Catalogue of Palaearctic Coccoidea. Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary. 526 pp. [KozarDr1998f]
Notes: Review Dactylopius ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confusus and D. tomentosus. Each entry lists citations to original descriptions, new generic combinations, redescriptions, revisions and monographs; distributions; host plants; brief biological notes.

Lambdin, P.L. & Joshi, P.A. 2001. Haemocytes of three scale insect species: Phenacoccus gossypii Townsend & Cockerell, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti) and Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Entomologica 33(1999): 113-117. [LambdiJo2001]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] An evaluation of the haemocytes in the cochineal scale, Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell), was completed and compared with those found in the mealybugs Phenacoccus gossypii Townsend & Cockerell and Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti) to assess the potential sites of the dye pigment source. Four basic cell types were found in the two pseudococcids and five in the cochineal scale. The cell types common to all species included: prohaemocytes, oenocytoids, typical granulocytes and plasmatocytes. In addition, a modified granulocyte (poly-glyco-based granulocyte) was found to be specific to the cochineal scale and this produced rough endoplasmic reticulum derived granules that may be the source for the synthesis of carminic acid.

Lindinger, L. 1943a. Die Schildlausnamen in Fulmeks Wirtindex 1943. (In German). Arbeiten über Morphologische und Taxonomische Entomologie aus Berlin-Dahlem 10: 145-152. [Lindin1943a]
Notes: Critical comment on scale insect names used, with numerous corrections.

Lizer y Trelles, C.A. 1922. Notas sobre tres especies del género "Dactylopius" (Coccidae) halladas en el país. (In Spanish). Physis. Buenos Aires 6: 106-111. [Lizery1922]
Notes: Descriptive notes on Dactylopius indicus; comment on D. tomentosus and D. confusus.

MacGregor L., R. & Sampedro, R.G. 1984 (1983). [Catalog of Mexican coccids - Dactylopiidae Family (Homoptera - Coccoidea).] Catálogo de coccidos Mexicanos - Familia Dactylopiidae (Homoptera - Coccoidea). (In Spanish). Anales del Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma. México 54(1), Ser. Zool.: 217-223. [MacGreSa1984]
Notes: A catalogue is given of the Dactylopiidae of Mexico, together with food-plant and collecting records. There are 5 species, Dactylopius ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confusus, D. opuntiae and D. tomentosus, which are found on cacti (including several weed species) in the genera Opuntia (including its synonym Nopalea), Cactus [Melocactus] and Cereus. The dactylopiids have been used, and are still being used, to make dyes.

Mann, J. 1969. Cactus-feeding insects and mites. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 256: 158 pp. [Mann1969]
Notes: Discusses seven species of Dactylopius and one diaspidid under erroneous name; notes on biology, habits, hosts and distribution.

Maw, M.G. & Molloy, M.M. 1980. Prickly-pear cactus on the Canadian prairies. Blue Jay 38(4): 208-211. [MawMo1980]
Notes: A survey of insects associated with prickly pears reveals Dactylopius confusus among them.

Merrill, G.B. & Chaffin, J. 1923. Scale insects of Florida. Quarterly Bulletin of the Florida State Plant Board 7: 177-298. [MerrilCh1923]
Notes: List of species with host and distribution data and photographic illustrations.

Miller, D.R. 1996. Checklist of the scale insects (Coccoidea: Homoptera) of Mexico. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 98: 68-86. [Miller1996]
Notes: The checklist includes 515 species-group names including 5 Aclerdidae, 11 Asterolecaniidae, 3 Cerococcidae, 63 Coccidae, 2 Conchaspididae, 4 Dactylopiidae, 224 Diaspididae, 15 Eriococcidae, 3 Halimococcidae, 4 Kermesidae, 5 Lecanodiaspididae, 20 Margarodidae, 16 Ortheziidae, 132 Pseudococcidae and 8 Tachardiidae.

Pemberton, C.E. 1964. Highlights in the history of entomology in Hawaii. Pacific Insects 6(4): 689-729. [Pember1964]
Notes: Species reviewed include Dysmicoccus brevipes, Icerya purchasi, Nipaecoccus nipae, Pulvinaria psidii and Saccharicoccus sacchari. Dactylopius confusus is mentioned in a discussion of Opuntia megacantha.

Perez-Gelabert, D.E. 2008. Arthropods of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti): a checklist and bibliography Zootaxa 1831: 1-530 [PerezG2008]
Notes: The checklist of the Coccoidea is on pages 212-217. Families listed: Cerococcidae, Coccidae, Conchaspididae, Dactylopiidae, Asterolecaniidae, Diaspididae, Eriococcidae, Pseudococcidae, Ortheziidae, Margarodidae.

Pérez Guerra, G. & Kosztarab, M. 1992. Biosystematics of the family Dactylopiidae (Homoptera: Coccinea) with emphasis on the life cycle of Dactylopius coccus Costa. Bulletin of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station 92-1: 90 pp. [PerezGKo1992]
Notes: Series title: Studies on the Morphology and Systematics of Scale Insects, No. 16; review of all species in this family, with special emphasis on the life cycle of the type species Dactylopius coccus; redescriptions; illustrations; discussion on morphological affinities and relationships; hosts, natural enemies, distribution, etymology and role as biological control agents discussed; methods of collecting, preservation, slide mounting, measuring, and preparing illustrations.

Pettey, F.W. 1939. Biological control of jointed cactus. Farming in South Africa 14: 413-415. [Pettey1939]
Notes: Dactylopius confusus is discussed as a biological control agent of Opuntia aurantiaca.

Pettey, F.W. 1941. How to make the best use of cactoblastis and cochineal insect. Farming in South Africa 16(181): 133. [Pettey1941]
Notes: A combination of mechanical control (cutting prickly pear down to within six inch stumps and introduction of both biological control agents is needed for successful control.

Portillo M.L. 1995. [Hosts of the carmine cochineal (Dactylopius spp.) and considerations for its improvement.] Los hospederos de las cochinillas del carmin (Dactylopius spp.) y algunos consideraciones sobre su aprovechamiento. 62-65. In: Pimienta-Barrios, E., Neri-Luna, C., Muñoz-Urias, A. & Huerta-Martínez, F.M. (Comp.), [Knowledge and Improvement of the Prickly Pear. Proceedings of the 6th National Congress and 4th International Congress.] [University of Guadalajara] Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. 308 pp. [Portil1995]
Notes: [Original title of conference proceedings: Conocimiento y Aprovechamiento del Nopal. Memorias del 6to Congreso Nacional y 4to Congreso Internacional.] Dactylopius ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confusus, D. opuntiae and D. tomentosus are discussed.

Portillo, M.L. & Vigueras, A.L. 2006. A review on the cochineal species in Mexico, hosts and natural enemies. (In English; Summary In English). Acta Horticulturae 728, Proceedings of V International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal, Chapingo, Mexico 249-256 [PortilVi2006]
Notes: This paper reviews the status of the diversity of the Dactylopiidae family, its hosts and predators in Mexico. Six dactylopiids or carmine cochineals are cited to occur in Mexico: Dactylopius bassi, D. ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confusus, D. opuntiae and D. tomentosus. However, the diversity of Mexican dactylopiids may be higher as more regions and hosts are surveyed, since more than 114 Opuntia species occur in Mexico. Approximately 30 Opuntia species are known as hosts and four insect orders are reported as entomophagous of the Dactylopiidae family in Mexico. The difficulty involved in the identification of dactylopiids using only morphologic keys, may be overcome with molecular studies.

Riddick, E. 1955. A list of Florida plants and the scale-insects which infest them. Bulletin of the State Plant Board of Florida 7: 1-78. [Riddic1955]
Notes: This list supplemented by G.B. Merrill's "A revision of the scale-insects of Florida", 1953.

Schmutterer, H., Kloft, W. & Lüdicke, M. 1957. Coccoidea, Schildläuse, scale insects, cochenilles. Tierische Schädlinge an Nutzpflanzen. 2. Teil, Vierte Lieferung. Homoptera II. Teil. 403-520 In: Sorauer, P., Handb. der Pflanzenkrankheiten. V. 5. Paul Parey, Berlin. [SchmutKlLu1957]
Notes: Key to 10 families (5 excluded); 420 scale insects in 13 subfamilies discussed briefly with a few (e.g., Aspidiotus perniciosus) more extensively; chiefly relating to economic importance.

Smit, B. 1952. Difference between cochineal insects and mealybugs. Farming in South Africa 27(319): 481-482. [Smit1952]
Notes: Some characteristics of these two groups are discussed that can be seen through a microscope or observed of their habits. Species mentioned include Dactylopius ceylonicus, D. confusus, D. greeni and D. opuntia.

Sweetman, H.L. 1935. Successful examples of biological control of pest insects and plants. Bulletin of Entomological Research 26: 373-377. [Sweetm1935]
Notes: Pseudococcus gahani, P. citri, P. nipae, P. filamentosus, Diaspis pentagona, Eriococcus coriaceus, Eulecanium coryli, Asterolecanium variolosum, Icerya purchasi, and Aspidiotus destructor, mentioned as pest species; Dactylopius opuntiae, D. ceylonicus, D. confusus, D. newsteadi, and D. coccus mentioned as beneficial for control of Opuntia spp.

Taylor, G.W. 1984. Survey of the insect red dyes. Dyes on Historical and Archaeological Textiles 22-25. [Taylor1984]
Notes: [3rd Meeting York Archaeological Trust, September 1984.] This paper is a preliminary survey of the red mordant dyes produced by insects. Species listed include Ceroplastes albolineatus, Coccus fragiariae, Dactylopius ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confusus, D. tomentosus, Eriococcus confusus, E. uvae-ursi, Kermes ilicis, K. vermilio, Kerria communis, K. lacca, Porphyrophora hameli and P. polonica.

Whelan, J.A. 1965. Plant pest situation in Southern Rhodesia during 1964. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Plant Protection Bulletin 13: 67. [Whelan1965]
Notes: Coccus africanus found on coffee; Dactylopius confusus is pest of spinelss Opuntia sp., a fodder plant.

Williams, D.J. 1985a. T.D.A. Cockerell's scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) in the British Museum (Natural History). Folia Entomologica Hungarica 46: 215-240. [Willia1985a]
Notes: Lists 207 of nearly 500 species described by Cockerell; data from original description and current assignment of species.

Xie, Y.P., Xue, J.L., Zhang, Y.F. & Zheng, L.Y. 2004a. [A review on waxy secretions of scale insects and their chemical composition.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomological Knowledge 41(6): 512-518. [XieXuZh2004a]
Notes: The waxy secretions of scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) and their chemical composition are reviewed. The contents include: the main types of the wax covers of the scale insect; the major methods used for studying the chemistry of waxy secretions; the species of the scale insects whose waxes have been studied; the main chemical composition such as waxes, hydrocarbons, resinous materials or terpenoids, pigments and interior honeydew are emphasized. Finally, the significance and application prospects of the waxes of scale insects are discussed in three aspects, such as to further develop the waxes of the scale insects as an important biological resource; to search for some new pesticides active against the scale insects; to develop biological control through application of some chemical components as infochemicals for inducing the natural enemies and to study the chemical classification of the scale insects by using the waxes as chemical characters.

Zhang, Z.H., Chen, X.M., Shi, L., Xu, L.F., Wan, Y.M. & He, J. 2004. Exploration of adaptability of cochineal (Dactylopius confusus) based on life tables. (In Chinese). Forest Research 17(4): 484-489. [ZhangChSh2004]
Notes: The growth of the cochineal insect (Dactylopius confusus) in the hot, dry valley, southern subtropical zone and mid subtropical zone was studied by using life tables and sample testing. Results show that cochineal insects growing in the southern subtropical zone were the largest. The eggs and weight of female adults were intermediate and the population trend index was the highest. The mid subtropical zone was a good place for breeding the cochineal, and the insect bred in this zone was the largest and heaviest, the life cycle was the longest and there were fewer generations per year. Although the cochineal occurred in the hot, dry tropical zone, the female adult was very small and light, so the tropical zone was not the ideal place for breeding the cochineal. In every climate zone, the key factors that affected the size of the cochineal population were unhatched eggs and strong rain during the 1st and 2nd instar. Mass natural enemies were not in any of the zones.

Zhang, Z.H., Shi, L., Xu, T., Xu, L.F. & Wan, Y.M. & Chen, X.M. 2004. [Study on the relationship between cochineal and cacti.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 17(3): 321-326. [ZhangShXu2004]
Notes: Cochineal (Dactylopius confusus) was cultured on cacti collected from 10 counties. The growth of D. confusus was optimum on Opuntia ficus-indica, although O. tuna and O. stricta were also good hosts for the insect. Insect growth was observed on O. ficus-indica imported from Peru, but growth was more pronounced on native plants from Lufeng county, Yunnan, China. The spineless cacti were better hosts than the spiny cacti. Insect growth was negatively correlated with the thickness of the epidermis of the cacti. D. confusus stimulated the development of the vascular bundles of the plants. The protein and water contents of the plants had significant effects on the growth of D. confusus.

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