If you do not have a PDF browser plug-in installed, right-click the "Download as Adobe PDF" link and choose "Save Target As" or "Save Link As" to download the file to your computer. The PDF may take a few seconds to generate.
Continuing education and training are vital aspects of salon maintenance and of protecting clients and ourselves. The State of Florida has mandated that most salon professionals complete a minimum of 16 hours of continuing education in order to renew their licenses. This course will fulfill all 16 mandated hours, including topics pertaining to HIV/AIDS, sanitation and sterilization, OSHA, workers' compensation, state and federal laws, the chemical makeup of hair/nails/skin, and environmental issues. In addition, information regarding the debilitating condition of carpal tunnel syndrome will be provided. Hairdressers and other salon workers commonly report the development of carpal tunnel syndrome as a result of the repetitive stress to the wrist and hands, and this course will provide tips for the prevention and treatment of the syndrome.
Education Category: Cosmetology
Release Date: 04/26/2010
Expiration Date: 03/31/2012
This course is designed for all Florida salon professionals required to complete continuing education.
Leah Pineschi Alberto, licensed cosmetologist and instructor of cosmetology, has been educating students in Northern California since 1975. In addition, she has been responsible for training educators in cosmetology, esthetics, and manicuring for more than 30 years. Mrs. Alberto began her career with Don's Beauty School in San Mateo, California. She held a 30-year position at Sacramento City College and is currently the State Board Specialty Learning Leader for Paul Mitchell the School at MTI College in Sacramento, California. She is a salon owner, a former Department of Consumer Affairs examiner, and a speaker at the Esthetics Enforcement Conference. The health and safety of the community of stylists, salon owners, and school owners has been the focus of Mrs. Alberto's career. She served on the State Board Task Force on Pedicure Disinfection commissioned by Governor Schwarzenegger to investigate the cleanliness of the pedicure industry. The Task Force was responsible for developing foot spa safety regulations in response to illnesses and deaths resulting from unsafe pedicure practices. Mrs. Alberto is currently a member of the California Cosmetology Instructors Association.
The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of Paragon CET is to provide challenging curricula to assist salon professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of service to their clients.
Table of Contents
Supported browsers for Windows include Microsoft Internet Explorer 5.0 and up, Mozilla Firefox 1.0 and up, Opera 8.0 and up, and Netscape 7.2 and up. Supported browsers for Macintosh include Safari, Mozilla Firefox 1.0 and up, Opera 8.0 and up, iCab 3.0.3 and up, and Netscape 7.2 and up. Other operating systems and browsers that include complete implementations of ECMAScript edition 3 and CSS 2.0 may work, but are not supported.
If you do not have a PDF browser plug-in installed, right-click the "Download as Adobe PDF" link and choose "Save Target As" or "Save Link As" to download the file to your computer. The PDF may take a few seconds to generate.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Jane C. Norman, RN, MSN, CNE, PhD, received her undergraduate education at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville campus. There she completed a double major in Sociology and English. She completed an Associate of Science in Nursing at the University of Tennessee, Nashville campus and began her nursing career at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. Jane received her Masters in Medical-Surgical Nursing from Vanderbilt University. In 1978, she took her first faculty position and served as program director for an associate degree program. In 1982, she received her PhD in Higher Education Administration from Peabody College of Vanderbilt University. In 1998, Dr. Norman took a position at Tennessee State University. There she has achieved tenure and full professor status. She is a member of Sigma Theta Tau National Nursing Honors Society. In 2005, she began her current position as Director of the Masters of Science in Nursing Program.
John M. Leonard, MD, Professor of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine. Dr. Leonard completed his post-graduate clinical training at the Yale and Vanderbilt University Medical Centers, and then joined the Vanderbilt faculty in 1974. He has served as director of educational programs for the Department of Medicine and was the Residency Program Director from 1981 to 2003. Dr. Leonard attends and consults on the in-patient general medicine and infectious disease service.
Contributing faculty, Jane C. Norman, RN, MSN, CNE, PhD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
Contributing faculty, John M. Leonard, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
In view of the already existing HIV/AIDS crisis in the United States, the issues associated with employing or providing services for persons with HIV infection or AIDS are significant. The purpose of this course is to provide salon owners and employees information regarding the transmission, symptoms, and management of HIV infection and to address workplace concerns.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
The amount that has been learned and written about human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and disease and its influence on individuals and society is staggering. Researchers in America and England have traced the ancestry of the HIV virus to two strains found in African red-capped mangabeys and greater spot-nosed monkeys. The strains most likely combined in chimpanzees that ate the monkeys, resulting in the chimpanzees developing simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Chimpanzees then transmitted the virus to humans, as early as 1930. Genetic studies suggest that the lower monkeys first became infected with SIV 100,000 years ago [29].
The first reported case of HIV occurred about 30 years ago, in 1981. Since then, researchers have made major inroads in understanding the disease. Knowledge about the characteristics and behavior of this human retrovirus has helped to develop targeted therapeutic interventions and vaccine strategies. The availability of antiretroviral drug therapy has been a benefit to many who are HIV-infected, with a delay in the development of opportunistic infections and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, HIV does eventually lead to AIDS in many people despite these advances.
According to the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), an estimated 33 million individuals worldwide were living with HIV or AIDS in 2007, approximately half of which were women [30]. Eastern Europe (particularly the Russian Federation) and Southeast Asia have the fastest growing epidemic [30]. It is important to note that despite increases in certain geographic areas and demographic groups, overall, the rate of new infections is declining. This is due, in part, to lower prices for anti-AIDS drugs [22]. Africa is still the hardest-hit area, with two-thirds (67%) of all HIV-infected persons living in sub-Saharan Africa in 2007 [30]. In 2003, the U.S. government approved the purchase of generic drugs to fight the disease in Africa. In that same year, the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) was introduced and implemented [37]. PEPFAR was reauthorized in July 2008, with a total of $48 billion in funds over the following 5 years and expansion to address additional health issues, including malaria, tuberculosis, maternal health, and clean water [31].
As of 2008, an estimated 1.2 million individuals were living with HIV/AIDS in the United States [30]. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that approximately 25% of these individuals are unaware of their infection [35]. As of 2009, the CDC reported several trends in the HIV/AIDS epidemic [33]:
By region, 40% reside in the South, 29% in the Northeast, 20% in the West, and 11% in the Midwest.
By race/ethnicity, 48% are black, 33% white, 17% Hispanic, and less than 1% are American Indian/Alaska Native or Asian/Pacific Islander.
By gender, 73% of adults and adolescents living with AIDS are male.
Florida ranks third in the U.S. in terms of number of reported cases of HIV and second in terms of pediatric cases [1]. As is true in the country, the disease has disproportionately affected minorities in Florida.
HIV infection passes through several stages and, if untreated, carries an 80% mortality rate at 10 years. The initial event, reported in 50% to 90% of infected individuals, is an acute mononucleosis-like illness. Symptoms include fever, sore throat, malaise, rash, diarrhea, enlarged lymph nodes, ulcerations (broken, inflamed skin or mucous membranes), and weight loss averaging 10 pounds. A variety of neurologic syndromes including swelling of the brain (encephalitis) may occur. The illness begins 1 to 3 weeks after viral transmission and lasts about 2 to 3 weeks. This is followed by a prolonged asymptomatic period in most individuals.
Symptomatic infection can be expected after the CD4 T-cell count has decreased to less than 200/mm3 as this represents the stage of severe immunodeficiency. The CDC defines late-stage HIV infection as AIDS on the basis of two criteria: CD4 count less than 200/mm3 and the presence of a characteristic AIDS-defining illness such as pneumonia, parasitic infections (such as toxoplasmosis, which affects the nervous system), or other opportunistic infections or tumors. A variety of syndromes may develop at this point, including dementia, nerve damage (numbness, tingling, burning sensation in the hands or feet), extreme weight loss, and chronic diarrhea [39]. Signs and symptoms of HIV generally are related to opportunistic infections preying on an impaired immune system. These diseases include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and others. Individuals with HIV commonly succumb to uncontrollable infection, becoming increasingly debilitated, feverishly ill, malnourished, and often in pain. Enlarged lymph nodes, lung disease, extreme weight loss, and brain/nervous system abnormalities (such as dementia, tremors, and inflammation) contribute to the debilitated state.
To date, there is no predictable cure [14]. In the absence of medication therapy, the average survival is approximately 3.5 years after the individual's CD4 count has reached 200/mm3 and 1.5 years for the person who has developed an AIDS-defining diagnosis.
Transmission of HIV results from intimate contact with blood and body secretions, excluding saliva and tears. The most common modes of transmission are sexual contact, administration of contaminated blood and blood products, contaminated needles, and mother-to-fetus [14].
On the basis of newly reported cases, the transmission categories are [33]:
Male-to-male sexual contact
Injecting drug users
Men who have sex with men who inject drugs
High-risk heterosexual contact
Blood transfusion
Perinatal transmission (i.e., from an infected pregnant woman to her fetus or infant)
HIV has been isolated from blood, seminal fluid, pre-ejaculate, vaginal secretions, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, tears, and breast milk of infected individuals. No cases of HIV infection have been traced to saliva or tears [40]. The virus is found in greater concentration in semen than in vaginal fluids, leading to a hypothesis that male-to-female transmission is easier than female-to-male. Sexual behavior that involves exposure to blood is likely to increase transmission risks. Transmission could also occur through anal intercourse.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that oral sex can result in the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). While the risk of HIV transmission through oral sex is much smaller than the risk from anal or vaginal sex, there are several co-factors that can increase this risk, including oral ulcers, bleeding gums, genital sores, and the presence of other STDs. Prevention includes the use of latex condoms, a natural rubber latex sheet, plastic food wrap, a cut open condom, or a dental dam, all of which serve as a physical barrier to transmission [9].
Although abstinence from sexual contact is the sole way to absolutely prevent transmission, using a latex condom to prevent transmission of HIV is more than 10,000 times safer than engaging in unprotected sex [38]. Sexual activity in a mutually monogamous relationship in which neither partner is HIV-infected and no other risk factors are present is considered safe [7]. However, a recently acknowledged phenomenon of men who identify publicly as heterosexual and generally have committed relationships with women, but who also engage in sexual activity with other men, termed being on the "down low" or DL, may be a transmission bridge to heterosexual women [36]. To better understand the actual extent of this behavior and its impact on HIV transmission, more research and studies must be undertaken.
It has been estimated that an HIV-infected drop of human blood contains 1 to 100 live virus particles. HIV is transmitted via blood, primarily through sharing of contaminated needles among injecting drug users and, rarely, through blood transfusion. Donor screening, HIV testing, and heat treatment of the clotting factor have greatly reduced the risks of transmission by donor blood.
Transmission of HIV among injecting drug users occurs primarily through contamination of needles or syringes with infected blood. The risk of sustaining HIV infection from a needle stick with infected blood is approximately 1 in 300. Behaviors such as needle sharing, "booting" the injection with blood (drawing blood into the syringe before injecting), and performing frequent injections increases the risk. Cocaine use (by injection or smoking) is associated with a higher prevalence of HIV infection. This may in part be attributed to the exchange of cocaine for sex [7].
In the absence of prophylactic treatment, approximately 30% to 50% of children born to HIV-infected mothers will contract HIV infection. HIV is transmitted to infants in utero, during labor, or through breastfeeding after birth.
The risk of infection through occupational exposure for salon professionals is low. Educational efforts and universal precautions, as discussed in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Bloodborne Pathogens standard regulations, should be recognized [7].
Because organ transplantation is less common than other transmission-related activities, there have been very few case reports of HIV acquisition by this route. HIV has been transmitted via transplanted kidneys, liver, heart, pancreas, bone, and, possibly, skin grafts and through artificial insemination. HIV testing is used in these circumstances to rule out infection [7,24].
The activities generally performed by cosmetologists, massage therapists, and nail technicians are not considered to be a transmission threat to clients or coworkers. In 1985, the CDC issued routine precautions that all personal-service workers (such as barbers, cosmetologists, and nail technicians) should follow, even though there is no evidence of transmission from a personal-service worker to a client or vice versa [40]. Instruments that are intended to penetrate the skin (such as tattooing and acupuncture needles or ear piercing devices) should be used once and disposed of or thoroughly cleaned and sterilized. Instruments not intended to penetrate the skin but that may become contaminated with blood (for example, razors) should be used for only one client and disposed of or thoroughly cleaned and disinfected after each use. Personal-service workers can use the same cleaning procedures that are recommended for healthcare institutions.
The CDC recommends that precautions should be taken in all settings (including the home) to prevent exposures to the blood of persons who are HIV infected, at risk for HIV infection, or whose infection and risk status are unknown [40]. Gloves should be worn during contact with blood or other body fluids that could possibly contain visible blood, such as urine, feces, or vomit. Cuts, sores, or breaks on both the cosmetologist's and client's exposed skin should be covered with bandages. Hands and other parts of the body should be washed immediately after contact with blood or other body fluids, and surfaces soiled with blood should be disinfected appropriately. Practices that increase the likelihood of blood contact, such as sharing of razors, should be avoided.
The introduction of antiretroviral drugs for the treatment of HIV has resulted in longer lives and fewer symptoms in HIV-positive individuals. Most people take a combination of at least 3 different medications. HIV has been shown to develop resistance to the medications, particularly when only one drug is used. Therefore, in addition to combination therapy, the sequencing of drugs and the preservation of future treatment options are also important [25,37]. Treatment continues for an individual's entire life.
There are 6 major classes of antiretroviral drugs: nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors (PIs), fusion inhibitors (FIs), CCR5 antagonists, and integrase inhibitors. Antiretroviral therapy should be initiated in individuals with a history of an AIDS-defining illness or with a CD4 T-cell count less than 350/mm3 [25]. Persons with a CD4 T-cell count greater than 350/mm3 may consider treatment with medications. Therapy should also be initiated in the following groups regardless of CD4 T-cell count [25]:
Pregnant women
Those with HIV-associated kidney disease (nephropathy)
Those also infected with hepatitis B when treatment for the hepatitis infection is indicated
Individuals who have never received antiretroviral treatment are usually started on a regimen of two NRTIs plus a PI. This combination results in the best reduction of HIV in the blood for the longest period of time and will achieve the goal of no detectable virus in approximately 60% to 80% of individuals.
At the present time, the most active triple-drug regimen (for example, two NRTIs and a PI) in a previously untreated person can be expected to reduce the viral load below detectable levels, increase CD4 counts by an average of 100-150/mm3, reduce the risk of HIV-associated complications, and prolong survival. However, the ability to achieve this advantage depends on the individual's willingness to accept a complex medical regimen that requires many pills, rigorous compliance, frequent follow-up, and moderate risk for drug toxicity.
Opportunistic infections are infections that cause disease in persons with weakened immune systems but would probably not cause disease in healthy people. Depending on the CD4 count and other risk factors, asymptomatic people may benefit from treatment to prevent opportunistic infections. In many cases, antiretroviral therapy is useful in the prevention and treatment of these infections [27]. Prophylactic therapy for these conditions is strongly recommended because these infections are relatively common in HIV-positive individuals, preventive therapy is simple and cost effective, and efficacy has been established in clinical studies. In addition, all of these individuals should be vaccinated with pneumococcal vaccine. Hepatitis B vaccination should be considered in patients who have not already been vaccinated.
The CDC has developed guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections among HIV-infected individuals. The report offers guidelines specific to each type of opportunistic infection and can be viewed at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5804a1.htm.
Women now make up nearly half of all AIDS cases worldwide and 27% in the U.S. [21]. The rate of HIV infection in women is rising rapidly. In the last twenty years, the proportion of AIDS cases in women has nearly quadrupled from 8% in 1985 to 27% in 2006. In 1993, when the CDC expanded the case definition of AIDS, there was a 151% increase in the number of AIDS cases in women and a 105% increase in cases in men. More women were found to meet the AIDS case definition when the CD4+ T-lymphocyte count of <200 was added to the criteria. This may be evidence that the previous case definitions based on the clinical characteristics of men did not accurately reflect the symptoms of HIV in women [21,28].
AIDS is the fifth leading cause of death in women 25 to 44 years of age in the United States. It is the third leading cause of death in black women in the same age group [21]. Women of color have been disproportionately affected by AIDS; the prevalence rate of AIDS cases among black women is 21 times that of white women. When compared with adults, a greater percentage of AIDS cases in adolescents are young women. They are more likely to be black or Hispanic/Latino, and they are more likely to be infected through heterosexual intercourse.
Research is being conducted to determine whether the symptoms of HIV, other than those related to the reproductive tract, are different for women than for men. It appears that many symptoms and signs of acute HIV infection and non-specific manifestations, such as fevers, weight loss, and fatigue, are the same.
In the United States today, the predominant route of infection with HIV in children is from an infected pregnant woman to her fetus or infant [32]. Thus, the epidemic in children is closely linked to the epidemic in women [3].
Prevention remains the only cure for HIV, yet no intervention aimed at changing behavior to promote health has been or will be 100% successful. The tragedy of perinatal transmission of HIV is that few women are aware of their risk, many are not offered HIV counseling and testing by healthcare providers, and most learn their diagnosis when their child becomes ill. The CDC has adapted recommendations that advocate universal counseling and testing for every pregnant woman regardless of geography, identified risk behavior, or self-identified risk, unless it is declined [23]. In 2005, the United States Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF) published guidelines recommending the screening of all pregnant women for HIV. The benefits supporting this statement included a potential for decreased perinatal transmission of HIV resulting from maternal and neonatal antiretroviral therapy and the increased opportunity to provide counseling regarding risks associated with breastfeeding and elective cesarean delivery [20].
Approximately 15% of newly diagnosed cases of HIV/AIDS in 2005 occurred in individuals 50 years of age or older; 29% of all persons living with HIV/AIDS are 50 years of age or older [11,12]. However, until recently, there had been little attention given to this group [11]. HIV/AIDS has traditionally been thought to be the disease of the young; therefore, in the past, prevention and education campaigns had not been targeted toward older adults. However, evidence points to the increasing number of infected older people and a need for change in prevention and education campaigns. Some older persons may have less knowledge about HIV and risk reduction strategies. Due to divorce or being widowed and the availability of medications to treat erectile dysfunction, increasing numbers of older people are becoming sexually active with multiple partners [11,41]. For postmenopausal women, contraception is no longer a concern, and they are less likely to use a condom. Furthermore, vaginal drying and thinning associated with aging can result in small tears or cuts during sexual activity, which also raises the risk for infection with HIV/AIDS [18]. Studies indicate that at-risk individuals in this age group are one-sixth as likely as younger at-risk adults to use condoms during sex [19]. The combination of these factors increases the risk for unprotected sex with new or multiple partners in this age group, thereby increasing their risk for AIDS.
Both preventive and therapeutic vaccines are being studied for use in the fight against HIV. Preventive vaccines are developed to protect individuals from contracting HIV [34]. The goal of therapeutic vaccines is to boost immune response to and better control existing HIV infection [26]. Of course, the ultimate goal in vaccine research is a vaccine that will prevent infection; however, despite several trials, no vaccine effective in preventing HIV has been discovered.
The International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI) is working to speed the development and distribution of preventive AIDS vaccines, focusing on four areas: mobilizing support through advocacy and education; accelerating scientific progress; encouraging industrial participation in AIDS vaccine development; and assuring global access.
Because HIV is spread predominantly through sexual transmission, the development of chemical and physical barriers that can be used vaginally or rectally to inactivate HIV and other STDs is critically important for controlling HIV infection.
Researchers are developing and testing new chemical compounds that women could apply before intercourse to protect themselves against HIV and other sexually transmitted organisms [2]. These include creams or gels, known as topical microbicides, which ideally would be non-irritating and inexpensive. In addition, microbicides should be available in both spermicidal and non-spermicidal formulations so women do not have to put themselves at risk for acquiring HIV and other STDs in order to conceive a child. The research effort for developing topical microbicides includes basic research, preclinical product development, and clinical evaluation.
Many adolescents engage in behaviors that put them at risk for HIV infection. According to the CDC, nearly 50% of high school students have engaged in intercourse [8]. Approximately 39% of sexually active high school students had not used a condom at last sexual intercourse; 2% had ever injected an illegal drug [8]. Although more than 90% of adolescents report having received education on HIV prevention in school, the content of these discussions may not provide adequate information on the subject. Furthermore, the American Academy of Pediatrics determined that school-based education and intervention programs do not provide the necessary opportunities of confidential discussions or targeted counseling [4]. Accurate and complete information on HIV transmission and risk reduction is necessary for school-aged children.
The ethics and law around AIDS and infection with HIV give rise to many issues. In the United States, HIV infections have historically occurred overwhelmingly in two populations: men who have sex with men and injecting drug users. But the number of new infections is growing in many groups, including women. Furthermore, ethnic minority groups (particularly African Americans and Hispanics) are disproportionally affected by the disease. Therefore, sociocultural issues are an important aspect of care [10].
Employment can pose a problem for individuals with HIV/AIDS. Possible issues that may be raised include difficulty maintaining employment or resuming employment after health has been restored or stabilized, stigma associated with the disease, future disability risk, confidentiality concerns, and the resulting financial burden for the employer.
Although individuals diagnosed with HIV/AIDS are living much longer as a result of available treatments, they may be forced into extended "HIV retirement," whereby employment is no longer possible due to the effects of the disease. It has also increased the number of persons living with HIV/AIDS returning to the workforce [13].
At the beginning of the AIDS epidemic, insurance companies would generally approve AIDS-related disability claims quickly, as the prognosis for infected individuals was so poor. As prognosis for HIV-infected individuals has improved, it has become more difficult to obtain insurance approval for treatments and/or disability services [15].
According to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), an individual is considered to have a disability if he or she has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, has a record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such impairment [16]. Persons with HIV disease, both symptomatic and asymptomatic, have physical impairments that substantially limit one or more major life activities and are protected by the law. Persons who are discriminated against because they are regarded as being HIV-positive are also protected. For example, a person who was fired on the basis of a rumor that he had AIDS, even if he did not, would be protected by the law. Moreover, the ADA protects persons who are discriminated against because they have a known association or relationship with an individual who is HIV-positive. For example, the ADA would protect an HIV-negative woman who was denied a job because her roommate had AIDS [16].
Under the ADA, an employer must make a reasonable accommodation to the known physical or mental limitations of a qualified applicant or employee with a disability. However, an employer is not required to provide an accommodation if it would post an undue hardship on the operation of its business. Undue hardship is defined as "an action requiring significant difficulty or expense" [16]. The Federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973 also prohibits discrimination on the basis of a handicap. All stages of HIV disease, including asymptomatic HIV infection, have been found by the courts to be handicapping conditions under Section 504 of this Act [17].
The ADA also prohibits state licensing agencies and public trade schools for barbering and cosmetology from discriminating against individuals with disabilities. Consequently, a public or private entity cannot deny a person with HIV an occupational license or admission to a trade school because of his or her disability. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, examples of discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS would include [5]:
A certificate program for health aides having a blanket policy denying admission to anyone with HIV
A cosmetology school denying admission to an HIV-positive individual because State cosmetology regulations require that cosmetologists be free from contagious, communicable, or infectious disease
A man in Arkansas was expelled from a beauty college based on a state regulation banning those with infectious or communicable diseases from practicing cosmetology after he voluntarily disclosed his HIV infection to an instructor [6]. According to the ADA, for the purposes of occupational training and licensing requirements, the terms "infectious, communicable, or contagious disease" must exclude diseases, such as HIV, not transmitted through casual contact or through the usual practice of the occupation for which a license is required [5]. As a result, the Arkansas Board of Cosmetology explicitly recognized that cosmetologists with HIV pose no significant risk to clients and coworkers, and the statute has since been amended. It is important to note that the activities of cosmetology are not high-risk activities, and any indication that they are is unfounded. HIV-infected cosmetologists should not be prevented from doing their jobs as a result of their infection status.
The state of Florida has specific laws and statutes governing HIV testing, including sections devoted to informed consent, confidentiality, and counseling. Knowledge of these statutes may be useful in ensuring that public health is served and rights are protected. The Florida Statutes on HIV testing may be viewed online at http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&Search_String=&URL=Ch0381/Sec004.htm.
Although prevention and new medical interventions may reduce the pace of the epidemic, HIV will be a significant disease for many years both in the United States and the world. Education provides the opportunity to ensure that Florida salon professionals have the information necessary to work with and provide services to persons with HIV.
1. Florida HIV/AIDS Hotline. HIV/AIDS Statistics. Available at http://www.211bigbend.org/hotlines/hiv/statistics.htm. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
2. International Partnership for Microbicides. About Microbicides. Available at http://www.ipm-microbicides.org/about_microbicides/english/index.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
3. Boland M. Overview of perinatally transmitted HIV infection. Nurs Clin North Am. 1996;31:155-163.
4. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health and Committee on Adolescence. Sexuality education for children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2001;108(2):498-502.
5. U.S. Department of Justice. Questions and Answers: The Americans with Disabilities Act and the Rights of Persons with HIV/AIDS to Obtain Occupational Training and State Licensing. Available at http://www.ada.gov/qahivaids_license.htm. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
6. American Civil Liberties Union. Dugas-Arkansas Board of Cosmetology. Available at http://www.aclu.org/hiv-aids/dugas-arkansas-board-cosmetology. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2007. MMWR. 2008;57(SS4):1-136.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Oral Sex and HIV Risk. June 2009. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/PDF/oralsex.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
11. AIDS InfoNet. Fact Sheet Number 616: Older People and HIV. 2009. Available at http://img.thebody.com/nmai/616.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fact Sheet: HIV/AIDS among Persons Aged 50 and Older. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/over50/resources/factsheets/pdf/over50.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
13. Hergenrather KC, Rhodes SD, Clark G. Windows to work: exploring employment-seeking behaviors of persons with HIV/AIDS through Photovoice. AIDS Educ Prev. 2006;18(3):243/258.
15. Rabkin JG, McElhiney M, Ferrando SJ, Van Gorp W, Lin SH. Predictors of employment of men With HIV/AIDS: a longitudinal study. Psychosom Med. 2004;66;72-78.
16. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. Questions and Answers: The Americans with Disabilities Act and Persons with HIV/AIDS. Available at http://www.ada.gov/pubs/hivqanda.txt. Last accessed July 23, 2009.
17. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Fact Sheet: Your Rights Under Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Available at http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/civilrights/resources/factsheets/504ada.pdf. Last accessed July 23, 2009.
18. National Institute on Aging. HIV, AIDS and Older People. Available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/HealthInformation/Publications/hiv-aids.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
20. U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Screening for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Available at http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf/uspshivi.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
21. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. HIV Infection in Women. Available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/womenhiv.htm. Accessed November 28, 2001.
22. World Health Organization. AIDS Epidemic Update: December 2002. Available at http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/epidemiology/epi2002/en/index.html. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
23. Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR14):1-17.
24. Ahn J, Cohen SM. Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus through liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2008;14(11):1603-1608.
25. Office of AIDS Research Advisory Council Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services; 2008.
26. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Therapeutic HIV Vaccines. Available at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/Therapeutic_HIV_Vaccines_FS_en.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
27. Kaplan JE, Benson C, Holmes KK, Brooks JT, Pau A, Masur H. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR. 2009;58(RR4):1-198.
28. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Many People with AIDS Change Their Minds About End-of-Life Care as the Disease Progresses. Available at http://www.ahrq.gov/RESEARCH/apr99/ra11.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
29. Associated Press. Ancestry of HIV Virus Traced. MSNBC article. November 4, 2003. Available at http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3076791/. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
30. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. 2008 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2008.
31. Office of U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator. About PEPFAR. Available at http://www.pepfar.gov/about/index.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mother-to-Child (Perinatal) HIV Transmission and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/perinatal/resources/factsheets/perinatal.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 19. Revised June 2009. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/reports/2007report/pdf/2007SurveillanceReport.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
34. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Preventive HIV Vaccines. Available at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/HIVPreventionVaccines_FS_en.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The HIV/AIDS Epidemic: What is the Magnitude? Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/reports/hiv3rddecade/chapter2.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
36. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Daily HIV/AIDS Report: Down Low Study. June 16, 2005. Available at http://www.kaisernetwork.org/daily_reports/rep_hiv_recent_rep.cfm?dr_cat=1&show=yes&dr_DateTime=16-Jun-05#30788. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
37. U.S. Department of State. U.S. Efforts to Combat the HIV/AIDS Pandemic in Africa: A Special Briefing by Randall Tobias, U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator. Available at http://statelists.state.gov/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0506b&L=dossdo&P=1113. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
38. Carey RF, Herman WA, Retta SM, Rinaldi JE, Herman BA, Athey TW. Effectiveness of latex condoms as a barrier to human immunodeficiency virus-sized particles under the conditions of simulated use. Sex Transm Dis. 1992;19(4):230-234.
39. UNAIDS. HIV-Related Opportunistic Diseases: UNAIDS Technical Update. Available at http://data.unaids.org/Publications/ IRC-pub05/opportu_en.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV and Its Transmission. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/PDF/transmission.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
42. UpToDate Patient Information: HIV Transmission During Pregnancy. Available at http://patients.uptodate.com/topic.asp?file=hiv_aids/2954. Last accessed July 6, 2007.
43. Panlilio AL, Cardo DM, Grohskopf LA, Heneine W, Ross CS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated U.S. public health service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR. 2005;54(RR9);1-17.
44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Using the BED HIV-1 Capture EIA Assay to Estimate Incidence Using STARHS in the Context of Surveillance in the United States. 2007. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/factsheets/bed.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
45. Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services; 2009.
46. Hollander H, Katz MH. HIV infection. In: Tierney LM, McPhee SJ, Papadakis MA (eds). Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment. Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange; 1994.
47. Minkoff H, Augenbraun M. Antiretroviral therapy for pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;176:478-489.
48. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves the First Once-a-Day Three-Drug Combination Tablet for Treatment of HIV-1: Atripla is a Landmark Achievement of Three Cooperating Companies. Press Release. July 12, 2006.
49. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01408.html. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
50. Peterson LR. Duration of time from onset of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectiousness to development of detectable antibody. Transfusion. 1994;34:283.
51. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Service Task Force recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women infected with HIV-1 for maternal health and for reducing perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1998;47(RR2):1-30.
52. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2004;53(RR15):1-112.
53. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR. 2001;50(RR-11):1-42.
54. AIDSmeds.com. Trizivir. Available at http://www.aidsmeds.com/drugs/Trizivir.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
55. AIDSmeds.com. Combivir. http://www.aidsmeds.com/drugs/Combivir.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
56. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Incorporating HIV prevention into the medical care of persons living with HIV. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2003;52(RR12):1-24.
57. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advancing HIV prevention: new strategies for a changing epidemic-United States, 2003. MMWR. 2003;52(15):329-332.
58. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. FDA-Approved Rapid HIV Antibody Screening Tests. 2008. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/testing/rapid/rt-comparison.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS Update. Preventing the Sexual Transmission of HIV, the Virus that Causes AIDS: What You Should Know about Oral Sex, December 2000. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/pdf/oralsex.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
60. Constantine N. HIV Antibody Assays. HIV InSite Knowledge Base Chapter. May 2006. Available at http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=kb-02-02-01. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
61. AIDSmeds.com. New HIV Treatment Guidelines Focus on "Preferred" Regimens. Available at http://www.aidsmeds.com. Last accessed August 26, 2003.
62. National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Workshop Summary: Scientific Evidence on Condom Effectiveness for Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Prevention. June 2000. Available at http://www.ccv.org/downloads/pdf/CDC_Condom_Study.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
63. Kumar L, Salik R. Epidemiology of HIV-2 Infection in the United States - 1996-2006. Abstract 28. Presented December 5, 2007 at the 2010 HIV Diagnostics Conference. Available at http://www.hivtestingconference.org/abstracts/abstract28.pdf. Last accessed June 15, 2009.
64. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS and Pregnancy and Childbirth. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/perinatal/overview_partner.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection-drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV in the United States: recommendations from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54(RR2):1-19.
66. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC-Developed Breakthrough Technology Allows Clearest Picture to Date of HIV Infections in the U.S.: A Methods Discussion. Podcast Transcript. August 2008. Available at http://www2a.cdc.gov/podcasts/media/pdf/HIV_Breakthrough.pdf. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
67. McLaughlin LA, Braun K. Asian and Pacific Islander cultural values: considerations for health care decision making. Health Soc Work. 1998;23(2):116-126.
69. Carrese J, Rhodes L. Western bioethics on the Navaho reservation: benefit or harm? JAMA. 1995;274:826-829.
70. Rashad AM, MacVane Phipps F, Haith-Cooper M. Obtaining informed consent in an Egyptian research study. Nurs Ethics. 2004;11(4): 394-399.
71. Yick A, Berthold SM. Conducting research on violence in Asian American communities: methodological issues. Violence Vict. 2005;20(6): 661-677.
72. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves New HIV Drug: Raltegravir Tablets Used in Combination with Other Antiretroviral Agents. Press Release. October 2007. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01726.html. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
73. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approved Novel Antiretroviral Drug. Press Release. August 2007. Available at http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01677.html. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
75. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. HIV Infection in Women. Available at http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/HIVAIDS/Understanding/Population+Specific+Information/womenHiv.htm. Last accessed December 22, 2009.
76. Schneider E, Whitmore S, Glynn MK, Dominguez K, Mitsch A, McKenna MT. Revised surveillance case definitions for HIV infection among adults, adolescents, and children aged <18 months and for HIV infection and AIDS among children aged 18 months to <13 years-United States, 2008. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008;57(RR10):1-8.
Table of Contents
Contributing faculty, Paragon CET Staff, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to inform salon professionals regarding the necessary sanitation and sanitation guidelines in order to ensure better safety for clients and professionals alike.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
Cleanliness is paramount in the cosmetology industry. Following the State Board of Cosmetology's guidelines for sanitation and sterilization takes great responsibility and requires vigilance. One single technician can put his or her entire clientele's health at risk by not practicing stringent sanitation and disinfection guidelines. In addition, salon technicians should be well versed in the types of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites they may encounter so they may identify infections. The transmission of these infections would be properly eliminated through sanitization and disinfection in the salon environment.
For a business to be successful in the beauty industry, it must be clean. Knowledge of the standards for cleaning and sanitation and how they may be followed is essential when working in a salon or spa. The three steps of decontamination are sanitation, disinfection, and sterilization.
In the salon industry, sterilization is not as important as it would be in a healthcare setting. There is very low risk of infection compared to a medical facility, as open wounds and exposure to blood are rare. Therefore, sanitation and disinfection are of the most concern in the salon setting.
Sanitation can be as simple as thorough cleaning. In essence, sanitation is the removal of all visible dirt and debris from surfaces, tools, and equipment. There are many methods of cleaning, including [1]:
Scrubbing (e.g., with a brush)
Using an ultrasonic unit
Using a solvent
Disinfection is the process by which all micro-organisms on non-living surfaces are mostly, but not completely, destroyed. The proper disinfection of multi-use tools, such as shears and nail nippers, and other equipment is a requirement for a safe and successful salon. Items should be immersed in a disinfectant for no less than 10 minutes. Prior to immersion, all residue and debris must be removed. Salon-appropriate disinfectants are EPA-approved liquid hospital disinfectants or a 10% bleach solution. All disinfectants have different concentrations, and all disinfectant containers should be properly and clearly labeled [1]. Gloves must be worn when using disinfectants to avoid all contact with the skin and to prevent any damage to living tissue [1].
As noted, it is usually not necessary to meet the highest level of disinfection, sterilization, in a salon. Sterilization is "the complete elimination of microbial life, including spores," and it is usually only required of instruments that are intended to be entered into the body (e.g., scalpel) [1]. Sterilization methods include high-pressure steam, dry heat, and certain chemicals. The complete sterilization of salon tools is not necessary.
Improper sanitation and disinfection can result in exposing clients or oneself to a variety of dangerous infections. These infections can be bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic.
Bacteria are either pathogenic (cause disease) or nonpathogenic (harmless). Bacteria are very small one-celled micro-organisms; they are only visible under a microscope. Most types of bacteria are harmless, but certain types can cause infections and even serious diseases and death. Bacterial infections occur when tissues are invaded by disease-causing or pathogenic bacteria.
Staphylococcus bacteria are among the most common and can be found on doorknobs, countertops, and other hard surfaces [1]. One type of these bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, is present in many individuals' nostrils, throats, and skin.
Staphylococcal infections can spread easily through contact with pus from an infected wound, skin-to-skin contact with an infected person, or contact with objects such as towels and unsanitized equipment (e.g., foot spas) used by an infected person. It is important to note that some people may have S. aureus on their hands or other parts of the body and not know it. This is called being a "carrier." If a cosmetologist is a carrier and does not follow appropriate precautions, he or she could transmit the bacteria to a client, where it can cause disease. This is particularly dangerous if the client has an open cut or is bleeding. An open wound is the ideal entry for bacteria and can result in a systemic infection or a skin infection.
There are steps that clients and cosmetologists can take to prevent the spread of staphylococcal infections. First, clients should be instructed to refrain from any hair removal on the legs, arms, and hands within 24 hours of receiving a manicure or pedicure. If a client has any broken skin (including cuts or nicks) and is scheduled to receive a treatment including touching, massaging, or immersing the area, the appointment should be rescheduled for a time after the area has healed [13]. Cosmetologists and nail technicians should wear gloves and should not perform procedures if they have a skin infection. Each client should receive a clean towel, and all implements should be cleaned according to the established standards after each use.
In 2000, Mycobacterium fortuitum was determined to be the cause of an outbreak of infection in more than 100 clients of nail salons [11]. Improper disinfection techniques allowed the bacteria to live and thrive in the basin of the pedicure tubs. This outbreak was widely reported and resulted in a renewed emphasis on sanitation and sterilization in salons and spas.
Mycobacterium fortuitum is naturally found in water and soil [8]. It is classified as a "nontuberculous mycobacterium," which basically encompasses all mycobacteria not part of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex [9]. The bacteria grows very quickly. Because it is found naturally in tap water, the salon and pedicure tub environment promotes its growth. The bacteria flourish in the warm environment of the water pipes of a salon and feed on the debris that typically accumulates in a hair salon (e.g., hair, skin, and nail debris). It often forms dense layers of cells and proteins called biofilms, which can be very hard to remove [8]. The bacteria can grow and accumulate for a very long time, becoming more difficult to eradicate.
Mycobacterium fortuitum enter the skin and cause bumps on the lower portion of the leg (exposed to the bacteria during a pedicure), which eventually leads to painful boils and even skin ulcers. Scar tissue is left after the boils have either gone away on their own or been removed through surgery. As with staphylococcal infections, it has been concluded that shaving the legs before a pedicure creates the perfect situation for the bacteria to enter the skin and multiply. It is safer to not shave or wax legs for at least 24 hours before a pedicure. It is also advised to refrain from getting a pedicure if there any wounds, bites, or abrasions on the lower portion of the legs [11,12]. During a pedicure the legs are scrubbed and massaged, making them vulnerable to any bacteria that may be present.
Medical treatment should be sought as soon as the infection presents itself. It is advised to see a physician as soon as the client notices the bumps or lesions forming. Typical treatment may include local wound care for the lesions and antibiotics. In more severe cases, surgery may be required. There is no exact duration of therapy, but treatment is commonly given for a period of 6 months. Treatment is not considered complete until all lesions have been eliminated [9].
Viruses are micro-organisms capable of infecting all plants and animals. The viruses that most affect humans are herpes, mononucleosis, human papillomavirus (HPV), verruca plantaris, measles, mumps, chickenpox, hepatitis, influenza, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) [1].
There have been instances of herpes outbreaks and bacterial infections following Brazilian wax hair removal [14]. The outbreaks may be reactivation of the virus due to the inflammation and trauma to the area, and it is unclear if herpes simplex virus can be spread via multi-use containers of hair removal wax. To ensure that the wax is not contaminated, single-use containers should be used.
Other viruses of high concern in the salon industry are hepatitis and HIV. They are both bloodborne pathogens, meaning they are "carried through the body in the blood or body fluids" [1]. Unlike HIV, hepatitis can live outside the body, making it very important to maintain safety and sanitary standards. The use of scissors and nail clippers presents a risk of spreading both of these viruses. If the skin is broken and blood is drawn, extra caution must be taken to clean all tools, linens, capes, towels, and work areas.
Fungi consist of a number of small and larger organisms, including mold, mildew, and yeast. Fungi can produce contagious diseases such as tinea corporis, best known as "ringworm." An uncommon salon-related fungal skin infection affecting men is tinea barbae, or Barber's itch. This infection is more common in hot and humid environments. It most often occurs as an infection on the face in the coarse hairs of a beard or mustache; it is caused by the fungi responsible for most mild fungal skin infections (e.g., "ringworm") [1]. Other types of fungi can infect the hair and scalp, leaving lesions and scars and affecting hair growth. Hair stylists must clean and disinfect all tools, such as clipper blades, to avoid spreading fungal scalp and skin infections.
Tinea unguium, or fungal nail infections, are also an issue in the salon environment. These infections occur in the fingernail or toenail area and symptoms include discoloration, thickening, brittleness, and loosening of the affected nail. The fungus can be spread from one client to another if proper cleaning and disinfection of tools does not occur [1].
Athlete's foot, or tinea pedis, is a fungal infection of the foot, usually in the area between the toes. The fungus lives in damp environments, and the enclosed space of socks and shoes creates the perfect environment for fungi to grow [5]. The first signs of the disease are fissures and scales on the feet, causing redness and itching. Transmission can occur with contact with the fungi, either directly with infected skin or through contact with contaminated surfaces such as showers, locker room floors, and swimming pool decks. It can also be spread through pedicure basins, such as those found in salons or spas. Proper cleaning and sanitizing techniques can prevent the spread of all types of fungi, including tinea pedis.
Treatments for tinea pedis include topical creams or ointments and oral medications. Steps should also be taken to prevent the spread of the disease. It is recommended that sandals or flip-flops be worn in the locker room and while using a locker room shower. Longer nails harbor bacteria and fungi, so it is important to keep nails short and clean. Those with tinea pedis should be sure to keep the feet dry and cool. The best way to do this is by wearing sandals rather than socks and shoes whenever possible. Footwear should be alternated every 2 to 3 days to prevent dampness and fungi growth. When wearing socks and shoes, it is best to wear cotton socks rather than nylon because synthetic materials will trap moisture [5].
Scalp infections are not common in the salon and spa, but they are possible. Tinea capitis is an infection of the scalp caused by fungal overgrowth [6]. In some cases, the fungus may also infect the eyebrows or eyelashes.
The fungi associated with scalp infections are most easily contracted by close contact with an infected family member or schoolmate, but infections can be transmitted in the salon by not properly disinfecting tools and combs. Transmission of fungus could also occur through contact with contaminated headrests.
The three patterns of fungal infection of the hair and scalp are endothrix, ectothrix, and favus [7]. These types are defined by the level of hair invasion. An infection is categorized as endothrix when the fungus grows completely in the hair shaft and the hair cuticle stays intact. Ectothrix begins this same way, but then advances to destroy the hair cuticle and grow around the hair shaft [16]. Favus is a severe form of tinea capitis. With this type of infection, the fungi grow parallel to the hair shaft. When the fungi degenerates, air tunnels are formed within the hair shaft [16]. Bubbles of air move along the air tunnels, and the infected hair is immersed in a liquid [6,7]. Favus is also referred to as tinea favosa. The most common presentation of favus is a yellow cap of crust that forms on the scalp called scutula [6]. This cap forms at the base of the follicle and can spread to cover most of the scalp. The shaft of the hair is in the middle of the raised lesion. Beneath the yellow crust is an oozing, moist, red base [6]. If this condition continues untreated, scarring and permanent hair loss can occur.
Tinea capitis most commonly affects children 4 to 14 years of age. The most common presentation is a scaly scalp, but it is often mistaken for a more common scalp condition, like seborrheic dermatitis [6].
There are four main presentations of tinea capitis: non-inflammatory diffuse scaly grey patch, inflammatory diffuse pustular kerion, "black dot" alopecia, and tinea favosa. Non-inflammatory diffuse scaly grey patch usually involves papules around the hair shaft and patches of hair loss or alopecia. There are also broken hairs just above the scalp. Inflammatory diffuse pustular kerion is characterized by painful, itchy irritation and nodules on the scalp. The patient may also experience fever. Broken hairs appear just above the scalp along with a sticky material called kerion [6]. "Black dot" presentation involves fragile, broken hairs in some areas and an infected hair follicle that looks like a black dot [6].
There are a variety of antifungal drugs used to treat tinea capitis. Griseofulvin and ketoconozole are the most frequently used, but terbinafine, itraconozole, and fluconazole may also be prescribed [6].
Infestation of parasites, such as lice and scabies, is another issue in the salon environment. In the United States, 6 to 12 million people are infested with head lice each year [3]. Head lice are parasitic insects that infest human hair, usually on the head but rarely in the eyebrows and eyelashes as well. Head lice feed on human blood and lay their eggs (nits) at the base of the hair shaft, near the scalp [3]. Lice are easily contracted through head-to-head contact in a school or daycare setting and can spread among a whole family (usually starting with a child). Head lice are also transmitted by sharing combs, brushes, or clothing (especially hats) or by lying on a bed or couch that an infested person has just used. Direct contact is necessary for transmission as lice crawl, rather than jumping or flying, from one host to another [4]. Indications of head lice include itching, the sensation of crawling and tickling across the head, and in extreme cases, sores from scratching [4].
Lotions and shampoos containing 1% of the pesticide permethrin (e.g., Rid, Nix, Clear) are the most common treatments for head lice. The pesticide is safe in small doses, but extra caution must be used with these products. Directions should be followed exactly to avoid any health issues. A nit comb is also required to comb the eggs and dead lice out of the hair. More than one treatment is usually necessary, and complete elimination can take several days to a few weeks [4].
Scabies are a contagious skin disease that could cause a problem in a salon if tools and countertops are not adequately cleaned. Scabies are caused by the itch mite or Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis [2]. The scabies itch mite burrows its way under the skin and lays its eggs. Scabies mites are microscopic and are passed by direct skin-to-skin contact. Persons in the same household or in close contact can pass scabies. In the salon industry, there is very close contact between technician and client and close contact with linens and surfaces, making transmission very possible. This possibility can be eliminated with proper cleaning of tools and surfaces and proper laundering of sheets, towels, and capes.
Symptoms of scabies can take months to develop [2]. Signs that infestation has occurred include itching and a bumpy rash in one area or over many areas. The most common infestation sites are the wrist, elbow, armpit, webbing between the fingers, nipple, penis, waist, belt-line, and buttocks [2]. As with head lice, sores may occur due to excessive scratching. Tiny burrows on the skin may be visible, but this is rare [2]. Once infested, a person can transmit scabies even if there are no obvious signs of infestation. Scabies mites can live on a human for up to 2 months, but when they are off a person, they can only live for 48 to 72 hours [2].
To treat scabies a physician will prescribe scabicide lotions or creams. Directions should be followed precisely, and the scabicide should be applied to all areas of the body. All members of the household should receive treatment from a physician to completely eradicate any possibility of re-infestation. All bedding and clothing must be laundered to eliminate the itch mites. If there are items that cannot be laundered they should be dry cleaned or placed in a plastic bag for several days to one week [2]. After treatment has begun, itching may still occur for several weeks, even if all mites have been killed [2].
Transmission of pathogens is rare in the salon setting but can occur. Most salons are very safe and the risk of transmission is very low, but the overall risk depends on how many surfaces are left unsanitized. Possible contaminated surfaces include uncleaned headrests, shampoo bowls, chair covers being used more than once, unsanitized or reused nail files/buffers, and garbage cans/lids.
Chair headrests should be covered with a new sanitary sheet before each client. Also, shampoo bowls should be washed out with soap and water after use, and all plumbing must be kept in good working order. If a treatment table is used, a new sanitary sheet must be placed over the table before each client [15].
Doorknobs, handrails, and magazines can also harbor bacteria, but it is not necessary to sanitize these items. Poor ventilation and lack of handwashing are also possible pathways of transmission. All technicians must completely and thoroughly wash their hands with soap and water before serving a client. The technician should also be clean and sanitary in his or her appearance and dress.
For a disinfectant to be effective it must be economical, easy to use, and effective. In the salon or spa, the most commonly used types of disinfectants are quaternary ammonium compounds (quats), phenolics, soap and water, alcohol, and bleach.
Quats are very safe and effective disinfectants used in salons and spas. In some cases, a more advanced formulation called dual quats, with improved detergency and lower levels of toxicity, is used, but this is not necessary for everyday salon uses. In most cases, tools (e.g., scissors, combs) are completely immersed in the quats liquid for at least 10 minutes. The liquid is rust-proof, but items should not be left in the quats indefinitely [1].
Phenolics are effective tuberculocidal disinfectants. They can be harmful to the skin and eyes and can cause damage to certain plastic and metal equipment due to their lower pH (acidity). They have been used in salons for many years, but due to their potential harmfulness, they are not used as frequently as other disinfectants. They are not recommended for use on any tools that are involved in direct client contact, such as pedicure equipment, as phenolics can irritate and damage the skin [1].
Two types of alcohol are used as cleaning agents in the salon: ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol. When used properly, alcohol is considered a useful and powerful disinfectant. In the salon environment, alcohol is best utilized on porous and absorbent surfaces, such as plastic and countertop surfaces. The concentration of both ethyl and isopropyl alcohol must be 70% or higher to be effective [1].
Household bleach, or sodium hypochlorite, can be effective and is a long-used disinfectant in the salon industry. A salon-appropriate bleach solution consists of 1 cup of household bleach diluted in 1 gallon of water. Bleach is very effective, but there are some drawbacks. It can be damaging to some plastics and metals and can also cause harm to skin and bodily tissues or to the respiratory tract if inhaled [1]. Both alcohol and bleach cleaners are not required to have EPA registration numbers because they have been in use for so long.
A few safety practices should always be observed when using disinfectants [1]:
Always wear gloves and safety glasses when mixing disinfectants.
Always add disinfectant to water, not water to disinfectant. Disinfectants contain detergents and may foam when water is added to them; this can result in an incorrect mixing ratio.
Use tongs, gloves, or a draining basket to remove implements from disinfectants.
Always keep disinfectants out of the reach of children.
Never pour quats, phenols, alcohol, or any other disinfectant over your hands. If you get disinfectants on your skin, immediately wash your hands with soap and warm water and dry them thoroughly.
Carefully weigh and measure all products according to label instructions.
Never place any disinfectant or other product in an unmarked container.
Always follow the manufacturer's instructions for mixing, using, and disposal of disinfectants.
Change disinfectants every day, or more often if the solution becomes soiled or contaminated.
As discussed, some items and tools in a salon can be used many times, as long as they are properly cleaned and disinfected between uses. These are termed multi-use items and include the metal tools used in nail care and the combs, clippers, and shears used in hair care. Other items that cannot be disinfected effectively are termed single-use. Examples of single-use items are orangewood sticks, cotton balls, gauze, tissues, paper towels, and certain nail files and buffers. Single-use items are often porous or absorbable, making them extremely susceptible to bacterial invasion [1]. If disinfection is not possible (on items such as emery boards, neck strips, and cotton pads), the item must be discarded after use. Towels, sheets, capes, and other linens must be washed in detergent at a temperature of 140 degrees Fahrenheit before reuse.
All multi-use items should be washed with soap and water and debris (e.g., hair) should be removed before disinfection. As noted, complete immersion of instruments in an EPA-approved or hospital-level disinfectant is required. Disinfectants must have bactericidal, virucidal, and fungicidal qualities. Although the salon is not a place that typically deals with blood, accidents do sometimes happen. If the instrument has had contact with blood or bodily fluids (including saliva), the disinfectant must also be tuberculocidal.
It is important to keep a supply of ready-made solutions handy. Disinfectant solution should be kept in a clear container with a lid, so if the solution becomes cloudy or dirty it can be discarded. If no cloudiness or dirt is visible, the solution should be changed once a week. Finally, all items should be dried with a clean, dry cloth.
Store all disinfected items in a clean, enclosed space (e.g., a designated cabinet or container), where they may be clearly labeled as cleaned and ready for re-use. Undisinfected items (e.g., papers, candles, pens) should not be stored in the same area as disinfected implements.
By law, all pedicure equipment that holds water must be cleaned and disinfected after each use and at the end of the day [10,17]. Once per week, bleach should be circulated through the basin's spa system. Salon owners should follow the Florida Board of Cosmetology's guidelines on the proper cleaning of pedicure tubs. Failure to follow the guidelines set out by the Board could result in infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum, as discussed earlier, as well as S. aureus, fungal spores, and other pathogens. The manicurist's or pedicurist's license should also be displayed in a place that is visible to the customer.
In general, there are five steps to properly clean pedicure units [10,17]:
Drain and remove debris.
Thoroughly clean with soap or detergent and water.
Disinfect basin with an EPA-registered disinfectant for at least 10 minutes.
Flush, refill, and circulate disinfectant through the system.
Record the time and date these procedures were performed in a log book.
Technicians should always use caution when using powerful disinfectants to prevent skin and eye damage. Gloves should be worn at all times, and all items should be kept out of the reach of children. Always mark the contents of containers, follow manufacturers mixing instructions, and change solutions frequently. Make sure contaminated items are disposed of or disinfected with the appropriate disinfection method.
Handwashing is the best way to prevent transmission of disease from person to person. It removes pathogens from the hands and nails and is an essential part of practicing good hygiene. Good handwashing involves removing the skin oils where micro-organisms can remain even when the hands look clean. A quick pass under the water faucet and fast dry with the towel removes visible dirt but the oils and organisms remain. The proper procedure for handwashing consists of the following steps [1]:
Wet hands with warm water. (Some mistakenly think that hot water must be used to kill the organisms. Water hot enough to kill organisms would be too hot to touch. Warm water mainly adds to comfort and hopefully encourages better washing technique.)
Using liquid soap and a clean, disinfected soft-bristle nail brush, scrub your hands together and work up a good lather for at least 20 seconds. Give particular attention to the areas between the fingers, the nails, both sides of the hands, and the exposed portions of the arms. Be sure to use the nail brush to carefully scrub the underside of the nail plate, where bacteria can flourish.
Thoroughly rinse soap residue from your hands with warm water.
Dry hands using a disposable paper towel, air blower, or clean cloth towel.
If there is no visible dirt or contamination, a waterless hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol can be used between clients. However, nothing is as good as washing well with soap and water.
Bacteria and other micro-organisms can become resistant to disinfection. Bacteria, in particular, can evolve defenses against existing disinfectants as a result of several factors, including the overuse of antibiotics in the community, the overuse of antibiotics in feed cattle and agriculture, and the failure of individuals to complete prescribed courses of antibiotics. Studies have shown that antibacterial soaps may contribute to bacteria becoming resistant and are not more effective in preventing disease than regular soaps [1].
The use of single-use or disposable items rather than multi-use items will help to decrease the risk of resistant bacteria and infections. However, disposable items can be expensive and cannot be used for every task. It is important to keep up-to-date regarding outbreaks of resistant infections in your area, because if these pathogens are introduced into the salon, they can be more difficult to kill and more harmful to clients and employees.
The following section is an excerpt of the Florida Administrative Code Rule 61G5-20.002, which deals with the sanitation and disinfection requirements of salons and spas [10]. The complete code may be viewed and searched online at https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ruleno.asp?id=61G5-20.002.
61G5-20.002 Salon Requirements.
Prior to opening a salon, the owner shall:
Submit an application on forms prescribed by the Department of Business and Professional Regulation; and
Pay the required registration fee as outlined in the fee schedule in Rule 61G5-24.005, F.A.C.; and
Meet the safety and sanitary requirements as listed below and these requirements shall continue in full force and effect for the life of the salon:
Ventilation and Cleanliness: Each salon shall be kept well ventilated. The walls, ceilings, furniture and equipment shall be kept clean and free from dust. Hair must not be allowed to accumulate on the floor of the salon. Hair must be deposited in a closed container. Each salon which provides services for the extending or sculpturing of nails shall provide such services in a separate area which is adequately ventilated for the safe dispersion of all fumes resulting from the services.
Toilet and Lavatory Facilities: Each salon shall provide-on the premises or in the same building as, and within 300 feet of, the salon-adequate toilet and lavatory facilities. To be adequate, such facilities shall have at least one toilet and one sink with running water. Such facilities shall be equipped with toilet tissue, soap dispenser with soap or other hand cleaning material, sanitary towels or other hand-drying device such as a wall-mounted electric blow dryer, and waste receptacle. Such facilities and all of the foregoing fixtures and components shall be kept clean, in good repair, well-lighted, and adequately ventilated to remove objectionable odors.
A salon, or specialty salon may be located at a place of residence. Salon facilities must be separated from the living quarters by a permanent wall construction. A separate entrance shall be provided to allow entry to the salon other than from the living quarters. Toilet and lavatory facilities shall comply with subparagraph (c)2. above and shall have an entrance from the salon other than the living quarters.
Animals: No animals or pets shall be allowed in a salon, with the exception of fish kept in closed aquariums, or trained animals to assist the hearing impaired, visually impaired, or the physically disabled.
Shampoo Bowls: Each salon shall have shampoo bowls equipped with hot and cold running water. The shampoo bowls shall be located in the area where cosmetology services are being performed. A specialty salon that exclusively provides specialty services, as defined in Section 477.013(6), F.S., need not have a shampoo bowl, but must have a sink or lavatory equipped with hot and cold running water on the premises of the salon.
Comply with all local building and fire codes. These requirements shall continue in full force and effect for the life of the salon.
Each salon shall comply with the following:
Linens: Each salon shall keep clean linens in a closed, dustproof cabinet. All soiled linens must be kept in a closed receptacle. Soiled linens may be kept in open containers if entirely separated from the area in which cosmetology services are rendered to the public. A sanitary towel or neck strip shall be placed around the patron's neck to avoid direct contact of the shampoo cape with a patron's skin.
Containers: Salons must use containers for waving lotions and other preparations of such type as will prevent contamination of the unused portion. All creams shall be removed from containers by spatulas.
Sterilization and Disinfection: The use of a brush, comb or other article on more than one patron without being disinfected is prohibited. Each salon is required to have sufficient combs, brushes, and implements to allow for adequate disinfecting practices. Combs or other instruments shall not be carried in pockets.
Sanitizers: All salons shall be equipped with and utilize wet sanitizers with hospital level disinfectant or EPA-approved disinfectant, sufficient to allow for disinfecting practices.
A wet sanitizer is any receptacle containing a disinfectant solution and large enough to allow for a complete immersion of the articles. A cover shall be provided.
Disinfecting methods which are effective and approved for salons: First, clean articles with soap and water, completely immerse in a chemical solution that is hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant as follows:
Combs and brushes, remove hair first and immerse in hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant;
Metallic instrument, immerse in hospital level for EPA-approved disinfectant;
Instruments with cutting edge, wipe with a hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant; or
Implements may be immersed in a hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant solution.
For purposes of this rule, a "hospital level disinfectant or EPA-approved disinfectant" shall mean the following:
For all combs, brushes, metallic instruments, instruments with a cutting edge, and implements that have not come into contact with blood or body fluids, a disinfectant that indicates on its label that it has been registered with the EPA as a hospital grade bacterial, virucidal and fungicidal disinfectant;
For all combs, brushes, metallic instruments with a cutting edge, and implements that have come into contact with blood or body fluids, a disinfectant that indicates on its label that it has been registered with the EPA as a tuberculocidal disinfectant, in accordance with 29 C.F.R. 1910.1030.
All disinfectants shall be mixed and used according to the manufacturer's directions.
After cleaning and disinfecting, articles shall be stored in a clean, closed cabinet or container until used. Undisinfected articles such as pens, pencils, money, paper, mail, etc., shall not be kept in the same container or cabinet. For the purpose of recharging, rechargeable clippers may be stored in an area other than in a closed cabinet or container, provided such area is clean and provided the cutting edges of such clippers have been disinfected.
Ultra Violet Irradiation may be used to store articles and instruments after they have been cleansed and disinfected.
Pedicure Equipment Sterilization and Disinfection:
The following cleaning and disinfection procedures must be used for any pedicure equipment that holds water, including sinks, bowls, basins, pipe-less spas, and whirlpool spas:
After each client, all pedicure units must be cleaned with a low-foaming soap or detergent with water to remove all visible debris, then disinfected with an EPA-registered, hospital grade bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, and pseudomonacidal disinfectant used according to manufacturers instructions for at least ten (10) minutes. If the pipe-free foot spa has a foot plate, it should be removed and the area beneath it cleaned, rinsed, and wiped dry.
At the end of each day of use, the following procedures shall be used:
All filter screens in whirlpool pedicure spas or basins for all types of foot spas must be sanitized. All visible debris in the screen and the inlet must be removed and cleaned with a low-foaming soap or detergent and water. For pipe-free systems, the jet components or foot plate must be removed and cleaned and any debris removed. The screen, jet, or foot plate must be completely immersed in an EPA-registered, hospital grade bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, and pseudomonacidal disinfectant that is used according to manufacturer's instructions. The screen, jet, or foot plate must be replaced after disinfection is completed and the system is flushed with warm water and low-foaming soap for 5 minutes, rinsed, and drained.
After the above procedures are completed, the basin should be filled with clean water and the correct amount of EPA-registered disinfectant. The solution must be circulated through foot spa system for 10 minutes and the unit then turned off. The solution should remain in the basin for at least 6 to 10 hours. Before using the equipment again, the basin system must be drained and flushed with clean water.
Once each week, subsequent to completing the required end-of-day cleaning procedures, the basin must be filled with a solution of water containing one teaspoon of 5.25% bleach for each gallon of water. The solution must be circulated through the spa system for 5 to 10 minutes and then the solution must sit in the basin for at least 6 hours. Before use, the system must be drained and flushed.
A record or log book containing the dates and times of all pedicure cleaning and disinfection procedures must be documented and kept in the pedicure area by the salon and made available for review upon request by a consumer or a Department inspector.
No cosmetology or specialty salon shall be operated in the same licensed space allocation with any other business which adversely affects the sanitation of the salon, or in the same licensed space allocation with a school teaching cosmetology or a specialty licensed under Chapter 477, F.S., or in any other location, space, or environment which adversely affects the sanitation of the salon. In order to control the required space and maintain proper sanitation, where a salon adjoins such other business or school, or such other location, space or environment, there must be permanent walls separating the salon from the other business, school, location, space, or environment and there must be separate and distinctly marked entrances for each.
Evidence that the full salon contains a minimum of 200 square feet of floor space. No more than two (2) cosmetologists or specialists may be employed in a salon which has only the minimum floor space.
A specialty salon offering only one of the regulated specialties shall evidence a minimum of 100 square feet used in the performance of the specialty service and shall meet all the sanitation requirements stated in this section. No more than one specialist or cosmetologist may be employed in a specialty salon with only the minimum floor space. An additional 50 square feet will be required for each additional specialist or cosmetologist employed.
For purposes of this rule, "permanent wall" means a vertical continuous structure of wood, plaster, masonry, or other similar building material, which is physically connected to a salon's floor and ceiling, and which serves to delineate and protect the salon.
Sanitation and disinfection in the spa and salon environment is a vital part of every technician's training and education. Styling, shaping, and creating beauty are the basis of cosmetology, but the cosmetologist must first begin with a clean and safe working environment. A successful salon and a loyal clientele cannot be built without adherence to proper sanitation and disinfection guidelines and to Florida laws and rules.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Scabies. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/scabies. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Head Lice Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/lice/head/factsheet.html. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
4. Salon IQ. Head Lice. Available at http://www.saloniq.com/resources/headlice.php. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Water-Related Hygiene: Hygiene-Related Diseases. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/disease/athletes_foot.html. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
6. Doctor Fungus. Tinea Capitis and Tinea Favosa. Available at http://www.doctorfungus.org/mycoses/human/other/Tinea_capitis_favosa.htm. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
7. Szepietowski J, Schwartz, RA. Favus. eMedicine. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1090828-overview. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
8. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Preventing Pedicure Foot Spa Infections. Available at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/pedicure.htm. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
9. Fritz JM, Woeltje KF. Mycobacterium Fortuitum. eMedicine. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/222918-print. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
10. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. Rule Chapter 61G5-20.002: Salon Requirements. Available at https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ruleno.asp?id=61G5-20.002. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
11. Hagerty J. Perilous Pedicures. Available at http://www.nurseweek.com.news/Features/05-05/Pedicures_print.html. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
12. Vugia DJ, Jang Y, Zizek C, Ely J, Winthrop KL, Desmond E. Mycobacteria in nail salon whirlpool footbaths, California. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(4):616-618.
13. Texas Department of State Health Services. Precautions for Customers of Salon Manicures, Pedicures, and Foot Spa Use. Available at http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/idcu/health/antibiotic_resistance/educational/underskin.pdf. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
14. Dendle C, Mulvey S, Pyrlis F, Grayson ML, Johnson PDR. Severe complications of a "Brazilian" bikini wax. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:e29-e31.
15. California Board of Barbering and Cosmetology. Laws and Regulations Article 12 Section 990: Headrests and Treatment Tables. Available at http://www.barbercosmo.ca.gov/laws_regs/art12.shtml#a990. Last accessed June 22, 2010.
16. Kakourou T, Uksal U. ESPD practice guidelines: guidelines for the management of tinea capitis in children. Pediatric Dermatology. 2010;27(3):226-228.
17. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Recommended Cleaning and Disinfection Procedures for Foot Spa Basins in Salons. Available at http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/factsheets/footspa_disinfection.htm. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
18. Huijsdens XW, Janssen M, Renders NHM, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a beauty salon, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14(11):1797-1799.
19. Cooksey RC, de Waard JH, Yakrus MA, et al. Letter: Mycobacterium cosmeticum, Ohio and Venezuela. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(8): 1267-1269.
20. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. Florida Administrative Code Rule 61G5-20.007: Communicable Disease.
21. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Protecting the Health of Nail Salon Workers. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency; 2007.
22. International Nail Technicians Association, Nail Manufacturers Counsel. Guideline for Cleaning and Disinfecting Manicuring and Enhancement Equipment. Available at http://www.nailsmag.com/pdfs/handouts/GuidelinesClnngMncrngEqpmnt1.07.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
23. Georgia Department of Technical and Adult Education. Instructor Guide: Decontamination and Infection Control. Available at http://www.dtae.org/teched/standards/Decontamination%20and%20Infection%20Control%20IG.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
24. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Selected EPA-registered Disinfectants. Available at http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/chemregindex.htm. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
25. NAILS Magazine. State-by-State Guide to Disinfection Regulations. Available at http://www.nailsmag.com/pdfs/handouts/NAILSDisinfectionChart.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
Table of Contents
Contributing faculty, Paragon CET Staff, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to supply information that will allow Florida salon professionals to more easily comply with the broad spectrum of rules covered by OSHA regulations.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
In 1970, Congress established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA's mission is to, "assure the safety and health of America's workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach, and education; establishing partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health" [1]. This mandate involves the application of standards, enforcement, and compliance assistance that allow employers to maintain safe and healthful workplace [1].
At one time, OSHA compliance was considered an issue only important to and applicable for industry. Because salons do not use heavy equipment or have issues regarding noise levels or high-level chemical spills, people assumed that they were safe. Employee injuries were documented, and business went on as usual. However, OSHA now mandates that salons and spas have written safety compliance plans, specific to their company and location, that address the safety standards for their industry.
OSHA was created through the enactment of the William Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), was signed by President Nixon on December 29, 1970, and became effective on April 28, 1971. OSHA creates and enforces safety and health regulations to ensure that employees work in environments that are free from recognized hazards.
The OSH Act created three federal agencies: OSHA, within the Department of Labor; the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission; and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), within the Department of Health and Human Services. The OSH Act covers only the private sector [2].
OSHA's duties include writing standards, inspecting workplaces for compliance with standards, and prosecuting violations. The review commission is responsible for resolving disputes between OSHA and violators of the OSH Act (usually employers). NIOSH conducts research on occupational hazards and makes recommendations for standards [2]. OSHA is continually pushing for improved safety in all categories of the workplace.
The purpose of the Bloodborne Pathogens Standard, published by OSHA in final form in 1991, is to limit occupational exposure to blood, bodily fluids, and other potentially infectious materials, because any exposure could result in bloodborne pathogen transmission. These standards cover all employees who could be "reasonably anticipated to face contact with potentially infectious materials while performing their normal job duties" [3]. Some of the most common bloodborne pathogens include hepatitis C, HIV, and hepatitis B.
The standard requires employers to implement an Exposure Control Plan that mandates Universal Precautions (treating all body fluids as if infectious). The plan stresses hand hygiene, recommends the use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), sets forth processes to minimize blood exposure and splashing, ensures appropriate packaging of specimens, and regulates waste [3]. Under the standard, the employer must evaluate potential for contact to infectious materials and provide protection to any employees that may be exposed to these materials, including training, vaccination, and PPE.
Copies of the complete Bloodborne Pathogens Standards can be obtained at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/bloodbornepathogens/standards.html or by contacting OSHA at (800) 321-OSHA.
In January 2002, OSHA revised the rule addressing the recording and reporting of occupational injuries and illnesses. The goal of this revision was to simplify the overall recordkeeping for employers, generate more accurate information about occupational injuries, and better protect employee privacy [4]. Any records involving bloodborne pathogen exposure, treatment, and laboratory testing must be retained and recorded on the OSHA 300 log.
Code 29 CFR 1904 in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) addresses record keeping. One of the most confusing parts of record keeping is determining if an injury or illness is recordable based on first aid or medical treatment. The revised standard sets new definitions of medical treatment and first aid to simplify recording decisions. An injury or illness is considered work-related if an event or exposure in the work environment caused or contributed to the condition or significantly aggravated a pre-existing condition. All reportable injuries must be reported on the OSHA 300 log, OSHA form 301, or an equivalent form.
Complete and in-depth information on recordable and reportable injuries and illnesses may be found by visiting http://www.osha.gov. An abbreviated version may also be found on the Lab Safety Supply website at http://www.labsafety.com/refinfo/ezfacts/ezf183.htm [4].
All employee injuries and illnesses must be assessed with regard to safety and the possibility that a safe workplace has somehow been compromised. When evaluating any employee injury, the safety issues that might affect the outcome, such as chemical exposure, glove use, ergonomics, and even air quality issues, should be examined to make certain no overall safety issues exist. Any safety issues should be documented and reported to prove that the issues have been addressed and that no hazards are being neglected. Avoiding the perception that OSHA regulations are being ignored can be accomplished by careful documentation.
The management staff of any salon or like facility is the first line of defense. They will know the employees, what has to be done, and that their example will be emulated. A concerned attitude, use of necessary protective equipment, and safe work habits by supervisory and management staff will encourage employee participation [5].
A supervisor is generally the first one on the scene after an incident is reported and will be the one to do the initial investigation. This supervisor's commitment to safety and accident prevention is a key factor whether the incident involves an employee or patient injury. Supervisors will also be the first to spot and prevent unsafe lifting, failure to wear PPE, and disregard for safety information. The time to correct these lapses is at the time the lapse occurs. Consistency, fair play, and discipline, when necessary, are fundamental aspects of employee safety.
A commitment by supervisor and managerial staff to control costs is another factor in a successful program. Commitment must be not only to direct cost reduction, such as medical and compensation, but also in indirect cost reduction, such as new employee training, equipment down time, and accident investigation time by the supervisor [5].
One of the factors that will complicate any employee injury is workers' compensation. Each state has its own set of laws; however, prompt reporting of treated injuries and an accurate OSHA accident log will help to lessen any conflicts. Employees must understand that prompt reporting of work-related injuries will lead to effective treatment and lower overall costs to the facility. The salon manager should also be familiar with the workers' compensation laws in their own state. It is wise to have the handbook available for reference.
Violence in the workplace is an issue that is increasingly coming to public attention. OSHA reported that 792 workers were fatally injured by assault and/or violent attack in the workplace in 2005 [12]. In addition, an estimated 1 million workers-18,000 per week-are victims of nonfatal workplace assaults each year [6].
When evaluating an organization as a safe workplace, employee education and documentation of that education is essential. OSHA's quest is to provide a safe workplace for all employees. An Employee Health Risk Management Program that is organized well can assist a facility in meeting OSHA requirements with ease.
The Hazard Communication Standard, also known as the Right-to-Know Law, is referenced by Code 29 CFR 1910.1200 [7]. The purpose of the standard is to ensure that chemical hazards in the workplace are identified and evaluated and that information concerning these hazards is communicated to employers and employees.
Cosmetologists may be exposed to high concentrations of several chemical compounds that are used in products for hair, facial, skin, nail, and body treatments. Products may contain any of several volatile organic compounds (VOCs), methacrylates, phthalates, and formaldehyde. The Hazard Communication Standard seeks to inform employees about hazards from workplace chemicals and ways that employees can monitor their exposure to hazardous chemicals and protect their health. This transfer of information is to be accomplished by means of a comprehensive hazard communication program, which includes container labeling and other forms of warning [8,9].
The standard is comprised of several major categories: hazard determination, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) that list exposure dangers, employee training, the written program, and trade secrets. OSHA requires that the workplace evaluate chemicals, label them, maintain MSDS, train the employees with documentation, and have a written hazard communication program. In addition, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires that ingredient of cosmetics and beauty products, including permanent hair solutions and tints, appear on the labels.
One way to determine if a chemical is hazardous is by consulting one of the following lists [3]:
OSHA Regulated Substances (29 CFR 1910.120)
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
National Toxicology Program Annual Report on Carcinogens
International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs
If a chemical is encountered that is not found in one of these lists, it is the responsibility of the employer to search other scientific literature to determine if the chemical is hazardous. Every chemical in the facility must have an MSDS sheet, and the sheets must be updated on a regular basis and readily available to employees. Training and documentation of training must be provided and take place at the time of initial assignment or whenever a new, potentially dangerous chemical is introduced into the workplace. Not only do employees have a legal right to know about chemical hazards, but the employer must also provide protection for the employees, eye wash stations, and monitoring of exposure.
Hazardous waste products fall under two general categories: pathological waste and infectious waste. Infectious waste is any waste that may contain pathogens capable of causing an infectious disease. Pathological waste is any human tissues, organs, and/or body parts, other than teeth, and is generally not found in the field of cosmetology. All pathological waste should be considered infectious waste [3]. Hazardous waste must be disposed of properly, as designated by state or local laws.
Part of the salon's responsibilities for workplace safety rests with that facility's ability to have a plan in place for spills of all kinds. Blood and chemical spills, such as formaldehyde or any other harmful chemical (e.g., chemicals found in hair, nail, and skin products), both contain the potential for employee injury. Salon professionals must take precautions for chemical spills, regardless of how minor. Spill kits for both chemical and blood spills should be placed strategically around the facility. All personnel must be trained in the use of the spill kits, and training must be documented. Policies should be in place that cover spill cleanup, protective equipment, handling solid or liquid spills, and the storage and handling of any chemicals [3].
Ergonomics is defined as the science of designing the workplace to accommodate the worker. When establishing an ergonomics program, breaking down the program into four main components makes the program more valuable:
Worksite analysis
Hazard prevention and control
Medical management
Training and education
Although no standards exist to universally regulate ergonomics in the salon industry, OSHA has established a protocol for developing industry and task-specific ergonomic guidelines, which can be found on OSHA's website, at http://www.osha.gov [10]. This protocol was created to "establish a fair and transparent process for developing industry and task specific guidelines that will assist employers and employees in recognizing and controlling potential ergonomic hazards" [10]. As of 2008, no specific ergonomic standards had been established for salon professionals. However, it is possible that OSHA will publish a standard in the future.
Special attention should be paid to maintain ergonomically correct posture and ergonomically friendly work areas and to reduce wear and tear caused by repetition and incorrect tool handling.
When evaluating the overall safety plan for the salon and compliance with the employee safety regulations that address PPE, latex allergy can be an important factor. An employer must provide safety equipment as an effective barrier to hazardous materials that can be worn by the employee without causing discomfort or adverse effects. Some populations with high risk of developing a latex allergy include those with a history of allergies and anyone who frequently comes in contact with latex products. Because of the use of hazardous chemicals in salon professions, there is a high potential of the use disposable gloves, including latex gloves; therefore, there is a high potential for latex allergy.
Changing to a non-latex glove to eliminate reactions may not work. Some non-latex gloves may still contain chemical sensitizers. Gloves labeled hypoallergenic do not necessarily eliminate allergic reactions. The use of hypoallergenic gloves may minimize the likelihood of an allergic reaction but will not eliminate the possibility of a reaction. As the employer is responsible to provide gloves that can be worn safely, all measures must be taken to find the kind of glove that can be worn safely by the employee without exposing them to the external hazards of harmful material or the internal hazards of a reaction to the equipment providing protection.
Throughout the OSHA standards, employee training and education are paramount. The standards themselves are very specific about the training and education of employees. The following items must be considered:
Designation of a person responsible for conducting training
A specific format for the training program
Elements of the training program
Procedures to train new employees at the time of their initial assignment
When OSHA visits a facility, they expect the facility to be able to produce a written program addressing all of the safety aspects, including fire safety, hazard communication, disaster plans, and many other areas. In addition, they will expect to see proof of education, such as lesson plans, inservice dates, sign-in sheets, and education evaluation. The Bloodborne Pathogens Standard requires employee education to happen immediately upon hire. Documentation must reflect this.
In today's litigious society, any facility is at risk for lawsuits. If an employee is injured on the job and that employee is able to show that a lack of safety equipment or training or unsafe conditions caused the injury, the facility is at risk for litigation. Lack of proper treatment of the injury and continuing unsafe conditions would also be factors.
If a lawyer investigates an incident, he or she will expect to examine the multitude of documentation available, including incident reports, medical records that include treatment of the employee, and training and education records. Safety conditions that could have caused the injury, any perceived unsafe conditions that exist, the safety committee minutes that show how the facility has addressed the condition, and further actions to correct the condition will also be reviewed.
Knowing what the standards prescribe for the facility and carrying out proper documentation for all programs, whether evaluating written plans, the education program, or follow-up of existing conditions, will be the best protection possible. The standards should be read carefully, and training seminars and any other resources available to help keep the facility in compliance should be considered.
OSHA requires that every employer furnish employees with employment and a place of employment that are free from recognized hazards that cause or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm. To avoid citations, employers must comply with standards. This can be done by an internal safety staff or by an outside private consultant. Free consultations are available to small businesses with no more than 250 employees at one site and no more than 500 employees total at all sites.
Requests for assistance may be done in person, over the phone, or in writing. The consultation will include an opening conference and an inspection to examine building structure, air and noise monitoring, PPE, job training, the current safety and health programs, and current injury and illness records as well as the communication procedures for safety policies and procedures [11].
A records review is an examination of the injury and illness records to determine whether there will be a comprehensive inspection of the workplace. The compliance officer reviews the OSHA 300 log and employment data in order to calculate the lost-time injury rate. This figure is compared to the national average, and if the facility rate is lower, the officer may not conduct a comprehensive safety inspection. A short tour may be conducted to determine compliance with the hazard communication standard and to ensure the presence of an effective safety and health management program [3].
Read and understand the regulations and take advantage of all the resources available. The most important resource is the 29 CFR 1910, General Industry Standards. There are also many free resources, such as the free OSHA consultations.
Access the provided websites for more information and updated standards. Keep informed about changes in regulations or standards.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov (800) CDC-INFO or (800) 311-3435
NIOSH Information Line http://www.cdc.gov/niosh (800) 356-4674
OSHA http://www.osha.gov (800) 321-OSHA
1. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA's Role. Available at http://www.osha.gov/oshinfo/mission.html. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
2. Lurie P. Long M, Wolfe SM. Reinventing OSHA: Dangerous Reductions in Enforcement During the Clinton Administration. Available at http://www.citizen.org/publications/release.cfm?ID=6693. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
3. Health Career Learning Systems, Inc. OSHA Compliance Program. Livonia, MI: Health Career Learning Systems, Inc.; 1995.
4. Lab Safety Supply. OSHA Reporting Requirements. EZ Facts Document 183. Available at http://www.labsafety.com/refinfo/ ezfacts/ezf183.htm. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Violence in the Workplace. Easylink Document 705003. June 1997.
7. Lab Safety. The Hazard Communication (Right-to-Know) Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200. EZ Facts Document 150. Available at http://www.labsafety.com/refinfo/ezfacts/ezf150.htm. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
8. Tsigonia A, Lagoudi A, Chandrinou S, Linos A, Evlogias N, Alexopoulos EC. Indoor air in beauty salons and occupational health exposure of cosmetologists to chemical substances. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010;7(1):314-324.
9. Oregon OSHA. Fact Sheet: Safety and Health Hazards in Nail Salons. Available at http://www.orosha.org/pdf/pubs/fact_sheets/fs28.pdf. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
10. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Protocol for Developing Industry and Task-Specific Ergonomic Guidelines. 2004. Available at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/guidelines_protocol.html. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
11. Lab Safety. OSHA Consultation. EZ Facts Document 185. Available at http://www.labsafety.com/refinfo/ezfacts/ezf185.htm. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
12. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Fatal Occupational Injuries by Event or Exposure, 2001-2006. Available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi.t01.htm. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
13. Roelofs C, Azaroff LS, Holcroft C, Nguyen H, Doan T. Results from a community-based occupational health survey of Vietnamese-American nail salon workers. J Immigr Minor Health. 2008;10(4):353-361.
14. Quach T, Nguyen K-D, Doan-Billings P-A, Okahara L, Fan C, Reynolds P. A preliminary survey of Vietnamese nail salon workers in Alameda County, California. J Community Health. 2008;33(5):336-343.
15. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Fact Sheet: EMFs in the Workplace. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emf2.html. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
16. Lind M-L, Johnsson S, Meding B, Boman A. Permeability of hair dye compounds p-phenylenediamine, toluene-2,5-diaminesulfate and resorcinol through protective gloves in hairdressing. Ann Occup Hyg. 2007;51(5):479-486.
18. Blumstein S, Zeller J, Sharbaugh B. APIC Commentary on "Healthcare Waste Management: A Template for Action." Am J Infect Control. 2000;28(2):e1-e2.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NIOSH Warns: Nitrous Oxide Continues to Threaten Healthcare Workers. NIOSH Alert. 1994. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/updates/94-118.html. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
20. Panlilio AL, Cardo DM, Grohskopf LA, Heneine W, Ross CS. Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR. 2005;54(RR9):1-17.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tuberculosis elimination revisited: obstacles, opportunities and a renewed commitment-Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis (ACET). MMWR. 1999;48(RR09):1-13.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ). Easylink Document 705002. June 1997.
23. The Office of the Federal Register. Occupational exposure to tuberculosis. Federal Register. 2003;68(101).
24. American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) Department of Occupational Safety and Health. Chronology of OSHA's Ergonomics Standard and the Business Campaign Against It. 2004. Available at http://www.aflcio.org/issues/safety/ergo/upload/chrono2004.pdf. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
25. Snider GL. Tuberculosis then and now: a personal perspective on the last 50 years. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126(3):237-243.
26. Lab Safety. Ergonomics-An Overview. EZ Facts Document 220. Available at http://www.labsafety.com/refinfo/ezfacts/ezf220.htm. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
27. Mayo Clinic. Latex Allergy: Signs and Symptoms. 2007. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/latex-allergy/DS00621/DSECTION=2. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
28. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Statement of Edwin G. Foulke, Jr., Assistant Secretary Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Before the Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies Committee on Appropriations, United States House of Representatives: March 20, 2007. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=TESTIMONIES&p_id=357. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
29. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Bloodborne Pathogens. Standard 29CFR 1910.1030.
30. Quinlan Publishing Group. OSHA Proposes National Ergonomics Standard. Workers Compensation Law Bulletin. 2000;23(1):1-8.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tuberculosis control laws-United States, 1993. Recommendations of the Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis. MMWR. 1993;42(RR15):1-28.
32. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Forms for Recording Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses. Available at http://www.osha.gov/recordkeeping/new-osha300form1-1-04.pdf. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
33. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Facts-August 2007. Available at http://safetypartnersllc.com/Documents/OSHA%20Facts.pdf. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
34. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. National Occupational Research Agenda. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ niosh/nora. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR. 2001;50(RR11):1-42.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis B: Vaccination of Adults. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HBV/VaccAdults.htm. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in tuberculosis-United States, 2006. MMWR. 2007;56(11):245-250.
38. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. General Duty Clause, Section 5-Duties. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=OSHACT&p_id=3359. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
39. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Fatal Occupational Injuries by Selected Worker Characteristics and Selected Event or Exposure, 2006. Available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi.t04.htm. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis ABC Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/Resources/Professionals/PDFs/ABCTable_BW.pdf. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
41. Jensen PA, Lambert LA, Iademarco MF, Ridzon R, for the Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005. MMWR. 2005;54(RR17):1-141.
42. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Standard Interpretations: Tuberculosis and Respiratory Protection. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=INTERPRETATIONS&p_id=25843. Last accessed May 25, 2010.
Table of Contents
Contributing faculty, Paragon CET Staff, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to provide Florida salon professionals with a basic understanding of workers' compensation and the required documentation and reporting.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
Workers' compensation is a type of insurance program that provides medical care and partial wage replacement benefits for individuals injured on the job. Employers put money into the system to both help their workers and to help protect themselves from a potentially expensive lawsuit if an employee is hurt while working. Employees are guaranteed access to treatment and rehabilitation for their legitimate injuries and payments to compensate for their lack of income. Many of the injuries in cosmetology are repetitive strain injuries of the hands, wrists, or shoulders caused by constantly performing the same motions and/or the extended use of awkward positions. Other injuries may be the result of acute or cumulative exposure to various chemicals. While these injuries are not as dramatic or obvious as those resulting in broken bones or the loss of blood, they can be equally as debilitating, and it is important to remember that you have specific legal and medical rights if sudden or cumulative injuries occur.
Providing compensation for workplace injuries is a practice that has been around for more than 4000 years [1]. Injured employees in ancient civilizations were usually given one-time payments based on the seriousness of their injury; the payment for the loss of a foot was greater than the payment for the loss of a toe. This type of compensation system was used most often in the past, but some employers would not pay any compensation for injuries because they claimed that workers knew that the job they signed up for was dangerous-this is called "assumed risk." Many employers in hazardous industries during the industrial revolution (e.g., mining, railroad, textile, fishing) made workers sign contracts stating that they could not sue the company in the event of injury.
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck of Prussia is given credit for creating the modern workers' compensation system [1]. Under von Bismarck, people who were injured at work or had become disabled due to disease were cared for by the government. The Prussian system was called Workers' Accident Insurance, and it is the basis of the workers' compensation insurance programs used in the United States today. The main difference between the two systems is that employers fund the programs in the U.S. and the government funded the program in Prussia.
Individual U.S. states are responsible for passing their own laws regarding workers' compensation. The first law was passed in Maryland in 1902 [2]. Florida passed its worker's compensation law in 1935 in response to the great increase in people migrating to the state to find work during the Great Depression [3]. This original law has been changed several times and has evolved into the program used today.
Florida's first compensation program was similar to the ancient systems in that injuries were compensated according to a fixed schedule [3]. This system did not take into account the amount of money a person was earning before the accident. Today, eligible workers receive compensation based on their pre-injury wages (up to a certain amount), and all necessary medical care, rehabilitation, and job re-training is paid for by the workers' compensation program until the individual is deemed healthy enough to return to work by a doctor.
Because injuries have resulted from intoxicated employees' impaired judgment or coordination, the Florida workers' compensation statutes also outline the drug-free workplace program. As such, employers may test any employee or job applicant for any of the drugs identified in the law.
There are specific legislated statutes that guarantee the rights of employees; for example, Florida Statute 440.06 specifically states that no employer can use "assumed risk" as defense in a lawsuit or claim that an employee's (or co-worker's) carelessness caused the injuries. Portions of some of the more relevant statutes and their sub-sections appear in the following section [4]. The complete statutes may be viewed online at http://www.flsenate.gov/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0440/titl0440.htm.
440.015 Legislative intent-It is the intent of the Legislature that the Workers' Compensation Law be interpreted so as to assure the quick and efficient delivery of disability and medical benefits to an injured worker and to facilitate the worker's return to gainful reemployment at a reasonable cost to the employer. It is the specific intent of the Legislature that workers' compensation cases shall be decided on their merits. The workers' compensation system in Florida is based on a mutual renunciation of common-law rights and defenses by employers and employees alike. In addition, it is the intent of the Legislature that the facts in a workers' compensation case are not to be interpreted liberally in favor of either the rights of the injured worker or the rights of the employer. Additionally, the Legislature hereby declares that disputes concerning the facts in workers' compensation cases are not to be given a broad liberal construction in favor of the employee on the one hand or of the employer on the other hand, and the laws pertaining to workers' compensation are to be construed in accordance with the basic principles of statutory construction and not liberally in favor of either employee or employer. It is the intent of the Legislature to ensure the prompt delivery of benefits to the injured worker. Therefore, an efficient and self-executing system must be created which is not an economic or administrative burden. The department, agency, the Office of Insurance Regulation, the Department of Education, and the Division of Administrative Hearings shall administer the Workers' Compensation Law in a manner which facilitates the self-execution of the system and the process of ensuring a prompt and cost-effective delivery of payments.
440.055 Notice requirements-An employer who employs fewer than four employees, who is permitted by law to elect not to secure payment of compensation under this chapter, and who elects not to do so shall post clear written notice in a conspicuous location at each worksite directed to all employees and other persons performing services at the worksite of their lack of entitlement to benefits under this chapter.
440.09 Coverage-The employer must pay compensation or furnish benefits required by this chapter if the employee suffers an accidental compensable injury or death arising out of work performed in the course and the scope of employment. The injury, its occupational cause, and any resulting manifestations or disability must be established to a reasonable degree of medical certainty, based on objective relevant medical findings, and the accidental compensable injury must be the major contributing cause of any resulting injuries. For purposes of this section, "major contributing cause" means the cause which is more than 50 percent responsible for the injury as compared to all other causes combined for which treatment or benefits are sought. In cases involving occupational disease or repetitive exposure, both causation and sufficient exposure to support causation must be proven by clear and convincing evidence. Pain or other subjective complaints alone, in the absence of objective relevant medical findings, are not compensable. For purposes of this section, "objective relevant medical findings" are those objective findings that correlate to the subjective complaints of the injured employee and are confirmed by physical examination findings or diagnostic testing. Establishment of the causal relationship between a compensable accident and injuries for conditions that are not readily observable must be by medical evidence only, as demonstrated by physical examination findings or diagnostic testing. Major contributing cause must be demonstrated by medical evidence only.
440.101 Legislative intent; drug-free workplaces-It is the intent of the Legislature to promote drug-free workplaces in order that employers in the state be afforded the opportunity to maximize their levels of productivity, enhance their competitive positions in the marketplace, and reach their desired levels of success without experiencing the costs, delays, and tragedies associated with work-related accidents resulting from drug abuse by employees. It is further the intent of the Legislature that drug abuse be discouraged and that employees who choose to engage in drug abuse face the risk of unemployment and the forfeiture of workers' compensation benefits.
440.102 Drug-free workplace program requirements-The following provisions apply to a drug-free workplace program implemented pursuant to law or to rules adopted by the Agency for Health Care Administration:
DEFINITIONS.
"Drug" means alcohol, including a distilled spirit, wine, a malt beverage, or an intoxicating liquor; an amphetamine; a cannabinoid; cocaine; phencyclidine (PCP); a hallucinogen; methaqualone; an opiate; a barbiturate; a benzodiazepine; a synthetic narcotic; a designer drug; or a metabolite of any of the substances listed in this paragraph. An employer may test an individual for any or all of such drugs.
"Reasonable-suspicion drug testing" means drug testing based on a belief that an employee is using or has used drugs in violation of the employer's policy drawn from specific objective and articulable facts and reasonable inferences drawn from those facts in light of experience. Among other things, such facts and inferences may be based upon:
Observable phenomena while at work, such as direct observation of drug use or of the physical symptoms or manifestations of being under the influence of a drug.
Abnormal conduct or erratic behavior while at work or a significant deterioration in work performance.
A report of drug use, provided by a reliable and credible source.
Evidence that an individual has tampered with a drug test during his or her employment with the current employer.
Information that an employee has caused, contributed to, or been involved in an accident while at work.
Evidence that an employee has used, possessed, sold, solicited, or transferred drugs while working or while on the employer's premises or while operating the employer's vehicle, machinery, or equipment.
DRUG TESTING-An employer may test an employee or job applicant for any drug described in paragraph (1)(c).
440.205 Coercion of employees-No employer shall discharge, threaten to discharge, intimidate, or coerce any employee by reason of such employee's valid claim for compensation or attempt to claim compensation under the Workers' Compensation Law.
The Florida Department of Financial Services offers a guide to help individuals understand the Workers' Compensation program. The original document can be obtained online at http://www.myfloridacfo.com/wc/pdf/DFS-F2-DWC-60.pdf. The following is a summary of the Important Workers' Compensation Information for Florida's Workers guide [5].
After a workplace injury, an authorized doctor will be provided by your insurance carrier and financial assistance will begin. All necessary medical care and rehabilitation will be paid for, including travel expenses, until a doctor determines that maximum medical improvement has been achieved (meaning injury has healed to the point that further improvement is unlikely).
Payment for lost wages will begin on the 8th day of missed work after the injury. In most cases, the wage replacement benefits will equal two-thirds of your pre-injury earnings, but the benefit will not be higher than Florida's average weekly wage. Different types of wage replacement benefits are provided based on the severity of the injury and progress of the claim.
The workers' compensation program operates under the assumption that the injuries being reported are real. When false injuries are reported or employees falsely claim to not be healed, there is a strain on the program and fines and jail time can result. A reward of up to $25,000 may be paid to individuals who provide information that leads to the conviction of persons committing workers' compensation fraud.
Insurers are responsible for making sure the compensation process proceeds in a timely manner and that medical treatment is provided as soon as possible after injuries.
The Division of Workers' Compensation Employee Assistance Office (EAO) can assist with employee claims and disputes if the claims adjuster is unable to help. If there are any problems with financial or medical benefits, call the EAO toll-free hotline at 1-800-342-1741 or visit their website at http://www.fldfs.com/WC.
An employee has 30 days to report an injury to his or her employer. However, it is important to report injuries, even suspected injuries, quickly. No claims can be filed 2 years past the injury date.
If a claim is not being resolved in a timely manner, a Petition for Benefits form must be filed with the Office of Judges of Compensation Claims. This will begin the judicial procedure for obtaining benefits. The form can be accessed at http://www.jcc.state.fl.us/jcc/forms.cfm.
It is the employee's responsibility to follow all the procedures outlined by the workers' compensation program. All forms must be signed and returned promptly, appointments must be kept, and treatment and rehabilitation plans must be followed. Reviewing and understanding the mandatory fraud statement is necessary.
It is not necessary to have a lawyer to proceed with a workers' compensation claim. If you choose to hire a lawyer, the fees and costs may come out of your benefits. Although the Division does not provide legal advice, they will answer questions regarding workers' rights and responsibilities.
Though not generally considered an at-risk group in a hazardous occupation, cosmetologists are susceptible to injuries that can result from working with chemicals, heat, and sharp objects, and even from standing, slipping, and performing repetitive motions all day. Any serious injury that results in the inability to perform workplace duties should be reported to employers immediately to ensure access to workers' compensation benefits. An unbiased third-party and medical examinations will determine if the injuries will prevent working and if the claim has legal merit. It is important to remember that it is the right of employees in the state of Florida to file a legitimate claim and that it is illegal for an employer to bribe, threaten, harm, fire, or in any way prevent an employee from filing a workers' compensation claim.
2. Maryland Workers' Compensation Commission Publications. Annual Report: Fiscal Year 2000. Available at http://www.wcc.state.md.us/pdf/publications/ar2000s.pdf. Last accessed May 20, 2010.
3. Harger L, Florida Department of Financial Services. Workers' Compensation: A Brief History. Available at http://www.myfloridacfo.com/WC/history.html. Last accessed May 20, 2010.
4. The Florida Senate. 2009 Florida Statutes. Chapter 440: Workers' Compensation. Available at http://www.flsenate.gov/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0440/titl0440.htm. Last accessed May 20, 2010.
5. Florida Department of Financial Services Division of Workers' Compensation. Important Workers' Compensation Information for Florida's Workers. Available at http://www.myfloridacfo.com/wc/pdf/DFS-F2-DWC-60.pdf. Last accessed May 20, 2010.
6. Sengupta I, Reno V, Burton JF Jr. Workers' Compensation: Benefits, Coverage, and Costs. Washington, DC: National Academy of Social Insurance; 2006. Available at http://www.nasi.org/usr_doc/NASI_Workers_Comp_Report_2006.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
7. Burton JF Jr. Workers' Compensation in the United States: A Primer. Available at http://www.workerscompresources.com/ Data_and_Articles/WC%20in%20US-Primer/Workers'Comp%20V06%2027June07%20with%20ref-for%20website.doc. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
8. Florida Department of Financial Services, Division of Workers' Compensation. Workers' Compensation System Guide. Available at http://www.myfloridacfo.com/wc/index.htm. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
9. The Florida Senate. 2009 Florida Statutes. Chapter 440: Workers' Compensation. Available at http://www.flsenate.gov/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0440/titl0440.htm. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
10. Florida Department of Financial Services Division of Workers' Compensation. Florida Administrative Code 69L. Available at https://www.flrules.org/Gateway/Division.asp?DivID=370. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
Table of Contents
Contributing faculty, Paragon CET Staff, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to provide cosmetologists with a basic knowledge of the current Florida Cosmetology Practice Act and other select rules and laws as set forth by the Florida Board. Information contained in this course is not intended to be used in lieu of lawful guidelines, but as a learning tool to increase the understanding of some regulations as they apply to cosmetologists who are licensed within the state of Florida.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
Licensed cosmetologists in Florida are required to practice under statutes and an administrative code set forth to ensure the safety of the public and contribute to the maintenance of public health. The following information is provided to familiarize Florida cosmetologists with the laws and rules that govern areas of practice for cosmetology, including licensure, disciplinary actions, and criminal self-reporting.
The following section is reprinted from the Official Internet Site of the Florida Legislature, Title XXXII, Chapter 477: Cosmetology, and reviews the complete Florida Cosmetology Practice Act. Please be advised that this information is current at the time of publication. For recent amendments and additions, please review the statutes on the Official Legislature website at http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes [1].
477.013 Definitions-As used in this chapter:
"Board" means the Board of Cosmetology.
"Department" means the Department of Business and Professional Regulation.
"Cosmetologist" means a person who is licensed to engage in the practice of cosmetology in this state under the authority of this chapter.
"Cosmetology" means the mechanical or chemical treatment of the head, face, and scalp for aesthetic rather than medical purposes, including, but not limited to, hair shampooing, hair cutting, hair arranging, hair coloring, permanent waving, and hair relaxing for compensation. This term also includes performing hair removal, including wax treatments, manicures, pedicures, and skin care services.
"Specialist" means any person holding a specialty registration in one or more of the specialties registered under this chapter.
"Specialty" means the practice of one or more of the following:
Manicuring, or the cutting, polishing, tinting, coloring, cleansing, adding, or extending of the nails, and massaging of the hands. This term includes any procedure or process for the affixing of artificial nails, except those nails which may be applied solely by use of a simple adhesive.
Pedicuring, or the shaping, polishing, tinting, or cleansing of the nails of the feet, and massaging or beautifying of the feet.
Facials, or the massaging or treating of the face or scalp with oils, creams, lotions, or other preparations, and skin care services.
"Shampooing" means the washing of the hair with soap and water or with a special preparation, or applying hair tonics.
"Specialty salon" means any place of business wherein the practice of one or all of the specialties as defined in subsection (6) are engaged in or carried on.
"Hair braiding" means the weaving or interweaving of natural human hair for compensation without cutting, coloring, permanent waving, relaxing, removing, or chemical treatment and does not include the use of hair extensions or wefts.
"Hair wrapping" means the wrapping of manufactured materials around a strand or strands of human hair, for compensation, without cutting, coloring, permanent waving, relaxing, removing, weaving, chemically treating, braiding, using hair extensions, or performing any other service defined as cosmetology.
"Photography studio salon" means an establishment where the hair-arranging services and the application of cosmetic products are performed solely for the purpose of preparing the model or client for the photographic session without shampooing, cutting, coloring, permanent waving, relaxing, or removing of hair or performing any other service defined as cosmetology.
"Body wrapping" means a treatment program that uses herbal wraps for the purposes of cleansing and beautifying the skin of the body, but does not include:
The application of oils, lotions, or other fluids to the body, except fluids contained in presoaked materials used in the wraps; or
Manipulation of the body's superficial tissue, other than that arising from compression emanating from the wrap materials.
"Skin care services" means the treatment of the skin of the body, other than the head, face, and scalp, by the use of a sponge, brush, cloth, or similar device to apply or remove a chemical preparation or other substance, except that chemical peels may be removed by peeling an applied preparation from the skin by hand. Skin care services must be performed by a licensed cosmetologist or facial specialist within a licensed cosmetology or specialty salon, and such services may not involve massage, as defined in s. 480.033(3), through manipulation of the superficial tissue.
477.0132 Hair braiding, hair wrapping, and body wrapping registration
Persons whose occupation or practice is confined solely to hair braiding must register with the department, pay the applicable registration fee, and take a two-day 16-hour course. The course shall be board approved and consist of 5 hours of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases, 5 hours of sanitation and sterilization, 4 hours of disorders and diseases of the scalp, and 2 hours of studies regarding laws affecting hair braiding.
Persons whose occupation or practice is confined solely to hair wrapping must register with the department, pay the applicable registration fee, and take a one-day 6-hour course. The course shall be board approved and consist of education in HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases, sanitation and sterilization, disorders and diseases of the scalp, and studies regarding laws affecting hair wrapping.
Unless otherwise licensed or exempted from licensure under this chapter, any person whose occupation or practice is body wrapping must register with the department, pay the applicable registration fee, and take a two-day 12-hour course. The course shall be board approved and consist of education in HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases, sanitation and sterilization, disorders and diseases of the skin, and studies regarding laws affecting body wrapping.
Only the board may review, evaluate, and approve a course required of an applicant for registration under this subsection in the occupation or practice of hair braiding, hair wrapping, or body wrapping. A provider of such a course is not required to hold a license under chapter 1005.
Hair braiding, hair wrapping, and body wrapping are not required to be practiced in a cosmetology salon or specialty salon. When hair braiding, hair wrapping, or body wrapping is practiced outside a cosmetology salon or specialty salon, disposable implements must be used or all implements must be sanitized in a disinfectant approved for hospital use or approved by the federal Environmental Protection Agency.
Pending issuance of registration, a person is eligible to practice hair braiding, hair wrapping, or body wrapping upon submission of a registration application that includes proof of successful completion of the education requirements and payment of the applicable fees required by this chapter.
477.014 Qualifications for practice-On and after January 1, 1979, no person other than a duly licensed cosmetologist shall practice cosmetology or use the name or title of cosmetologist.
477.019 Cosmetologists; qualifications; licensure; supervised practice; license renewal; endorsement; continuing education
A person desiring to be licensed as a cosmetologist shall apply to the department for licensure.
An applicant shall be eligible for licensure by examination to practice cosmetology if the applicant:
Is at least 16 years of age or has received a high school diploma;
Pays the required application fee, which is not refundable, and the required examination fee, which is refundable if the applicant is determined to not be eligible for licensure for any reason other than failure to successfully complete the licensure examination; and
Is authorized to practice cosmetology in another state or country, has been so authorized for at least 1 year, and does not qualify for licensure by endorsement as provided for in subsection (6); or
Has received a minimum of 1,200 hours of training as established by the board, which shall include, but shall not be limited to, the equivalent of completion of services directly related to the practice of cosmetology at one of the following:
A school of cosmetology licensed pursuant to chapter 1005.
A cosmetology program within the public school system.
The Cosmetology Division of the Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind, provided the division meets the standards of this chapter.
A government-operated cosmetology program in this state.
The board shall establish by rule procedures whereby the school or program may certify that a person is qualified to take the required examination after the completion of a minimum of 1,000 actual school hours. If the person then passes the examination, he or she shall have satisfied this requirement; but if the person fails the examination, he or she shall not be qualified to take the examination again until the completion of the full requirements provided by this section.
An application for the licensure examination for any license under this section may be submitted for examination approval in the last 100 hours of training by a pregraduate of a licensed cosmetology school or a program within the public school system, which school or program is certified by the Department of Education with fees as required in paragraph (2)(b). Upon approval, the applicant may schedule the examination on a date when the training hours are completed. An applicant shall have 6 months from the date of approval to take the examination. After the 6 months have passed, if the applicant failed to take the examination, the applicant must reapply. The board shall establish by rule the procedures for the pregraduate application process.
Upon an applicant receiving a passing grade, as established by board rule, on the examination and paying the initial licensing fee, the department shall issue a license to practice cosmetology.
If an applicant passes all parts of the examination for licensure as a cosmetologist, he or she may practice in the time between passing the examination and receiving a physical copy of his or her license if he or she practices under the supervision of a licensed cosmetologist in a licensed salon. An applicant who fails any part of the examination may not practice as a cosmetologist and may immediately apply for reexamination.
Renewal of license registration shall be accomplished pursuant to rules adopted by the board.
The board shall adopt rules specifying procedures for the licensure by endorsement of practitioners desiring to be licensed in this state who hold a current active license in another state and who have met qualifications substantially similar to, equivalent to, or greater than the qualifications required of applicants from this state.
The board shall prescribe by rule continuing education requirements intended to ensure protection of the public through updated training of licensees and registered specialists, not to exceed 16 hours biennially, as a condition for renewal of a license or registration as a specialist under this chapter. Continuing education courses shall include, but not be limited to, the following subjects as they relate to the practice of cosmetology: human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome; Occupational Safety and Health Administration regulations; workers' compensation issues; state and federal laws and rules as they pertain to cosmetologists, cosmetology, salons, specialists, specialty salons, and booth renters; chemical makeup as it pertains to hair, skin, and nails; and environmental issues. Courses given at cosmetology conferences may be counted toward the number of continuing education hours required if approved by the board.
Any person whose occupation or practice is confined solely to hair braiding, hair wrapping, or body wrapping is exempt from the continuing education requirements of this subsection.
The board may, by rule, require any licensee in violation of a continuing education requirement to take a refresher course or refresher course and examination in addition to any other penalty. The number of hours for the refresher course may not exceed 48 hours.
477.020 Specialty registration; qualifications; registration renewal; endorsement
Any person is qualified for registration as a specialist in any one or more of the specialty practices within the practice of cosmetology under this chapter who:
Is at least 16 years of age or has received a high school diploma.
Has received a certificate of completion in a specialty pursuant to s. 477.013(6) from one of the following:
A school licensed pursuant to s. 477.023.
A school licensed pursuant to chapter 1005 or the equivalent licensing authority of another state.
A specialty program within the public school system.
A specialty division within the Cosmetology Division of the Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind, provided the training programs comply with minimum curriculum requirements established by the board.
A person desiring to be registered as a specialist shall apply to the department in writing upon forms prepared and furnished by the department.
Upon paying the initial registration fee, the department shall register the applicant to practice one or more of the specialty practices within the practice of cosmetology.
Renewal of registration shall be accomplished pursuant to rules adopted by the board.
The board shall adopt rules specifying procedures for the registration of specialty practitioners desiring to be registered in this state who have been registered or licensed and are practicing in states which have registering or licensing standards substantially similar to, equivalent to, or more stringent than the standards of this state.
Pending issuance of registration, a person is eligible to practice as a specialist upon submission of a registration application that includes proof of successful completion of the education requirements and payment of the applicable fees required by this chapter, provided such practice is under the supervision of a registered specialist in a licensed specialty or cosmetology salon.
477.025 Cosmetology salons; specialty salons; requisites; licensure; inspection; mobile cosmetology salons
No cosmetology salon or specialty salon shall be permitted to operate without a license issued by the department except as provided in subsection (11).
The board shall adopt rules governing the licensure and operation of salons and specialty salons and their facilities, personnel, safety and sanitary requirements, and the license application and granting process.
Any person, firm, or corporation desiring to operate a cosmetology salon or specialty salon in the state shall submit to the department an application upon forms provided by the department and accompanied by any relevant information requested by the department and by an application fee.
Upon receiving the application, the department may cause an investigation to be made of the proposed cosmetology salon or specialty salon.
When an applicant fails to meet all the requirements provided herein, the department shall deny the application in writing and shall list the specific requirements not met. No applicant denied licensure because of failure to meet the requirements herein shall be precluded from reapplying for licensure.
When the department determines that the proposed cosmetology salon or specialty salon may reasonably be expected to meet the requirements set forth herein, the department shall grant the license upon such conditions as it shall deem proper under the circumstances and upon payment of the original licensing fee.
No license for operation of a cosmetology salon or specialty salon may be transferred from the name of the original licensee to another. It may be transferred from one location to another only upon approval by the department, which approval shall not be unreasonably withheld.
Renewal of license registration for cosmetology salons or specialty salons shall be accomplished pursuant to rules adopted by the board. The board is further authorized to adopt rules governing delinquent renewal of licenses and may impose penalty fees for delinquent renewal.
The board is authorized to adopt rules governing the periodic inspection of cosmetology salons and specialty salons licensed under this chapter.
The board shall adopt rules governing the licensure, operation, and inspection of mobile cosmetology salons, including their facilities, personnel, and safety and sanitary requirements.
Each mobile salon must comply with all licensure and operating requirements specified in this chapter or chapter 455 or rules of the board or department that apply to cosmetology salons at fixed locations, except to the extent that such requirements conflict with this subsection or rules adopted pursuant to this subsection.
A mobile cosmetology salon must maintain a permanent business address, located in the inspection area of the local department office, at which records of appointments, itineraries, license numbers of employees, and vehicle identification numbers of the licenseholder's mobile salon shall be kept and made available for verification purposes by department personnel, and at which correspondence from the department can be received.
To facilitate periodic inspections of mobile cosmetology salons, prior to the beginning of each month each mobile salon licenseholder must file with the board a written monthly itinerary listing the locations where and the dates and hours when the mobile salon will be operating.
The board shall establish fees for mobile cosmetology salons, not to exceed the fees for cosmetology salons at fixed locations.
The operation of mobile cosmetology salons must be in compliance with all local laws and ordinances regulating business establishments, with all applicable requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act relating to accommodations for persons with disabilities, and with all applicable OSHA requirements.
Facilities licensed under part II of chapter 400 or under part I of chapter 429 are exempt from this section, and a cosmetologist licensed pursuant to s. 477.019 may provide salon services exclusively for facility residents.
477.0263 Cosmetology services to be performed in licensed salon; exception
Cosmetology services shall be performed only by licensed cosmetologists in licensed salons, except as otherwise provided in this section.
Pursuant to rules established by the board, cosmetology services may be performed by a licensed cosmetologist in a location other than a licensed salon, including, but not limited to, a nursing home, hospital, or residence, when a client for reasons of ill health is unable to go to a licensed salon. Arrangements for the performance of such cosmetology services in a location other than a licensed salon shall be made only through a licensed salon.
Any person who holds a valid cosmetology license in any state or who is authorized to practice cosmetology in any country, territory, or jurisdiction of the United States may perform cosmetology services in a location other than a licensed salon when such services are performed in connection with the motion picture, fashion photography, theatrical, or television industry; a photography studio salon; a manufacturer trade show demonstration; or an educational seminar.
477.0265 Prohibited acts
It is unlawful for any person to:
Engage in the practice of cosmetology or a specialty without an active license as a cosmetologist or registration as a specialist issued by the department pursuant to the provisions of this chapter.
Own, operate, maintain, open, establish, conduct, or have charge of, either alone or with another person or persons, a cosmetology salon or specialty salon:
Which is not licensed under the provisions of this chapter; or
In which a person not licensed or registered as a cosmetologist or a specialist is permitted to perform cosmetology services or any specialty.
Engage in willful or repeated violations of this chapter or of any rule adopted by the board.
Permit an employed person to engage in the practice of cosmetology or of a specialty unless such person holds a valid, active license as a cosmetologist or registration as a specialist.
Obtain or attempt to obtain a license or registration for money, other than the required fee, or any other thing of value or by fraudulent misrepresentations.
Use or attempt to use a license to practice cosmetology or a registration to practice a specialty, which license or registration is suspended or revoked.
Advertise or imply that skin care services or body wrapping, as performed under this chapter, have any relationship to the practice of massage therapy as defined in s. 480.033(3), except those practices or activities defined in s. 477.013.
In the practice of cosmetology, use or possess a cosmetic product containing a liquid nail monomer containing any trace of methyl methacrylate (MMA).
Any person who violates any provision of this section commits a misdemeanor of the second degree, punishable as provided in s. 775.082 or s. 775.083.
477.029 Penalty
It is unlawful for any person to:
Hold himself or herself out as a cosmetologist, specialist, hair wrapper, hair braider, or body wrapper unless duly licensed or registered, or otherwise authorized, as provided in this chapter.
Operate any cosmetology salon unless it has been duly licensed as provided in this chapter.
Permit an employed person to practice cosmetology or a specialty unless duly licensed or registered, or otherwise authorized, as provided in this chapter.
Present as his or her own the license of another.
Give false or forged evidence to the department in obtaining any license provided for in this chapter.
Impersonate any other licenseholder of like or different name.
Use or attempt to use a license that has been revoked.
Violate any provision of s. 455.227(1), s. 477.0265, or s. 477.028.
Violate or refuse to comply with any provision of this chapter or chapter 455 or a rule or final order of the board or the department.
Any person who violates the provisions of this section shall be subject to one or more of the following penalties, as determined by the board:
Revocation or suspension of any license or registration issued pursuant to this chapter.
Issuance of a reprimand or censure.
Imposition of an administrative fine not to exceed $500 for each count or separate offense.
Placement on probation for a period of time and subject to such reasonable conditions as the board may specify.
Refusal to certify to the department an applicant for licensure.
The following rules are excerpts reprinted from the Florida Department of State Division 61G5-20: Cosmetology Salons. This section will review some of the regulations for salons, requirements for types of salons, and rules for cosmetologists working within these settings. Please be advised that this information is current at the time of publication. For the complete rules and regulations found under Florida Administrative Code 61G5, please review the rules on the Florida Department of State website at https://www.flrules.org [2].
61G5-20.0015 Performance of Cosmetology or Specialty Services Outside a Licensed Salon
Cosmetology or specialty services may be performed by a licensed cosmetologist or specialist in a location other than a licensed salon, including a hospital, nursing home, residence, or similar facility, when a client for reasons of ill health is unable to go to a licensed salon. The following procedure shall be followed:
Arrangements shall be made through a licensed salon.
Information as to the name of the client and the address at which the services are to be performed shall be recorded in the appointment book.
The appointment book shall remain at the salon and be made available upon request to any investigator or inspector of the Department.
When cosmetology or specialty services are performed in a location other than a licensed salon, such services may lawfully be performed only upon clients, residents, or patients, who for reasons of ill health are unable to visit a licensed salon. Such services are not to be performed upon employees or persons who do not reside in the facility, or any other non-qualified persons.
Cosmetology services may only be performed in a photography studio salon subject to the following requirements:
Only hair-arranging services and the application of cosmetic products may be performed in a photography studio salon; and, may only be performed for the purpose of preparing a model or client of the photography studio for a photographic session. Shampooing the hair, hair cutting, hair coloring, permanent waving of the hair, hair relaxing, removing of hair, manicuring, pedicuring, and the performance of any other service defined as cosmetology may not be performed in a photography studio salon.
All hair-arranging services and applications of cosmetic products to be performed in the photography studio salon shall be performed by a licensed Florida cosmetologist or under the supervision of a licensed cosmetologist employed by the salon. "Under the supervision of a licensed cosmetologist" shall mean that an individual who then holds a current, active Florida license as a cosmetologist shall be physically present at the photography studio salon at all times when hair-arranging services or applications of cosmetic products are being performed.
When performing hair-arranging services, the photography studio salon shall use either disposable hair-arranging implements or shall use a wet or dry sanitizing system approved by the federal Environmental Protection Agency.
61G5-20.002 Salon Requirements
Prior to opening a salon, the owner shall:
Submit an application on forms prescribed by the Department of Business and Professional Regulation; and
Pay the required registration fee as outlined in the fee schedule in Rule 61G5-24.005, F.A.C.; and
Meet the safety and sanitary requirements as listed below and these requirements shall continue in full force and effect for the life of the salon:
Ventilation and Cleanliness: Each salon shall be kept well ventilated. The walls, ceilings, furniture and equipment shall be kept clean and free from dust. Hair must not be allowed to accumulate on the floor of the salon. Hair must be deposited in a closed container. Each salon which provides services for the extending or sculpturing of nails shall provide such services in a separate area which is adequately ventilated for the safe dispersion of all fumes resulting from the services.
Toilet and Lavatory Facilities: Each salon shall provide - on the premises or in the same building as, and within 300 feet of, the salon - adequate toilet and lavatory facilities. To be adequate, such facilities shall have at least one toilet and one sink with running water. Such facilities shall be equipped with toilet tissue, soap dispenser with soap or other hand cleaning material, sanitary towels or other hand-drying device such as a wall-mounted electric blow dryer, and waste receptacle. Such facilities and all of the foregoing fixtures and components shall be kept clean, in good repair, well-lighted, and adequately ventilated to remove objectionable odors.
A salon, or specialty salon may be located at a place of residence. Salon facilities must be separated from the living quarters by a permanent wall construction. A separate entrance shall be provided to allow entry to the salon other than from the living quarters. Toilet and lavatory facilities shall comply with subparagraph (c)2. above and shall have an entrance from the salon other than the living quarters.
Animals: No animals or pets shall be allowed in a salon, with the exception of fish kept in closed aquariums, or trained animals to assist the hearing impaired, visually impaired, or the physically disabled.
Shampoo Bowls: Each salon shall have shampoo bowls equipped with hot and cold running water. The shampoo bowls shall be located in the area where cosmetology services are being performed. A specialty salon that exclusively provides specialty services, as defined in Section 477.013(6), F.S., need not have a shampoo bowl, but must have a sink or lavatory equipped with hot and cold running water on the premises of the salon.
Comply with all local building and fire codes. These requirements shall continue in full force and effect for the life of the salon.
Each salon shall comply with the following:
Linens: Each salon shall keep clean linens in a closed, dustproof cabinet. All soiled linens must be kept in a closed receptacle. Soiled linens may be kept in open containers if entirely separated from the area in which cosmetology services are rendered to the public. A sanitary towel or neck strip shall be placed around the patron's neck to avoid direct contact of the shampoo cape with a patron's skin.
Containers: Salons must use containers for waving lotions and other preparations of such type as will prevent contamination of the unused portion. All creams shall be removed from containers by spatulas.
Sterilization and Disinfection: The use of a brush, comb or other article on more than one patron without being disinfected is prohibited. Each salon is required to have sufficient combs, brushes, and implements to allow for adequate disinfecting practices. Combs or other instruments shall not be carried in pockets.
Sanitizers: All salons shall be equipped with and utilize wet sanitizers with hospital level disinfectant or EPA-approved disinfectant, sufficient to allow for disinfecting practices.
A wet sanitizer is any receptacle containing a disinfectant solution and large enough to allow for a complete immersion of the articles. A cover shall be provided.
Disinfecting methods which are effective and approved for salons: First, clean articles with soap and water, completely immerse in a chemical solution that is hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant as follows:
Combs and brushes, remove hair first and immerse in hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant;
Metallic instrument, immerse in hospital level for EPA-approved disinfectant;
Instruments with cutting edge, wipe with a hospital level or EPA- approved disinfectant; or
Implements may be immersed in a hospital level or EPA-approved disinfectant solution.
For purposes of this rule, a "hospital level disinfectant or EPA-approved disinfectant" shall mean the following:
For all combs, brushes, metallic instruments, instruments with a cutting edge, and implements that have not come into contact with blood or body fluids, a disinfectant that indicates on its label that it has been registered with the EPA as a hospital grade bacterial, virucidal and fungicidal disinfectant;
For all combs, brushes, metallic instruments with a cutting edge, and implements that have come into contact with blood or body fluids, a disinfectant that indicates on its label that it has been registered with the EPA as a tuberculocidal disinfectant, in accordance with 29 C.F.R. 1910.1030.
All disinfectants shall be mixed and used according to the manufacturer's directions.
After cleaning and disinfecting, articles shall be stored in a clean, closed cabinet or container until used. Undisinfected articles such as pens, pencils, money, paper, mail, etc., shall not be kept in the same container or cabinet. For the purpose of recharging, rechargeable clippers may be stored in an area other than in a closed cabinet or container, provided such area is clean and provided the cutting edges of such clippers have been disinfected.
Ultra Violet Irradiation may be used to store articles and instruments after they have been cleansed and disinfected.
Pedicure Equipment Sterilization and Disinfection: The following cleaning and disinfection procedures must be used for any pedicure equipment that holds water, including sinks, bowls, basins, pipe-less spas, and whirlpool spas:
After each client, all pedicure units must be cleaned with a low-foaming soap or detergent with water to remove all visible debris, then disinfected with an EPA-registered, hospital grade bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, and pseudomonacidal disinfectant used according to manufacturers instructions for at least ten (10) minutes. If the pipe-free foot spa has a foot plate, it should be removed and the area beneath it cleaned, rinsed, and wiped dry.
At the end of each day of use, the following procedures shall be used:
All filter screens in whirlpool pedicure spas or basins for all types of foot spas must be sanitized. All visible debris in the screen and the inlet must be removed and cleaned with a low-foaming soap or detergent and water. For pipe-free systems, the jet components or foot plate must be removed and cleaned and any debris removed. The screen, jet, or foot plate must be completely immersed in an EPA-registered, hospital grade bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, and pseudomonacidal disinfectant that is used according to manufacturer's instructions. The screen, jet, or foot plate must be replaced after disinfection is completed and the system is flushed with warm water and low-foaming soap for 5 minutes, rinsed, and drained.
After the above procedures are completed, the basin should be filled with clean water and the correct amount of EPA-registered disinfectant. The solution must be circulated through foot spa system for 10 minutes and the unit then turned off. The solution should remain in the basin for at least 6 to 10 hours. Before using the equipment again, the basin system must be drained and flushed with clean water.
Once each week, subsequent to completing the required end-of-day cleaning procedures, the basin must be filled with a solution of water containing one teaspoon of 5.25% bleach for each gallon of water. The solution must be circulated through the spa system for 5 to 10 minutes and then the solution must sit in the basin for at least 6 hours. Before use, the system must be drained and flushed.
A record or log book containing the dates and times of all pedicure cleaning and disinfection procedures must be documented and kept in the pedicure area by the salon and made available for review upon request by a consumer or a Department inspector.
No cosmetology or specialty salon shall be operated in the same licensed space allocation with any other business which adversely affects the sanitation of the salon, or in the same licensed space allocation with a school teaching cosmetology or a specialty licensed under Chapter 477, F.S., or in any other location, space, or environment which adversely affects the sanitation of the salon. In order to control the required space and maintain proper sanitation, where a salon adjoins such other business or school, or such other location, space or environment, there must be permanent walls separating the salon from the other business, school, location, space, or environment and there must be separate and distinctly marked entrances for each.
Evidence that the full salon contains a minimum of 200 square feet of floor space. No more than two (2) cosmetologists or specialists may be employed in a salon which has only the minimum floor space.
A specialty salon offering only one of the regulated specialties shall evidence a minimum of 100 square feet used in the performance of the specialty service and shall meet all the sanitation requirements stated in this section. No more than one specialist or cosmetologist may be employed in a specialty salon with only the minimum floor space. An additional 50 square feet will be required for each additional specialist or cosmetologist employed.
For purposes of this rule, "permanent wall" means a vertical continuous structure of wood, plaster, masonry, or other similar building material, which is physically connected to a salon's floor and ceiling, and which serves to delineate and protect the salon.
61G5-20.003 Inspections
The Department of Business and Professional Regulation shall cause an inspection of all proposed salons to determine if all the requirements have been met. Each licensed salon shall be inspected at least biennially by the Department. No person shall, for any reason intentionally, or directly inhibit an authorized representative of the Department from performing said inspections.
61G5-20.004 Display of Documents
All holders of a cosmetology or specialty salon license shall display within their salons in a conspicuous place which is clearly visible to the general public upon entering the salon the following documents:
The current salon license,
A legible copy of the most recent inspection sheet for the salon.
All holders of a cosmetology or specialty salon license shall require and ensure that all individuals engaged in the practice of cosmetology, any specialty, hair braiding, hair wrapping, or body wrapping display at the individual's work station their current license or registration at all times when the individual is performing cosmetology, specialty, hair braiding, hair wrapping, or body wrapping services. The license or registration on display shall be the original certificate or a duplicate issued by the Department and shall have attached a 2'' by 2'' photograph taken within the previous two years of the individual whose name appears on the certificate. The certificate with photograph attached shall be permanently laminated as of July 1, 2007.
By July 1, 2008, all holders of a cosmetology or specialty salon license shall display at each footbath a copy of the Consumer Protection Notice regarding footbaths, sanitation, and safety. Copies of this notice (revised 10/15/07, and incorporated herein by reference) may be obtained from the Department of Business and Professional Regulation at 1940 North Monroe St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-0783, and the Call Center by calling (850)487-1395.
61G5-20.007 Communicable Disease
No person engaged in the practice of cosmetology or a specialty in a salon shall proceed with any service to a person having a visible disease, pediculosis, or open sores suggesting a communicable disease, until such person furnishes a statement signed by a physician licensed to practice in the State of Florida stating that the disease or condition is not in an infectious, contagious or communicable stage.
No cosmetologist or person registered to practice any specialty in Florida, who has a visible disease, pediculosis, or open sores suggesting a communicable disease, shall engage in the practice of cosmetology or any specialty, until such cosmetologist or registrant obtains a statement signed by a physician licensed to practice in the State of Florida stating that the disease or condition is not in an infectious, contagious, or communicable stage.
The following rules are excerpts reprinted from the Florida Department of State Division 61-6: Biennial Licensing. This section will review some of the licensing rules, including license renewal regulations. Please be advised that this information is current at the time of publication. For the complete rules and regulations found under Florida Administrative Code 61-6, please review the rules on the Florida Department of State website at https://www.flrules.org [3].
61-6.001 Biennial Licensing
Pursuant to Section 455.203(1), F.S. 2004, the Department hereby implements a plan for staggered biennial renewal of licenses issued by the Central Intake Unit, The Division of Service Operation and Licensure, the Department on behalf of the boards within the Department and the Department.
The staggered biennial renewal issuance plan does not apply to the renewal of licenses which have a statutory period of one year or less and which do not mature into permanent licenses which would be subject to regular annual renewal.
Biennial period shall mean a period of time consisting of two 12 month years. The first biennial period for the purposes of each board shall commence and continue on the dates specified in the department plan as set forth for each respective profession.
The schedule for biennial license renewal for [cosmetology] shall be as follows:
61-6.010 Random Audit of License Renewal Requirements
No later than six (6) months after the beginning of a licensure period, each board shall initiate a random audit of licensees to determine their compliance with license renewal requirements. This audit shall be conducted by the appropriate office of the Department of Business and Professional Regulation.
Each licensee randomly selected for audit shall be so notified by regular mail, and each selected licensee shall ensure that the Department receives all documentation specified by the Department no later than twenty-one (21) days from the licensee's receipt of notice.
If a letter of notification is returned to the Department because of an incorrect mailing address, the Department shall attempt again to notify the licensee after making a reasonable effort to determine the licensee's correct address. The licensee so notified shall ensure that the Department receives all documentation specified by the Department no later than twenty-one (21) days from the licensee's receipt of notice.
If a letter of notification is returned to the Department unclaimed or refused, the Department shall by certified mail attempt to notify the licensee of the information contained in the original mailing. The licensee so notified shall ensure that the Department receives all documentation specified by the Department no later than twenty-one (21) days from the licensee's receipt of notice.
If a licensee's documentation of compliance with the requirements for license renewal is not sufficient, the Department shall notify the licensee of the deficiencies, and the licensee shall ensure that the Department receives all documentation specified by the Department no later than twenty-one (21) days from the licensee's receipt of notice.
Commencing on the twenty-second (22) day after a licensee selected for audit receives notice, the board may grant the licensee up to thirty (30) additional days in which to obtain appropriate documentation and supply that documentation to the Department if: (1) the licensee's written request was received by the board within twenty-one (21) days of the licensee's receipt of notice of audit or receipt of documentation deficiency, (2) the licensee's written request stated with particularity the reasons an extension should be granted, and (3) the board's written notification as to the length of the extension granted was received by the Department office conducting the audit no more than ten (10) days after the twenty-one (21) day compliance period had lapsed.
The Department may take whatever action is appropriate against any licensee selected for audit who:
Has not kept the Department informed of an accurate mailing address,
Does not cooperate in the audit, or
The audit reveals has not met the requirements for license renewal.
As of October 1, 2009, under House Bill 425, all licensees being convicted or found guilty of, or having plead nolo contendere or guilty to a crime in any jurisdiction, must report to the Department of Business and Professional Regulation within 30 days. Also under House Bill 425, any licensee having been convicted prior to October 1, 2009, must have reported to the department by November 1, 2009. Licensees may report by completing the criminal self-reporting document found at http://www.myfloridalicense.com/dbpr/pro/documents/criminal_self-reporting_document.pdf. Failure to report may result in disciplinary action, including fines, suspension, or license revocation [4].
1. Online Sunshine - The Official Internet Site of the Florida Legislature. The 2009 Florida Statutes: Title XXXII Chapter 477. Available at http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0477/titl0477.htm. Last accessed May 11, 2010.
2. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. Rule Chapter 61G5-20: Cosmetology Salons. Available at https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ChapterHome.asp?Chapter=61G5-20. Last accessed May 11, 2010.
3. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. Rule Chapter 61-6: Biennial Licensing. Available at https://www.flrules.org/gateway/ChapterHome.asp?Chapter=61-6. Last accessed May 11, 2010.
4. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation, Board of Cosmetology. New Reporting Requirement for Criminal Convictions. Available at http://www.myfloridalicense.com/dbpr/pro/cosmo/index.html. Last accessed May 11, 2010.
Table of Contents
Contributing faculty, Paragon CET Staff, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to provide cosmetologists with a review of the chemical makeup of the hair, skin, and nails.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
In order to offer safe and effective services to the public, cosmetology professionals must be aware of the chemical makeup, growth, and structure of hair, skin, and nails. Cosmetologists' basic knowledge and their commitment to increased understanding will translate into client satisfaction.
Understanding the potential hydrogen (pH) scale is essential to the discussion of the chemical makeup of the hair, skin, and nails. The pH scale measures the acidity, or excess of hydrogen ions (H+), and the base or alkalinity, defined as an excess of hydroxide ions (OH-). On the pH scale, values between 1 and 7 are considered acidic, and values between 7 and 14 are base or alkaline. For example, vinegar has a low pH (2.4) and is acidic, tasting sour, bitter, or sharp. Chlorine and ammonia both have high pH (11.7 and 12, respectively) and are extremely alkaline. Distilled water is usually between a 6 and 7 on the pH scale, which is considered essentially neutral (neither acidic nor alkaline). If substances are combined, the pH of the resulting compound will be different than the original portions.
Each change of one number up or down on the pH scale is exponential. A pH of 9 is ten times more alkaline than a pH of 8. A pH increase of two whole numbers is equal to 100-fold change in alkalinity. Therefore, a small change on the pH scale indicates a large actual change in pH [2].
The pH of hair ranges between 4.5 and 5.5. When selecting products for use on the hair, it is important to consider the condition of the hair and the pH of the product. The higher the pH, the more alkaline or harsh the product may be. In the case of shampoo, a higher pH may be selected to remove buildup, but this in turn can strip hair of necessary oils, resulting in over-stimulation of the sebaceous oil glands in the scalp and worsening of oily hair. Highly porous hair, often a result of overprocessing, is dry and brittle (lacking necessary oils) and will require a shampoo with a lower pH and therefore less alkalinity [2].
Normal skin surface pH is between 4 and 6.5 in healthy people, though it varies among the different areas of the skin. Newborn infants are born with a higher skin surface pH compared to adults, but this normalizes within 3 days of birth. Similar to the action of alkaline products on the hair, the pH of products used on the skin must be chosen thoughtfully [3]. The skin is protected from bacterial and fungal infections and surface contaminants by the acid mantle. The acid mantle is a thin, film-like barrier on the outermost layer of the skin. The acid mantle contains lactic acid, amino acids from sweat, free fatty acids from sebum (an oily substance secreted by sebaceous glands via the hair follicles), and amino acids and pyrrolidine carboxylic acid from the cornification process of skin [3]. Cleansing the skin with alkaline soaps or detergents can disturb the acid mantle.
Nails are essentially hardened skin cells [4]. They are susceptible to both bacterial and fungal infection when the pH changes as a result of exposure, age, and certain medications.
Skin is the largest organ of the body and acts as a barrier against the environment, pathogens, and dehydration. The skin has seven functions [13]:
Sensation
Hydration
Absorption
Regulation
Protection
Excretion
Respiration
Sensations or feelings allow you to react to temperature, pain, and pressure and to recognize touch. Some areas of the skin are more sensitive (e.g., fingertips) than others. Skin also allows the body to retain and absorb water and excretes perspiration and oils. These functions can cool the body, allow a person to remain hydrated, and maintain suppleness. The skin serves as an important form of protection as it guards against the elements and from bacteria and fungi [2]. Finally, skin provides for expression and body image [13]. Skin plays a vital role in self esteem and social communication. Skin characteristics have an impact on how an individual communicates both verbally and nonverbally and how the other person reacts to that individual. It also provides significant social cues regarding health and vitality.
Human skin is composed of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (inner layer). The epidermis is divided into five layers of cells. They are, in order from the outermost inward:
Stratum corneum: This layer is composed of dead keratinized cells and is constantly being sloughed off and renewed from below. It also contains the acid mantle, an oily layer with reduced pH.
Stratum lucidum: Also known as the clear layer, this layer is found in areas where the epidermis is thicker, like the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It lies directly below the stratum corneum.
Stratum granulosum: This layer is actually composed of 1 to 5 sub-layers and is believed to help with keratin formation.
Stratum spinosum: Often referred to as the "prickly layer," cells in this layer begin to flatten as they are migrating toward the skin surface. The stratum spinosum acts as a stabilizing support to the skin.
Stratum germinativum or basale: The deepest layer of the epidermis is the stratum germinativum. It is composed of a single layer of constantly dividing cells that form new cells. Melanin, which determines skin color and protects the sensitive dermis from ultraviolet (UV) light, is produced in this layer as well.
The dermis is the thickest layer of the skin, varying in thickness from 0.2-4 mm. The reticular dermis anchors the skin to the body and contains sweat glands, hair follicles, nerves, and blood vessels. The dermis also contains the sebaceous glands, which secrete sebum and lubricate the skin. The major proteins found in the dermis are collagen and elastin. Collagen gives skin its tensile strength, while elastin provides the skin with elastic recoil. This characteristic prevents the skin from being permanently reshaped. The dermis is divided into two areas: the papillary dermis, which contains capillaries for blood flow, and the reticular layer, which is comprised of thick collagen fibers. The dermis also contains the receptors that sense pain and pressure.
Beneath the dermis lies subcutaneous tissue, which attaches the skin to the underlying structures. Subcutaneous tissue contains fat, connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerve endings [13].
The nail is made of keratin, a waterproof and durable protein, and grows in a similar way to hair. Nail growth begins with the matrix, a layer that produces the keratin cells that are pushed outward from the base of the nail. The shape and size of the matrix also influences the shape and thickness of the nail [1]. The cells multiply and push upward and harden into three layers: the cuticle, cortex, and medulla. Nail growth is effected by hormones, exercise, nutrition, and an individual's overall health. On average, nails grow 1/10 to 1/8 inch per month in adults; in younger people nail growth can be faster because of more rapid cell reproduction. The thumb nail grows slowest, while the middle finger grows fastest. Toenails are harder and thicker than fingernails and grow more slowly [2].
Artificial nails or nail extensions can be applied over a plastic tip or directly on the nail when nails are too thin or weak to grow to the length that a client desires. There are three general systems to create artificial nails:
Powder and liquid acrylic
Wraps and no-light gels
Light-cured gels
The main purpose of hair is to protect the body from heat, cold, and injury. The root of the hair is located below the surface of the skin, enclosed within the follicle; the hair shaft is the exposed portion. The hair root includes the follicle, bulb, papilla, arrector pili muscle, and sebaceous glands. Numerous factors affect the quality of hair growth, including an unhealthy scalp.
The hair follicle is a tube-like pocket in the skin that encases the hair root. It is created when cells in the basal layer of the epidermis travel down to the lower layer to seek nourishment. The structure of the follicle or root sheath is similar to a sleeve in the skin from which the hair will grow. A sebaceous gland is attached to the follicle and is the source of sebum, which lubricates the hair during growth. The follicle extends from the epidermis through the dermis. The hair bulb is the lowest area of the follicle and receives nutrients from the dermal papilla. The arrector pili muscle is a small muscle near the base of the follicle that reacts to responds to emotional stresses or cold to create the sensation of "goose bumps" [2]. There are no hair follicles on the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet.
Growing hair is made up of keratin. As these protein cells mature, they become fibrous and die in a process called keratinization. When this process is over, the cells that form the hair strand are no longer alive [1].
Hair texture includes three classifications: coarse, medium, or fine. The texture of hair is related to the thickness or diameter of the hair strand. Coarse hair has the largest diameter, while fine hair has the smallest. Coarse hair is stronger and is therefore more resistant to lighteners, coloring, and other chemical processes, including relaxing or waving solutions.
Hair density refers to the number of hairs per square inch of scalp. The average hair density is 2,200 hairs per square inch. However, naturally blonde hair is more dense, and naturally red hair is less dense. People with the same hair texture may have different hair density and vice versa.
The porosity of hair refers to the ability of the hair to absorb moisture. Low porosity results in resistance to chemical treatment; high porosity may result in over processing.
Hair elasticity refers to the stretchiness of the hair or the ability of hair to stretch and return to its original form without breaking. Hair with low elasticity is brittle and, unlike normal hair, fails to stretch without breaking.
Dryness of the hair and scalp can be related to inactive sebaceous glands, excessive shampooing, or weather (winter or arid climates). Conversely, overactive sebaceous glands can cause oily hair and scalp. Poor diet, lack of exercise, and incorrect hygiene can aggravate both dryness and oiliness as can medical conditions and prescription and non-prescription medications [2].
Cosmetologists and beauty professionals must be aware of all the inherent risks when mixing or using any products or combinations of products on the skin, hair, or nails.
Nail salon workers continuously come into contact with nail care products and solvents, some of which can cause lasting health effects. It has been suggested that nail salon workers have significantly higher exposure to dangerous chemicals than the average person. While research on nail salon workers is limited, studies provide reason for concern for this vulnerable population.
According to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, nail care products are considered cosmetics and are regulated under the same law as makeup. Nail products for use both in the home and in the salon are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Artificial nails are composed primarily of acrylic polymers and are made by reacting together acrylic monomers with acrylic polymers. When the reaction is completed, traces of the monomer are likely to remain in the polymer. For example, traces of methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomers remain after artificial nails are formed. The polymers themselves are typically quite safe, but traces of the reactive monomers can result in an adverse reaction in sensitive individuals, including redness, swelling, and pain in the nail bed. Today, ethyl methacrylate monomer is commonly used in the creation of acrylic nails, although MMA monomer may still be found in some artificial nail products. In the early 1970s, the FDA received a number of complaints of injury associated with the use of artificial nails containing MMA. Among these injuries were reports of fingernail damage and deformity, as well as contact dermatitis. Unlike MMA monomers, methyl methacrylate polymers were not associated with these injuries. Based on its investigations of the injuries and discussions with medical experts in the field of dermatology, the agency chose to remove from the market products containing 100% MMA monomer. As of 2010, no FDA regulation specifically prohibits the use of MMA monomer in cosmetic products, although the FDA has declared MMA "poisonous and deleterious" [5,6]. In July of 2004, the Florida Legislature voted to ban MMA in salons. Thirty-eight states now prohibit the use of products with MMA monomers, and in Florida, fines and/or jail time are likely if MMA is found in your salon. [6]
Permanent waving makes physical and chemical changes to the makeup of hair.The process of permanent waving of hair has remained generally the same since the 1930s. Usually, the hair is wrapped onto rods, and a lotion containing ammonium thioglycolate is applied, changing the protein structure in the hair. This is reffered to as an alkaline perm. When the solution is applied, the cuticle of the hair opens and is penetrated to the cortex, breaking the salt bonds. Other types of substances may be used for this purpose, including glycerol monothioglycolate ("acid perm"), a mixture of acid and alkaline ("exothermic perm"), or neutral lotions. After a neutralizer is applied to close the structure again, the hair takes the shape of the rod. Conditioners are also used to decrease damage to the hair. An alkaline perm is generally used for hair that will be less likely to respond to the curling, including coarse, thick, or resistant types. Acid and neutral perms are useful for clients with damaged hair and fragile hair types [2].
Four types of hair color will fit the desires of most clients: temporary color, semi-permanent color, demi-permanent color, and permanent color. Temporary hair coloring coats the cuticle of the hair shaft and remains visible until the next shampoo. Temporary color can only be used to attain a darker color. Semi-permanent coloring contains a low level of hydrogen peroxide and partially penetrates the cuticle of the hair shaft. This color typically remains for 4 to 5 shampoos. Demi-permanent coloring penetrates deeper through the cuticle to the cortex through the use of an alkaline agent, such as ethannolamine or sodium carbonate. Because it penetrates deeper, it lasts longer, usually between 20 and 28 shampoos. Finally, permanent hair coloring lasts until natural hair grows out or until the coloring fades. These coloring products contain a developer or an oxidizing agent and an alkalizing agent, usually ammonia. Ammonia allows color to enter the hair shaft by swelling the cuticle to the point at which it can best be penetrated.
Hair bleaching or lightening is achieved through oxidation of the melanin in hair and is considered a type of permanent hair coloring. In this process, hydrogen peroxide is mixed with an alkaline product (e.g., ammonia), which reacts with melanin in the hair and removes the color. Most bleaches should be kept away from the skin to prevent burns, but there are gentle oil or cream lighteners that can be applied directly to the scalp. Oil lighteners are very mild and can be used on the face and body as well. Strong lighteners, containing alkaline mixed with hydrogen peroxide, can irritate the scalp and are therefore used most often for highlighting [1].
Hair relaxing, or lanthionization, reforms or relaxes hair with excessive curl or wave to a straight position. The process is similar to that used for permanent waving, but the absence of the curling rods changes the end result. There are two types of chemical relaxers: sodium hydroxide and ammonium thioglycolate. Sodium hydroxide relaxers (also referred to as lye relaxers) have 2% to 3% sodium hydroxide in a cream base. The pH for this type ranges from 11.5 to 14 [1]. Ammonium thyglycolate relaxers contain 4% to 6% thyglycolate acid and 1% ammonium hydroxide; the pH range is 8.8 to 9.5. The relaxer is applied to the roots of the hair, where it alters the hair shaft's structure. Some relaxers require a protective base (e.g., petroleum jelly) be placed on the scalp prior to the procedure to prevent burning or irritation. After the relaxing phase is completed, neutralizer is applied to stop the relaxing process and balance the pH. Neutralizers, usually either hydrogen peroxide, sodium perborate, or sodium bromateal, are known as fixatives or stabilizers. These bonding agents can cause the hair to be fragile, and hair can be significantly damaged by excessive application of relaxers.
Skin-care products often contain combinations of methyl, propyl, and ethyl parabens. Common ingredients in this group include glycerine, propylene glycol, sorbitol, and hyaluronic acid. Propylene glycol is a petroleum-based humectant used to retain water and is used in the manufacture of many skin-care products. Synthetic colors, usually labeled as FD&C or D&C followed by a number, may be toxic to sensitive individuals. They are coal-tar based additives and known cancer-causing agents. Triethanolamine (TEA) and diethanolamine (DEA) are common ingredients used to adjust pH balances. These are very toxic and are associated with eye problems and skin dryness. The simple ingredient "fragrance" can include a variety of chemicals including phthalates, a substance known to cause cancer and birth defects in lab animals.
Dandruff, or pityriasis, is a medical condition characterized by excessive shedding of dead skin cells from the scalp. Dandruff is a result of the fungus Malassezia. Malassezia is present on all skin and is only problematic when the cell growth increases to an abnormal level, interfering with natural cell renewal [7].
Dandruff may be accompanied by inflammation and redness and should be treated with mild antifungal shampoos containing pyrithione zinc, selenium sulfide, or ketaconazole. Consultation with a doctor and topical steroids may be required [2].
Alopecia is the technical term for any abnormal hair loss. The most common types of alopecia are androgenic alopecia, alopecia areata, and postpartum alopecia. Alopecia usually is the result of hormonal, age-related, or genetic changes. Androgenic alopecia is often referred to as male-pattern baldness. This type of alopecia is genetically inherited with an onset of approximately 35 years in both men and women. Alopecia areata is characterized by sudden onset of hair loss, often in patches, resulting from an autoimmune response. The people with alopecia areata, white blood cells attack the hair follicles, preventing hair growth. Males and females of all races can be affected, and onset is usually in childhood. Postpartum alopecia affects women shortly after the birth of a child and is temporary. It usually subsides after one year.
Trichotillomania is a disorder characterized by the non-cosmetic pulling of hair, resulting in significant hair loss. Trichotillomania is commonly associated with considerable distress and is a diagnosable mental disorder. The majority of individuals start pulling hair during childhood or adolescence, though hair pulling can begin at any age. While most adults with trichotillomania are women, hair pulling may be about as common in young boys as it is in girls [8]. Adults most commonly pull from the scalp, eyelashes, eyebrows, beard, and pubic area. Children may also pull hair from other people or from pets. Individuals with trichotillomania often engage in other damaging body-focused behaviors, such as skin-picking or nail-biting. Trichotillomania also has been viewed as a form of obsessive compulsive disorder because of the repetitive and seemingly compulsive nature the action. Treatment may include cognitive-behavioral therapy and medications prescribed by a doctor.
Parasites like head lice obtain their nutrients by attaching to another organism (a "host"). Head lice are transferred from one person to another through close contact or sharing grooming equipment. Treatment includes lice-killing shampoo and removal and sterilization of bed linens, grooming equipment, and clothing. Another potential infestation is scabies, an infestation by the itch mite Sarcoptes scabiei. These mites burrow into the skin and produce intense itching. An extended period of direct skin-to-skin contact is usually required to transmit scabies; however, transmission by infected bed linens is possible because the mites can live up to 48 hours off the host [9,12].
Diseases, disorders, and conditions of the nail are called onychosis. These diseases require referral to a doctor and careful handling by the cosmetology professional. No services should be provided when disease is present.
Onychomycosis, tinea unguium, or unguis is a fungal infection of the nail. This fungal infection appears as a thickened, yellow, and brittle nail bed, but it is usually not painful. Some clients will lose the nail entirely. Treatment of onychomycosis involves prescription antifungal medications. Other possible infections include paronychia (bacterial infection of the skin around the nail) and onychoptosis (periodic nail loss). Each of these disorders requires treatment by a doctor.
Other nail diseases and conditions do not require medical intervention but can be irritating irregularities that interfere with the client receiving nail treatments [1]. Nails can be overly thick or thin, ridged, furrowed, concave, or ingrown. In these cases, the provision of service depends upon the condition of the nail and presence of infection. Clients may also have hangnails, bruised nails (dark red or purple blood clots under the nail plate), white spots on nails, overgrown cuticles, and bitten or split nails.
As discussed, the skin is a protective barrier and constantly comes into contact with pathogens that cause a variety of infections. In some cases, the skin can become infected, which can threaten overall health and should be a consideration for cosmetologists. Skin infection can result from bacterial, fungal, or viral sources.
Common bacterial infections include cellulitis, folliculitis, and impetigo. Cellulitis is often caused by Streptococcus or Staphylococcus aureus bacteria infections, animal bites, or wounds exposed to contaminated water. Clients with cellulitis will have skin inflammation and tenderness. Treatment includes antibiotics and the application of cold compresses to the infection site.
Folliculitis occurs when bacteria infects the hair follicles. Symptoms include a rash, itching, redness, and pimple-like bumps. In extreme cases, there will be damage to the hair and follicles. Most of the time, the infection will clear up on its own, but persistent rashes may require antibiotics.
Impetigo is an infection usually caused by staphylococcal or streptococcal bacteria. It causes red sores or blisters that can break open, ooze, and develop a yellow-brown crust. Impetigo is highly contagious and can be spread to others through close contact or by sharing items like towels and toys. Antibiotic treatment is usually required.
Like bacteria, fungi exist on the healthy skin's surface, especially in moist areas of the body. However, fungi can become harmful if they begin to overgrow and invade the skin. Common fungal skin infections include candidiasis and tinea infections.
Candidiasis is an overgrowth of the fungus Candida albicans. Commonly referred to as a yeast infection, it can affect the mouth, nails, and genitals. It can result in white patches, redness, itchiness, and pain, depending on the area affected. Treatment with prescription creams and/or mouthwashes may be necessary.
A tinea infection causes red, itchy, scaly, ring-like blotches on the affected area. This infection is often referred to as ringworm, jock itch, or athlete's foot, depending on the area affected. Treatment is with antifungal medications and steroids to reduce inflammation in more serious cases. Another type, tinea versicolor, typically affects the torso and causes a series of lighter or darker blotches on the skin that will not tan. Antifungal medications and applying dandruff shampoo to the skin are two methods of treating this fungal skin infection [10].
Viral infections are particularly concerning because they have no known cure. As such, treatment for viral conditions focuses on relieving symptoms and diminishing outbreaks. Common viral infections include herpes simplex and herpes zoster (shingles).
Herpes can develop on many parts of the body, but most commonly affects the mouth, lips, and genitals. Oral herpes, or cold sores, appear as small, itchy blisters around the mouth or on the lips or gums. Antiviral drugs and topical creams are used to shorten outbreaks and lessen pain and itching.
Shingles is caused by the reactivation of the chickenpox virus, mainly in older adults. It is characterized by a blistering rash, skin sensitivity, and severe pain and/or burning. Usually, the rash occurs on only one side of the body. Individuals with shingles cannot spread shingles but can transmit chickenpox [11].
Urticaria, or hives, occur as a rash or welts and are often itchy, burning, or stinging. They can appear anywhere on the body and can signal a serious allergic reaction, especially if accompanied by difficult breathing. Hives may be caused by a reaction to medications, such as aspirin or penicillin; foods, such as eggs, nuts, and shellfish; food additives; temperature extremes; and infections.
Psoriasis is an autoimmune disorder that causes the abnormal build-up of skin cells, resulting in thick, dry, scaly patches of rough skin. Psoriasis is chronic but not contagious.
Dermatitis is a general term used to describe inflammatory disorders of the skin. Types of dermatitis include eczema and seborrheic dermatitis (often associated with dandruff). Although these disorders are generally harmless, they can cause discomfort and self-consciousness.
Acne is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the sebaceous oil glands. Depending on the type of inflammation, people with acne may have blackheads, whiteheads, cysts, and/or scarring. In severe cases, oral medications may be used to clear up breakouts.
In addition to these conditions, skin cancer is a constant concern. More than one million cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer are diagnosed each year, making it the most common cancer in the United States [14]. Exposure to UV radiation, primarily sun exposure, has been the most significant factor associated with the three primary types of skin cancers. Sources of UV radiation include the sun, sunlamps, sunbeds, and other types of tanning devices. Skin cancers are categorized as either melanoma or nonmelanoma types. Nonmelanoma skin cancers vary greatly in appearance and can be pearly, waxy, or translucent bumps (papules), or scaly, shiny gray-to-red patches. Melanomas can also vary in color, shape, and size and can resemble moles or freckles. Generally, melanomas can be differentiated from noncancerous moles because they have at least one of the following features [15,16]:
Asymmetry
Border irregularity
Color variations
Diameter of 6 mm or greater
Evolving size, shape, surface, shades of color, or symptoms (such as itching or tenderness)
These characteristics are often grouped together and referred to as the ABCDE rule.
Children are commonly affected by allergies and skin infections and are especially sensitive to exposure to extremes of temperature. "Fifth disease," a contagious viral rash, primarily affects children. It is usually a mild illness that lasts approximately 2 weeks. Treatment includes rest, fluids, and non-aspirin pain relievers.
Chickenpox may also affect children, although less so as a result of widespread vaccination. Chickenpox is characterized by an itchy rash of blisters all over the body and can lead to serious complications such as pneumonia, brain damage, or death.
Warts develop in some children. These skin growths are caused by contact with the contagious human papillomavirus and can spread from person-to-person or through contact with toys and other objects. Treatments include freezing, surgery, lasers, and chemicals.
Coxsackie viral infection, or hand, foot, and mouth disease, usually occurs in children younger than 10 years of age. The illness starts with a fever, then progresses to painful mouth sores and a non-itchy rash with blisters. It spreads through coughing, sneezing, and used diapers. Treatment includes non-aspirin pain relievers to control the fever.
Scarlet fever is a rash caused by a Streptococcus infection, usually strep throat. Symptoms include sore throat, fever, headache, bright red rash (especially in the armpits and groin), abdominal pain, and swollen neck glands. After 7 to 14 days, the rash will slough off. Scarlet fever is very contagious, but good hand washing can reduce its spread.
As we age, our skin undergoes a number of changes influenced by lifestyle, diet, heredity, and smoking. UV light exposure from the sun is the main cause of skin damage. Skin begins to stretch, sag, and wrinkle as elastin is lost. Aging skin can be rough and dry and may begin to show both benign and pre-cancerous growths. Thinning skin and prescription medications can increase the appearance of age-spots on the face, hands, and forearms. Some diseases, including shingles, occur more frequently in older adults.
Knowledge regarding the physical and chemical structures of hair, nails, and skin is essential for all cosmetologists. This section has provided an overview of healthy hair, nails, and skin, and disorders and conditions that can affect these structures. An understanding of the variety of beauty and health products used in cosmetology will help to improve client satisfaction and salon safety.
1. Richards R. Salon Fundamentals: A Resource for Your Cosmetology Career. Evanston, IL: Pivot Point International Inc.; 2007.
4. American Academy of Dermatology. Nail Fungus & Nail Health. Available at http://www.aad.org/public/publications/pamphlets/common_nail.html. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
5. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Nail Care Products. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductandIngredientSafety/ProductInformation/ucm127068.htm. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
6. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation: Board of Cosmetology. Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) Frequently Asked Questions. Available at http://www.myfloridalicense.com/dbpr/pro/cosmo/documents/cosmo_mma_faqs_8_4_04.pdf. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
7. Salon IQ. Some Common Skin Diseases of the Scalp. Available at www.saloniq.com/resources/scalpdisease.php. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
8. Trichotillomania Learning Center. Trichotillomania and Its Treatment in Children and Adolescents: A Guide for Clinicians. Available at http://www.trich.org/dnld/Child_Clinicians_Guide_v08.pdf. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
9. Rockoff A, Stöppler MC. Scabies. Available at http://www.medicinenet.com/scabies/article.htm. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
10. About-Skin-Disorders.com. Bacterial, Fungal, Viral and Parasitic Skin Infections. Available at http://www.about-skin-disorders.com/articles/skin-care/skin-problems/skin-infections.php. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
11. University of Maryland Medical Center. Dermatology: Skin Infections. Available at http://www.umm.edu/dermatology-info/skin_infections.htm. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
12. Raza N, Qadir SN, Agha H. Risk factors for scabies among male soldiers in Pakistan: case-control study. East Mediterr Health J. 2009;15(5):1105-1110.
13. Emory University School of Medicine Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nursing Education Center. Skin and Wound Module. 6th ed. Atlanta, GA: Emory University WOCNEC; 2006.
14. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Hao Y, Xu J, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2009. CA Cancer J Clin. 2009;59(4):225-249.
17. Forslind B, Lindberg M. Skin, Hair, and Nails: Structure and Function. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2004.
19. Madigan ME, Smith-Wheelock L, Krein SL. Healthy hair starts with a healthy body: hair stylists as lay health advisors to prevent chronic kidney disease. Prev Chronic Dis. 2007;4(3):1-10.
20. Zhang Y, Holford TR, Leaderer B, et al. Hair-coloring product use and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a population-based case-control study in Conneticut. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:148-154.
21. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. Facts About Methyl Methacrylate Monomer (MMA). Available at http://www.myfloridalicense.com/dbpr/pro/cosmo/documents/mma_flier.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
22. Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation. Facts About Methyl Methacrylate Monomer (MMA). Available at http://www.myfloridalicense.com/dbpr/pro/cosmo/documents/cosmo_mma_faq_8_4_04.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
23. University of Maryland Medical Center. Aging Changes in Hair and Nails: Overview. Available at http://www.umm.edu/ency/article/004005.htm. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
24. Adebola J. Scalp Infestations and Infections and their Remedies. Available at http://thenationonlineng.net/web2/articles/18073/1/ Scalp-infestations-and-infections-and-their-remedies/Page1.html. Last accessed May 27, 2010.
25. Shoon D. MMA: The Truth Behind the Controversy. Available at http://www.hooked-on-nails.com/mmaandyou.html. Last Accessed May 27, 2010.
26. HairParlor.com. Facts about Bleaching Hair. Available at: http://www.hairparlor.com/haircare-articles/home-hair-bleaching.htm. Last Accessed May 27, 2010.
27. InspiredLiving.com. Chemicals Used in the Beauty and Skin Care Industry. Available at http://www.inspiredliving.com/organic/skincare/a~skincarechemicals.htm. Last Accessed May 27, 2010.
28. Maldonado M. Poisonous Chemicals In Skin Care Products. Available at http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Maldonado1.html. Last Accessed May 27, 2010.
29. WebMD. Skin Conditions: Elderly Skin Conditions. Available at http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/guide/elderly-skin-conditions. Last accessed June 24, 2010.
Table of Contents
Contributing faculty, Paragon CET Staff, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to outline environmental issues that may be encountered in the salon or spa setting as well as steps to manage air and water quality.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
Salon professionals often spend more than 40 hours a week at work and therefore should be knowledgeable of the safety issues present in their work environment. Studies show that those in industrialized nations spend more than 90% of their time indoors [1]. Issues such as indoor air quality, water quality, fire hazards, and exposure to chemicals are present every day in the workplace. In fact, the concentrations of many pollutants indoors exceed those outdoors [1]. Many take for granted that their workplace is safe, not realizing that problems may exist and go unnoticed. It is imperative that salon professionals be aware of their working environment and the possible dangers that exist around them. In addition to health concerns for the occupants of a building, business owners and employers should also be well-versed on environmental issues in the work place. It has been estimated that indoor environmental quality-related health issues cost businesses in the range of $20 to $70 billion annually due to lost productivity, decreased performance, and sick days [2].
Indoor air quality, or IAQ, ranges from issues relating to comfort, such as air temperature, humidity, and ventilation, to hazardous conditions, such as secondhand smoke, chemical exposure, and biological pollutants. Although IAQ is not currently regulated in the United States, several government organizations have developed guidelines to help increase awareness and decrease unwanted exposure. For example, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has developed IAQ guidelines to address common complaints. These guidelines are available at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/indoorairquality/standards.html [3].
In the event that indoor air quality becomes hazardous or may lead to physical harm or death, all employers must comply with Section 5(a) (1) of the OSH Act, often referred to as the General Duty Clause, that requires employers to "furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees." Section 5(a)(2) requires employers to "comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act" [4].
The familiar term for a problem with indoor air quality is "sick building syndrome" (SBS). First used in the 1970s, SBS refers to a situation in which the occupants of a building report health-related symptoms that may be associated with their presence in that building [1]. Key signs and symptoms of SBS include fatigue, headache, dizziness, nausea, sensitivity to odors, and irritated eyes, nose, and throat. A main identifiable factor in SBS is the absence of symptoms when the individual is out of the suspected building. Causes are usually due to poor ventilation as a result of poor design, maintenance, or operation of the air conditioning system or the interior design of the building, which may prevent proper air flow [1]. Humidity level (too high or too low), lighting, temperature, and other environmental stressors may also be of impact. Many individuals may suspect SBS based on their symptoms; however, it is important to be aware that other building-related illnesses may affect occupants' health.
Many of the state and federal guidelines on IAQ were originally developed to address the effects of tobacco smoke in the work environment. OSHA originally proposed IAQ standards in 1994, with a primary goal of reducing tobacco smoke in the workplace [5]. The proposal was subsequently withdrawn in 2001, as it was found that many state and local governments and private employers had already banned smoking in public areas and in workplaces [6].
In 1985, the Florida legislature enacted the Florida Clean Indoor Air Act (FCIAA). The purpose of the act was to "protect people from the hazards of secondhand smoke" [7]. In addition, in 2002 Florida voters passed a constitutional amendment to prohibit smoking in all enclosed workplaces [7]. Health issues related to secondhand smoke exposure include lung and other cancers and emphysema, lung, and heart diseases.
Indoor air pollutants may originate from both inside and outside the building. Signs and symptoms of exposure may include nasal congestion, nosebleeds, cough, wheezing, shortness of breath, lung disease, eye irritation, headache, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, rash, fever, muscle pain, and hearing loss [1].
Outdoor pollutants that affect IAQ are largely a result of improper ventilation. Sources include motor vehicle exhaust, new construction, and contaminates from building maintenance and public works and utilities. The primary mitigation measure to reduce outdoor pollutants is to place ventilation intakes away from any source of outside pollution [8].
There are a number of sources of indoor pollutants. Many are from the building itself; however, there are industry-specific pollutants as well. Sources can be broadly categorized as chemical, physical, and biological [9].Transmission can be through air, water, or direct contact. The number of possible contaminates for each category is too great in scope to be addressed in this course. Instead, the most common types of pollutants relevant to the salon professional will be briefly discussed later in this section.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacteria spread by airborne transmission. Droplets originate in the airway, including the mouth, pharynx, larynx, or lungs. Simply coughing, sneezing, laughing, or singing can spread thousands of the infected particles into the air. Those working in poorly ventilated areas are at a greater risk of acquiring TB. In 2009, a total of 11,540 TB cases were reported in the United States, at a rate of 3.8 cases per 100,000 population [10]. Fifty percent of these cases were from foreign-born persons, with those from Mexico (1,574), the Philippines (799), India (523), and Vietnam (514) composing the top four countries. Florida was one of four states that reported more than 500 cases of TB in 2009, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [10]. Symptoms of TB may be subtle and include fever, night sweats, weight loss, and a cough that may or may not be productive [11]. Those with suspected cases of TB should contact either their doctor or local health department immediately.
Airborne allergens can include pollens, molds, spores, and dust. Symptoms such as nasal congestion, eye irritation, dermatitis, and asthma are common physical reactions to airborne allergens. Among the various airborne allergens, the dust mite is responsible for a large percent of allergic reactions [1]. Dust mites are present in carpeting, furniture, and bedding and thrive in moist environments. Molds and spores also thrive in moist environments and can trigger an allergic reaction. Increasing ventilation and decreasing humidity will help mitigate many problems associated with these allergens.
In the salon environment, dust from the filing of artificial nails may be detrimental to one's health. Artificial nails are composed of glues, benzoyl peroxide, silica, and acrylic polymers. Some artificial nails contain liquid methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomer. However, use of MMA has been banned in Florida after consumer complaints to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Alternative safe products are now available. In all cases, to reduce nail dust, technicians should use masks when filing and minimize the need to file by shaping the nail correctly [12].
Volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, are a varied group of chemicals that may have short- and long-term adverse health effects. The airborne concentrations of VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. Beauty salons, in particular, use a wide diversity of chemical products that contain VOCs, including cleansers, cosmetics, polish and polish removers, depilation products, hair dyes, and glues and adhesives. One international study found that the most common VOCs found in salons and spas were from scent-containing compounds such as acetones, ketones, toluenes, and esters [13,14]. The odor common to salons is evidence of the presence of these compounds.
Formaldehyde has been classified as a probable human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Airborne formaldehyde is present in salons in many cosmetics and disinfectants. Salons often use a type of dry sanitizer in their cabinets and drawers to sterilize equipment that emits formaldehyde vapor. Exposure may irritate the eyes and respiratory tract. Individuals with asthma may be more sensitive to the effects of airborne formaldehyde [13,14,15].
Another VOC common to salons and spas is benzene. Benzene is a colorless, highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell that evaporates quickly. It is a known carcinogen. Sources of benzene include detergents, plastics, resins, nylon, and other synthetics fibers [16]. It has been found that long-term exposure to benzene can effect red blood cells, possibly leading to anemia or excessive bleeding. Women who breathe benzene over a long period may have irregular menstrual periods and smaller ovaries [16].
VOCs are common and widespread in indoor settings. It is imperative that the salon professional is aware of the possible health effects of exposure. Signs and symptoms include rash, itchiness, headache, nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Cosmetologists and other salon professionals can decrease their exposure to VOCs by following certain practices, such as good ventilation of the areas, closing the packages of beauty products when not in use, and selecting safer beauty products without strong odor.
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is odorless and tasteless. It is formed from the radioactive decay of uranium and is present in rocks and soil. After smoking, it is the second leading cause of lung cancer [13,14]. Smokers and former smokers are at an increased risk of developing cancer from radon exposure. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings and is in higher concentration in spaces that are not well ventilated. Currently, Florida law requires that all school buildings and state-licensed or regulated care facilities in certain counties test for and report radon and its decay products [17]. Although this law does not directly affect salon facilities, it illustrates the importance of recognizing the dangers of radon gas.
The most effective way to successfully manage IAQ is to identify and reduce or eliminate the sources of pollution. Integral to mitigation is a properly working heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system, known as HVAC. An inadequate HVAC system can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not carrying indoor air pollutants out of the building. High temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants, and the design of a building's interior may affect ventilation as well. In particular, partitions and furniture may prevent the proper flow of air.
In the salon environment, source control is key. Measures to mitigate and control pollutants include [8]:
Avoiding aerosols and sprays
Diluting solutions to their proper strength
Using proper protocol when diluting and mixing solutions
Storing products properly with containers closed and lids tight
Eliminating return air for storage spaces
Storing mops "top up" to dry
Good pest management and cleaning practices
The control of relative humidity and mold growth may be a challenge in Florida, especially in the salon environment. To manage moisture and mold, keep relative humidity low by setting the air conditioning in accordance with outside air temperature and dew point. Clean and dry spills immediately, and do not allow standing water in any location. Ensure that surfaces that are frequently wet are cleaned thoroughly and often, lowering the susceptibility of mold growth. All porous materials, such as towels, upholstered furniture, and carpets, should be discarded if there are signs of mold growth [8].
Water is a reservoir for several types of chemical pollutants and micro-organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, that may affect one's health. Tap water must be safe to drink and use for baths according to criteria dictated by local regulations and public health standards. A common micro-organism identified in whirlpools and baths is the bacteria Psuedomonas aeruginosa [28]. Infections from pseudomonas bacteria are commonly known as "hot tub rash" and "swimmer's ear." Symptoms are usually mild, but rash lesions may become inflamed and infected.
A 2000 study of 18 nail salons in California found that 97% of the tested whirlpools footbaths were infected with Mycobacterium fortuitum. Mycobacteria may pose an infectious risk for pedicure customers, causing painful boils [18].
Legionella, which causes infection of the respiratory tract, is another micro-organism commonly found in tap water and bath water. The highest concentrations of Legionella are found in areas of water distribution systems (e.g., hot water storage, cooling towers, condensers), where it colonizes [19]. Legionella is transmitted only through water, not through person-to-person contact. Inhalation of contaminated water droplets from shower heads or faucet aerators may cause disease [20]. In addition, high humidity levels in a room may promote the growth of Legionella and molds [21]. Infection with Legionella may result in Legionnaires' disease, a pneumonia that primarily attacks exposed individuals older than 50 years of age, especially those who smoke, abuse alcohol, or already have a compromised immune system [1].
Water filtration devices may help to reduce the risk of infections related to water [22]. Ducts, humidifiers, dehumidifiers, and other areas of a ventilation system should be kept clean and dry, as micro-organisms can colonize in water that accumulates in these areas [21]. Whirlpools and tubs should be regularly sanitized to prevent infection.
Workplaces such as salons that handle flammable chemicals and potentially hazardous material and that service clients should be concerned with the risks of fire. Fire safety should be part of any employee training program. Smoke alarms, sprinklers, and/or fire extinguishers must be present. All employees must know the fire risks associated with chemicals, gases, or equipment used, as well as how to respond to a fire, including assisting clients and employees and the location and proper use of fire extinguishers [29].
Fire safety plans must include fire emergency preparation with alarm systems, marked exits, and written emergency plans. Many businesses use acronyms such as RACE (Rescue, Alert, Confine, Extinguish) to help employees remember the proper steps for fire emergency response.
Annual inspections by the fire marshal, quarterly fire drills, annual fire safety inservices, and monthly fire extinguisher documentation are all elements of the successful fire safety program. Staff education and documentation of education forms another integral part of the fire safety plan.
Exposure to hazardous chemicals through direct contact is a common occurrence in the salon environment. Hairdressers, in particular, are exposed daily to chemicals found in hair dyes and relaxers. These chemicals primarily enter the body through the skin and, to a lesser extent, through inhalation and may result in burns, irritation to mucous membranes, dermatitis, coughing, and airway irritation. Both the professional and the client may be adversely affected.
Studies suggest that certain substances in hair dyes can be extremely harmful to health. P-phenylenediamine (PPD), a substance found in many hair dyes, may cause severe dermatitis, eye irritation, asthma, abdominal pain, kidney failure, convulsions, and coma in humans [23]. PPD has been the leading permanent hair coloring agent in the Western world since the 1890s, but the rate of adverse reactions to PPD among hairdressers appears to be on the increase [24].
Certain "progressive" hair dye products contain lead acetate as a color additive. These dyes add color gradually over the course of several applications and are often used to cover grey hair. Lead acetate is a known toxic substance; however, its safety in hair products is in question. Although banned in Canada and the European Union, the FDA has concluded that products containing lead acetate are safe. The FDA does require that safety be established before products containing the dye can be marketed, and a warning label cautioning consumers must appear on all products [25].
A study by the American Cancer Society found a possible link between hair dye and bladder cancer. The study found that "women who reported using permanent hair dye at least once a month for 15 years were three times more likely to have bladder cancer, and subjects who worked for 10 or more years as hairdressers or barbers were five times more likely to have bladder cancer compared to individuals not exposed" [26]. Although the results were not conclusive enough to make a recommendation, it illuminates the requirement for additional research on the subject.
In the United States, cosmetics are regulated by the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. According to the FDA, the two most important laws pertaining to cosmetics marketed in the United States are the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA) [27]. The FD&C Act prohibits the commerce of unsafe and misbranded substances. Under FPLA, all products require labeling to allow the consumer to make informed decisions. Although the FDA does not pre-approve cosmetic products, they may inspect cosmetic manufacturing facilities to ensure product safety. Cosmetic companies are responsible for the safety of their products. The FDA requires that if a product has not been safety tested, it must include a label that warns the consumer that the safety of the product has not been determined [27].
Hairdressers should report reactions or complaints about hair dye to the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Adverse Events Reporting System at 1-800-FDA-1088 or CAERS@cfsan.fda.gov.
Salon professionals, employers, and owners should be familiar with OSHA's Right-to-Know Law, which ensures that chemical hazards in the workplace are identified and evaluated and that information concerning these hazards is communicated to employers and employees. In addition, every salon should have protocol in place for spills of hazardous chemicals. Proper storage of hazardous chemical is also of utmost importance.
The salon environment is full of potential pollutants and contaminants, and addressing the quality of the indoor environment can improve employee and client health. Salon professions should be vigilant of possible symptoms from various environmental issues, such as sick building syndrome, indoor air and water contaminates, and chemical hazards. To prevent exposure to harmful pollutants, salon air and water quality should be maintained, with a primary focus on identifying and reducing possible sources of pollution. Maintaining an adequate HVAC system is integral to the process. The presence of flammable chemicals and potentially hazardous materials in the salon environment requires that a fire safety plan and protocols for handling dangerous substances be in place. Maintaining a clean, safe environment for employees and clients will ensure a pleasant experience for all.
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals. Available at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/hpguide.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NIOSH Science Blog: Multifaceted Approach to Assess Indoor Air Quality. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/blog/nsb040909_indoorenv.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Indoor Air Quality Standards. Available at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/indoorairquality/standards.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
4. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSH Act of 1970: SEC.5. Duties. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/ oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=OSHACT&p_id=3359. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
5. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Indoor Air Quallity: 59:15968-16039. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=federal_register&p_id=13369. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
6. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Indoor Air Quality: 66:64946. http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=FEDERAL_REGISTER&p_id=16954. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
7. Florida Department of Health. Florida Clean Indoor Air Act (FCIAA). Available at http://www.doh.state.fl.us/tobacco/FCIAA.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
8. Levin H. Indoor Air Pollutants, Part 2: Description of Sources and Control/Mitigation Measures. Available at http://eetd.lbl.gov/ ie/pdf/LBNL-55774.pdf. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
9. Levin H. Indoor Air Pollutants, Part 1: General Description of Pollutants, Levels and Standards. Available at http://eetd.lbl.gov/ ie/pdf/LBNL-55772.pdf. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Decrease in reported tuberculosis cases-United States, 2009. MMWR. 2010;59(10):289-294.
12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Healthy Air: A Community and Business Leader's Guide. Reducing Air Pollution from: Nail Salons. Available at http://www.epa.gov/air/community/guide/nail_salons_oo_sheet.pdf. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Available at http://www.epa.gov/iedweb00/voc.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
14. Tsigonia A, Lagoudi A, Chandrinou S, Linos A, Evlogias N, Alexopoulos EC. Indoor air in beauty salons and occupational health exposure of cosmetologists to chemical substances. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010;7(1):314-24.
15. Roelofs C, Harriman E, Ellinbecker M. Alternatives for Significant Uses of Formaldehyde in Massachusetts. Available at http://www.eoearth.org/article/Alternatives_for_significant_uses_of_formaldehyde_in_Massachusetts. Last accessed June 28. 2010.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergency Preparedness and Response: Facts About Benzene. Available at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/benzene/basics/facts.asp. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
17. Florida Legislature. The 2009 Florida Statutes. Chapter 404: Radiation. Available at http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&Search_String=&URL=Ch0404/SEC056.HTM&Title=->2002->Ch0404->Section 056. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
18. Vugia DJ, Jang Y, Zizek C, Ely J, Winthrop KL, Desmond E. Mycobacteria in nail salon whirlpool footbaths, California. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(4):616-618.
19. Noskin GA, Peterson LR. Engineering infection control through facility design. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7(2):354-357.
20. John LD. Nosocomial infections and bath water: any cause for concern? Clin Nurse Spec. 2006;20(3):119-123.
21. Passweg JR, Rowlings PA, Atkinson KA, et al. Influence of protective isolation on outcome of allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for leukemia. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1998;21(12):1231-1238.
22. Ortolano GA, McAlister MB, Angelbeck JA, et al. Hospital water point-of-use filtration: a complementary strategy to reduce the risk of nosocomial infection. Am J Infect Control. 2005;33(5 Suppl 1):S1-S19.
23. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. P-Phenylenediamine. Available at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/phenylen.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
25. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Lead Acetate in "Progressive" Hair Dye Products. Available at http://www.fda.gov/ Cosmetics/ProductandIngredientSafety/ProductInformation/ucm143075.htm. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
26. American Cancer Society. Study Finds Possible Link Between Hair Dye and Bladder Cancer. Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/nws/content/nws_1_1x_study_finds_possible_link_between_hair_dye_and_bladder_cancer_.asp. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
27. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Authority Over Cosmetics. Available at http://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/ucm074162.htm. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
28. Mena KD, Gerba CP. Risk assessment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in water. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 2009;201:71-115.
29. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Safety and Health Topics: Fire Safety. Available at http://www.osha.gov/ SLTC/firesafety/index.html. Last accessed June 28, 2010.
30. Reutman S. CDC NIOSH Science Blog: Nail Salon Table Evaluation. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/blog/nsb031009_nails.html. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
31. Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Protocol for Investigating Odor Complaints Related to Nail Salons. Available at http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs/dph/environmental/iaq/ventilation_nail_salons.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
32. Maxfield R, Howe HL. Silica Exposure in Artificial Nail Application Salons: Epidemiological Report Series 97:8. Springfield, IL: Illinois Department of Health; 1997.
33. Ronda E, Hollund BE, Moen BE. Airborne exposure to chemical substances in hairdresser salons. Environ Monit Assess. 2009;153(1-4): 83-93.
34. McNary JE, Jackson EM. Inhalation exposure to formaldehyde and toluene in the same occupational and consumer setting. Inhal Toxicol. 2007;19(6-7):573-576
35. Mounier-Geyssant E, Oury V, Mouchot L, Paris C, Zmirou-Navier D. Exposure of hairdressing apprentices to airborne hazardous substances. Environ Health. 2006;5:23.
36. van der Wal JF, Hoogeveen AW, Moons AMM, Wouda P. Investigation on the exposure of hairdressers to chemical agents. Environ Int. 1997;23(4):433-439.
37. Labrèche F, Forest J, Trottier M, Lalonde M, Simard R. Characterization of chemical exposures in hairdressing salons. Appl Occup Environ Hyg. 2003;18(12):1014-1021.
38. Hollunda BE, Moena BE, Lygrea SH, Florvaagb E, Omenaas E. Prevalence of airway symptoms among hairdressers in Bergen, Norway. Occup Environ Med. 2001;58:780-785.
39. Evci ED, Bilgin MD,Akgör Ş, Zencirci ŞG, Ergiń F, Beşer E. Measurement of selected indoor physical environmental factors in hairdresser salons in a Turkish City. Environ Monit Assess. 2007;134(1-3):471-477.
40. Tsigonia A, Lagoudi A, Chandrinou S, Linos A, Evlogias N, Alexopoulos EC. Indoor air in beauty salons and occupational health exposure of cosmetologists to chemical substances. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010;7(1):314-324.
41. Huijsdens XW, Janssen M, Renders NHM, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a beauty salon, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14(11):1797-1799.
42. Cooksey RC, de Waard JH, Yakrus MA, et al. Letter: Mycobacterium cosmeticum, Ohio and Venezuela. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(8): 1267-1269.
43. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Publication No. 99-112: Controlling Chemical Hazards During the Application of Artificial Fingernails. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/99-112/. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
44. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Standard Interpretations Number 1910.1000: Potential Health Hazards from Exposures to Ammonia and EMF Radiation from Hair Dryers for Beauty Salon Workers. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=INTERPRETATIONS&p_id=25080. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
45. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L, the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Settings. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/isolation/Isolation2007.pdf. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
46. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Standard 1910.1030: Bloodborne Pathogens. Available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10051. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
47. Union Safe. Hairdressing, Nail, and Beauty Safety. Available at http://unionsafe.labor.net.au/hazards/106014706721942.html. Last accessed February 22, 2010.
48. World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Volume 57. Occupational Exposures of Hairdressers and Barbers and Personal Use of Hair Colourants; Some Hair Dyes, Cosmetic Colourants, Industrial Dyestuffs and Aromatic Amines: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1997.
Table of Contents
Charlene H. Grafton, RN, BS, MS, CCM, is licensed in two states as a Registered Nurse and nationally certified as a Case Manager. In Florida, she is a Qualified Rehabilitation Provider and currently an Independent Contractor, Nurse Case Manager. She was selected as Who's Who by American Colleges and Universities, American Nursing and also by the International Tennis Federation. Also, she is a Veteran of the Army Nurse Corps, First Lieutenant. Ms. Grafton has demonstrated her natural leadership style through volunteer work and participation on various Boards of Directors, such as the Jaycee Jaynes, Nevada Community Enrichment Program, Southern Nevada Continuity of Care Association, Florida's Governor's Council on Fitness and Sports, Nevada Tennis Association, National Senior Women's Tennis Association, Health Insight (Medicare and Medicaid) and the Executive Women's Golf League. In addition, she has presented papers and shown her teaching abilities by speaking at local, state, regional, national and international forums on a variety of subjects, including teaching techniques, lateral dominance, fitness and case management. As a writer, she has published two books about dominance and researched in areas of coordination, laterality, and sidedness from gifted to learning disabilities/problems and functional independence. Her work has also appeared in trade magazines.
Contributing faculty, Charlene H. Grafton, RN, BS, MS, CCM, has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.
The purpose of this course is to provide awareness of carpal tunnel syndrome, with a focus on specific signs and symptoms and on interventions available to treat and/or prevent the condition.
Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:
While carpal tunnel syndrome is possibly the most common nerve disorder diagnosed today, it is not a new condition born of the information technology age [1]. Compression of the median nerve of the hand was first reported in 1854 by Sir James Paget. In 1880, James Putnam reported on a series of patients who were experiencing pain and tingling in the median nerve of the hand. In 1913, Pierre Marie and Charles Foix offered a description of the pathology of median nerve compression, and in 1933, Sir James Learmonth reported the first release treatment for median nerve compression [2].
Determining the causes of carpal tunnel syndrome remains an area of ongoing research, discussion, and disagreement among healthcare professionals. Some have concluded that carpal tunnel syndrome is an occupational disorder with clear-cut associations to repetitive manual movements or work tasks [3,4,5,6]. Others have concluded that the causes of carpal tunnel syndrome are unknown, unproven, or based on multiple factors [7,8,9,10,11].
Despite the ongoing disagreement about its causes, the U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that carpal tunnel syndrome exacts a significant toll each year on the health and productivity of the U.S. workforce. The rate of reported cases, while declining in recent years, accounts for a higher number of days away from work than all other work-related musculoskeletal disorders [7,13,14]. More than 21,000 cases of occupational injury or illness resulting from carpal tunnel syndrome and involving time away from work are reported each year, resulting in lost wages, increased healthcare costs in local communities, and added costs to state worker's compensation programs [13,15].
The purpose of this course is to provide information about the causes of carpal tunnel syndrome and to review current methods of diagnosis and treatment and recommended prevention strategies. It begins by defining carpal tunnel syndrome, which includes a discussion of common symptoms, causes and contributing factors, and conditions that mimic carpal tunnel syndrome. Current diagnostic methods and tools are reviewed, and treatment options and recommended prevention strategies are discussed. The course concludes with a simulated case study that describes the course of treatment for a cosmetologist who experiences chronic symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is generally associated with such umbrella terms as repetitive stress injuries, work-related upper extremity disorders, musculoskeletal disorders, entrapment neuropathies, and cumulative trauma disorders [3,16,17,18,19]. Specifically, carpal tunnel syndrome is a painful disorder of the wrist and hand that occurs when the median nerve (which runs from the hand to the forearm) becomes compressed [1,20].
The carpal tunnel is a narrow passageway (about as wide as your thumb) on the palm side of the wrist. Surrounded by bones and ligaments, the carpal tunnel houses and protects the nine tendons of the hand, which control the movement of the fingers, and the median nerve, which controls sensations to the thumb and fingers ((Figure 1)). When the wrist is bent at a right angle, the carpal tunnel becomes much smaller, which can put pressure on the median nerve. If the median nerve becomes pinched or compressed (due to swelling or irritation in surrounding tissues or tendons), the result can be pain, numbness, hand weakness, and in extreme cases, loss of hand function.
Cases of carpal tunnel syndrome affecting both hands have been reported, but typically only one hand (the dominant hand) is affected [1,9,21,22]. Carpal tunnel syndrome is rare in children; it usually occurs only in adults [9,23]. However, among adults, it is three times more likely to occur in women than in men [9].
The symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome typically appear gradually and may include [9,21]:
Numbness, burning, or tingling in the fingers and palm of the hand
Pain in the wrist, palm, or forearm, especially during use
Decreased grip strength
Weakness in the thumb
Sensation of swollen fingers, whether or not swelling is apparent
Difficulty distinguishing between hot and cold
Symptoms may cause waking during the night with the urge to "shake out" the hand or wrist. Symptoms may occur with activities that require prolonged grasping and/or flexing of the wrist (such as hair cutting). Left untreated, carpal tunnel syndrome can progress to persistent numbness and permanent loss of hand function. In severe and chronic cases, irreversible muscle damage or weakening may occur [1,9,24]. Complete sensory loss in the hand has also been reported [25].
Researchers have identified a variety of factors that may cause or contribute to the development of carpal tunnel syndrome. These factors include the presence of other health conditions, engagement in an occupation or activity that involves repetitive use of the hand, and the presence of a range of personal/physical factors that may indicate a predisposition to carpal tunnel syndrome [1,4,7,9,13,20,21,26,27,28,29,30,31]. There is general agreement that carpal tunnel syndrome is caused by many different factors and that the exact cause is unknown [6,8,32]. Also, the role of individual contributing factors in the development and prognosis of carpal tunnel syndrome is uncertain. In some instances, no cause can be identified [9].
Several health conditions are associated with the presence of carpal tunnel syndrome and may be contributing factors in its development. The most commonly noted co-occurring health conditions are noninflammatory synovial fibrosis, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, thyroid disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, pregnancy, and menopause.
When the cause of carpal tunnel syndrome is unknown, it often occurs with a condition called noninflammatory synovial fibrosis [33]. The joints of the hand (including the wrist and fingers) are synovial joints, meaning that the joints contain fluid-filled cavities that protect the bones and allow for more flexibility in motion. If the tissues of these joints become thickened (synovial fibrosis), pressure may be placed on the median nerve. The finding that many people with carpal tunnel syndrome have synovial fibrosis supports the belief that chronic or repetitive injury to the median nerve, resulting in tissue swelling, compression of the nerve, or injury to the outside layers of the nerve, is a primary factor in the development of carpal tunnel syndrome [9,20,33,34,35,36]. Studies of patients with carpal tunnel syndrome have revealed changes in the properties of joint tissue, irregular patterns of tendon movement, and an absence of the normal connections between tissue layers that surround the median nerve [33,36,37].
Metabolism is a word used to describe all of the chemical reactions in your body, especially the use of food for fuel and the chemicals and hormones involved with providing energy to the body. Metabolic disorders have a well-documented association with carpal tunnel syndrome [1,7,8,20,29,31,38,39,40,41]. This is particularly true of disorders that directly affect the nerves of the body by increasing their susceptibility to compression [9]. Metabolic syndrome is a group of risk factors in one person, and it is characterized by abdominal obesity (a waist circumference greater than 40 inches in men or greater than 35 inches in women), high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes. When a person experiences all of these risk factors, he or she is at increased risk for developing carpal tunnel syndrome [1,7,8,20,29,31,38,39]. The incidence of metabolic syndrome has been found to be higher in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Also, in patients with metabolic syndrome, the carpal tunnel syndrome tends to be more severe [39].
Diabetes has been linked with several debilitating disorders of the hand, including carpal tunnel syndrome [21,40,42,43]. Carpal tunnel syndrome occurs more often in individuals with diabetes than in those without. Presence of the syndrome appears to be related more to the duration of the diabetes than to the patient's gender or age, meaning that the longer a person has diabetes, the greater the risk for carpal tunnel syndrome [40,41]. However, diabetes is a weaker risk factor for women compared to men [44].
Studies have demonstrated that disorders of the muscles and bones, including carpal tunnel syndrome, frequently accompany thyroid conditions [8,9,29,31,42,45,46]. Symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome commonly appear in people with hypothyroid (low levels of thyroid hormone in the blood), even if the thyroid gland is functioning normally [29]. The combination of hypothyroidism and carpal tunnel syndrome appears to be more common in the elderly [47]. It is important to note that the risk of developing carpal tunnel syndrome increases when thyroid disease is untreated. [48].
Gout is another health condition associated with carpal tunnel syndrome. Gout is a type of arthritis caused by a build-up of sodium urate (uric acid) in the joints and external ear. In some people, the arthritis may be long-term and can affect more than one joint. It is caused by excessive uric acid in the body, which is normally eliminated via urine. If the body is unable to process the excessive uric acid, crystals can begin to form around the joints (in the synovial fluid), causing pain, swelling, and redness. Certain foods, a history of rapid weight loss, diabetes, sickle cell anemia, obesity, and kidney disease have been associated with gout [38,57]. Individuals (particularly men) with a history of gout are at increased risk for developing carpal tunnel syndrome, even when appropriate medical treatment is given [38,58].
Carpal tunnel syndrome has become an increasingly recognized problem in patients who undergo long-term hemodialysis, a method whereby a machine is used to clean the blood when the kidneys are unable to do so [49]. A strong connection has been noted between the duration of hemodialysis and the appearance of carpal tunnel syndrome [52]. A direct connection between an artery and a vein (referred to as an arteriovenous fistula) may be used in hemodialysis patients to allow access to the vascular system. When used, this procedure has been identified as one of the possible causes for the development of carpal tunnel syndrome [49,50,51].
Rheumatoid arthritis is a long-term disease characterized by inflammation of the joints and surrounding tissues; in some cases, it can also affect other organs. The cause of rheumatoid arthritis is unknown, but it is believed to be the result of immune dysfunction, meaning that the body's immune system is mistakenly attacking its own tissues. It has also been associated with carpal tunnel syndrome [7,9,31,43,53]. People with rheumatoid arthritis and carpal tunnel syndrome are reportedly more likely to have enlarged areas of the median nerve than arthritic patients and healthy persons without carpal tunnel syndrome. However, whether rheumatoid arthritis has a role in the development of carpal tunnel syndrome is uncertain [54].
Female gender is an independent risk factor for carpal tunnel syndrome, probably because the carpal tunnel is smaller in women than in men [9]. Fluid retention during pregnancy or menopause is frequently associated with development of the disease [1,20,38,39,43,44,48,53,55]. When the syndrome develops during pregnancy, symptoms usually appear in both hands and during the third trimester. Previous pregnancy does not increase the risk for carpal tunnel syndrome, but patient weight gain during pregnancy does. Pregnancy-induced carpal tunnel syndrome usually resolves spontaneously following delivery, with significant improvement noted 6 and 12 weeks after giving birth [7,21,55,56].
Carpal tunnel syndrome has been reported among a variety of occupations, including clerical workers (e.g., cashiers, data entry workers, typists), assembly line workers (manufacturing, sewing, finishing, cleaning, meat packing), computer workers, and salon and spa professionals [3,5,7,9,21,28,30,59,60]. Information about the association of carpal tunnel syndrome with repetitive activity is now so widely available and easily obtained that many workers will self-diagnose before seeing a doctor or therapist [7].
Although the link between specific work activities and carpal tunnel syndrome has not been proven, studies have shown that intensive, repetitive motion, vibration, and extreme postures of the hand and wrist during any job may contribute to the development of carpal tunnel syndrome by temporarily increasing pressure in the carpal tunnel, which can potentially damage the median nerve and impair normal hand function [5,28,30,53,59,61,62,63,64,65,66,67].
According to the New South Wales Department for Women, nail technicians may experience many problems with upper body injuries caused by having to maintain awkward postures of the upper body and limbs while performing highly repetitive tasks [88]. Ergonomic assessment of the work of nail technicians found there are high injury risk factors attached to the nail technician's duties [88]. This includes repetition, forcefulness of hand movements (as in filing and buffing), uncomfortable postures held for long periods (such as a bent neck), and lack of recovery time between sessions. Scientific studies show neck, shoulders, arms, hands, and fingers are at significant risk of injury unless efforts are made to reduce the problem areas.
Risk factors for the development of carpal tunnel syndrome when working as a nail technician include a large number of clients serviced most days, the size of the workstation, working within the client's comfort zone (within 12 inches of the client), and the use of detailed postures (like the pinch posture for cleaning and filing nails). Nail technicians also tend to rest their elbows on the edge of the table, which can rest the shoulders but can compress the nerve in the elbow [95].
The repetitive movements of hair cutting (e.g., gripping shears), combing, brushing, and blow drying can also cause damage to the nerves in the hand and arm. Some shears will put pressure on the fingers and hand, and for those with greater client loads, this can result in carpal tunnel syndrome. Although the pressure may not be significant when experienced for short periods, the accumulation of continuous pressure over days, months, and years can cause significant damage.
The repetitive motion of hair braiding and wrapping is also a concern. Some hair braiders work for hours on a single client, making the same movement hundreds of times. Clearly, this puts them at risk for repetitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome.
The action of massaging, whether it is over a small area (such as the face) or over a client's entire body, can result in the accumulation of stress on the nerves and tendons in the hands and arms that lead to carpal tunnel syndrome. This is a particular concern for massage therapists, who repeat the same movements continuously for many hours per day [96]. According to the Associated Bodywork and Massage Professionals, thousands of massage therapists are suffering from carpal tunnel syndrome [96]. As a result, these professionals may limit hours by working part time or may leave the massage therapy profession after 4 to 6 years to avoid additional injuries.
Obesity and lack of physical fitness are considered to be foremost risk factors in the development of carpal tunnel syndrome [1,7,8,40,67,68,69,70,71,72]. Obese individuals are more likely than non-obese individuals to have chronic health conditions, including diabetes, hypertension, and osteoarthritis [73]. The presence of these conditions, rather than excess body weight alone, may be the reason for a higher risk for carpal tunnel syndrome in obese individuals [74].
As noted, women are much more likely than men to develop carpal tunnel syndrome [9,67]. The dominant hand is usually affected first and produces the most severe pain [60]. The increased incidence in women may be partly due to hormonal factors, but in general, it is believed to be related to a natural inclination to and higher frequency of muscle and skeletal problems among women [76]. The type of work performed may also be a contributing factor [27,77]. Women with carpal tunnel syndrome also have a higher absence rate from work and are disabled for longer than men [60].
Inherited variations in the size and shape of the hand and wrist, or in the size of the carpal tunnel and its contents, may predispose some individuals to carpal tunnel syndrome [21,32,78]. Individuals with disease in both hands are reportedly also more likely to have family members with carpal tunnel syndrome or other muscle/skeletal issues than those with either no carpal tunnel syndrome or disease in only one hand [79].
The incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome increases with increasing age. This is believed to be a result of median sensory latency and more severe compression of the median nerve [80]. The disability duration also reportedly increases with age, with a peak incidence between 45 and 54 years of age [40,60,68].
Smoking and alcohol consumption are believed to be two of the many personal lifestyle choices that may contribute to an increased risk for carpal tunnel syndrome [7,19,53,55]. While cigarette smoking and heavy alcohol consumption have been associated with carpal tunnel syndrome, how they might cause or aggravate the condition is unclear [8].
There are many conditions with symptoms that are similar to carpal tunnel syndrome. Consideration of these conditions during the assessment process will ensure accurate diagnosis and effective treatment.
Hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) is often misdiagnosed as carpal tunnel syndrome due to similar symptoms and causes. It can be even more confusing when the two syndromes occur at the same time. HAVS consists of an array of injuries to the nerves, muscles, and tendons of the wrist and hand and commonly afflicts occupational groups who use handheld vibrating tools. The symptoms of HAVS include tenderness or pain and swelling of the fingers; numbness, weakness, or tingling in the fingers; reduced sensitivity to heat and cold; and loss of dexterity and coordination in the fingers [81].
Pronator syndrome (compression of the median nerve by the ponator teres muscle in the elbow) and anterior interosseous nerve syndrome (damage of the motor branch of the median nerve, also at the elbow) are median nerve compressions that may cause pain, tenderness, aching in the wrist, difficulty moving the index and middle fingers, a feeling of poor coordination, and burning or tingling that extends into the hand. These syndromes are rare but should be suspected if a person with carpal tunnel syndrome fails to respond to treatment [82].
Cervical spondylosis is a disorder caused by abnormal wear on the spine bones in the neck (cervical vertebrae), resulting in chronic degeneration of the cervical spine and eventually weakness, compression of one or more nerve roots, and pain in the neck and arm [83]. Tingling, burning, or crawling feelings in the hand are common. Because these symptoms are also common in carpal tunnel syndrome, additional symptoms should be evaluated to properly distinguish between cervical spondylosis and carpal tunnel syndrome. Patients with cervical spondylosis generally have a higher incidence of neck and lower limb pain than patients with carpal tunnel syndrome [84].
Cubital tunnel syndrome is caused by pressure on the ulnar nerve at the elbow. When the pressure increases enough to disturb normal nerve function, pain, numbness, and tingling may occur in the forearm or hand. Most often this pain is in the ring and little fingers. Other symptoms that mirror carpal tunnel syndrome include decreased grip strength, weakness while pinching, and a feeling of clumsiness [1,9,85]. Individuals with cubital tunnel syndrome are more likely than individuals with carpal tunnel syndrome to present with significantly weakened muscles [24].
Tenosynovitis, also known as deQuervain's tendonitis, occurs when the tendons at the base of the thumb become irritated or inflamed. This causes the tunnel around the tendon to swell and results in pain and difficulty grasping and holding objects. New repetitive activity, hormonal fluctuations associated with pregnancy and breastfeeding, and wrist fractures are possible causes of tenosynovitis.
Stenosing tenosynovitis, also referred to as "trigger finger," occurs when the pulley/tendon relationship between the hand and fingers is restricted by thickening or swelling at the base of the fingers. This creates pain and a distinctive catching, popping, or locking action in the finger or thumb. A cycle of triggering, inflammation, and swelling is common. Like carpal tunnel syndrome, stenosing tenosynovitis has been associated with other health conditions, such as gout, diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis. In many cases, the actual cause is not clear [85].
Early diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome is important to prevent muscle damage or atrophy (e.g., weakening, wasting) or damage to the median nerve that cannot be reversed by treatment [1,9]. The process of diagnosing the condition, including a physical examination by a doctor, routine laboratory tests, and imaging, can also help to identify or rule out other health conditions that may have similar signs and symptoms and require specialized treatment. The physical examination will include specific testing, such as Phalen's test or Tinel's test, that can produce the symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome [9,21,86,87].
Several tests are available that allow doctors and physical therapists to check the nerves and tendons of the hand. While these tests are important to diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome, additional testing will be necessary to confirm any findings.
One of these tests is called the Phalen's test or the wrist-flexion test. In this test, an individual will be asked to flex the wrists while extending the fingers. The backs of the hands will be together, while the fingers will be pointed down. When tingling or numbness occur within one minute, it is possible that the person has carpal tunnel syndrome [9,24]. A positive result on Phalen's test (the presence of tingling or numbness) may indicate severe carpal tunnel syndrome [89]. The test is not a reliable indicator of carpal tunnel syndrome in individuals with diabetes [90].
Another useful tool is Tinel's test, also referred to as Tinel's sign. This test consists of a doctor pressing or tapping on the median nerve in an individual's wrist. If tingling in the fingers or a shock-like sensation occurs, carpal tunnel syndrome is suggested [9,24]. A positive result on Tinel's test is not an indication of the syndrome's severity [89].
Other tests that may be part of the physical examination include the flick sign and the hand elevation test. In testing for the flick sign, the individual flicks the hand and wrist as if shaking a thermometer. If tingling or a shock-like sensation occurs, carpal tunnel syndrome may be present; however, this test may not be conclusive in some people [91]. During the hand elevation test, the individual elevates the hand above the head as high as comfortably possible for about one minute. Symptoms of tingling and numbness indicate carpal tunnel syndrome. The hand elevation test has been found to be as accurate as Phalen's test and more specific than Tinel's test [92,93].
After the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome is suggested, it should be confirmed with additional testing [1,9,86,94]. Available methods include electrodiagnostic (electrophysiological) studies, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and pressure-specified sensorimotor devices (PSSDs).
The electrodiagnostic (EDX) study is a two-part electrical test used to check nerve health in people with complaints of pain, weakness, numbness, or tingling. During the first part of the test, an electrode placed near the elbow side of the tunnel generates a mild electrical current. The current travels in the nerve through the carpal tunnel to the hand. The time it takes the electrical current to travel to the hand indicates the health of the nerve; a longer travel time indicates nerve damage. The second portion of the test consists of placing small needles into some muscles that are supplied by the median nerve. The electrical impulses of the muscles are measured both at rest and upon contraction. Poor or abnormal muscle performance indicates severe carpal tunnel syndrome [1,57].
Ultrasonography is a method in which high frequency sound waves (ultrasonic echoes) produce images or photographs of organs and tissues. Ultrasonography can reveal impaired movement of the median nerve. Doppler ultrasonography changes the sound waves into images that can be viewed on a monitor and measures the direction and velocity of the object being studied. Gray-scale ultrasonography measures the strength of ultrasound echoes and records the strongest echoes as white and the weakest echoes in shades of gray [57]. Doppler ultrasonography is believed to be more accurate than gray-scale in diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome [99].
MRI has been used in the development of a biomechanical model of the wrist and carpal tunnel, which can help during evaluation of the median nerve [109,110]. Although MRI is less accurate than EDX studies for confirming carpal tunnel syndrome, it has proved to be useful in determining the severity of the disorder in patients with symptoms with no known cause, in explaining persistent symptoms following surgery, and in predicting whether a patient will benefit from surgery [111,112,113]. MRI is not usually recommended for diagnosing suspected carpal tunnel syndrome [55,97].
CT scans use x-rays to produce detailed, cross-sectional images of selected structures inside the body [57]. In the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome, CT imaging can provide a view of any structural problems that might be affecting the carpal tunnel and median nerve [114,115]. However, the routine use of CT is not recommended for diagnosing suspected carpal tunnel syndrome [97].
Surgery, corticosteroids, pain medications, diuretics, wrist splints, exercise, ultrasound therapy, laser therapy, and yoga are among the methods that have been recommended for the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome [117,118,119,120,121,122]. Although no single treatment method has been universally accepted, treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome should begin as early as possible and should include attention to underlying causes, such as diabetes or rheumatoid arthritis. There is also agreement that successful treatment depends on compliance with the treatment program [9,123].
Before deciding on a course of treatment, it is important to decide the desired outcome. Is the goal symptom improvement only? Is it a permanent modification of leisure time and/or work activity? Is it a return to work? Establishing goals prior to treatment can allow you to measure success and track progress [21].
Non-surgical treatments for carpal tunnel syndrome are typically used by individuals with mild-to-moderate symptoms and those who are waiting to undergo surgery [122,123,128]. Non-surgical treatment methods are generally considered successful when the individual's symptoms and functional ability improve within 2 to 7 weeks. If improvement is not seen within this timeframe, surgery or additional non-surgical treatment should be considered [123].
Local corticosteroid injections and splinting have demonstrated short-term benefit and symptomatic relief in individuals with mild or moderate carpal tunnel syndrome and should be tried before surgery [123,128,129,130]. Taking steroid pills has been somewhat effective in the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome, but it is not considered as effective as injections [123].
Corticosteroid injections have been found to improve symptoms and function after 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks. As noted, they demonstrate a better overall improvement in the symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome compared to corticosteroids pills, but they do not appear to provide a better long-term outcome (after 6 months) than splinting or pain medications [2,119,128].
Splinting has also been found to improve symptoms, and function when measured after 2, 4, and 12 weeks. As such, splinting should be considered before surgery. But, it is not recommended for use after routine carpal tunnel release surgery [123,128].
Over-the-counter pain medications such as aspirin or acetaminophen (Tylenol) are used to treat a variety of pain conditions, including carpal tunnel syndrome, but opinion varies as to their effectiveness and safety for long-term use [57,129,131]. Specifically, some pain medications have been associated with gastrointestinal and cardiovascular risks and toxicity with long-term use [132].
Diuretics ("water pills") and vitamin B6 may also help with temporary relief of symptomatic carpal tunnel syndrome, but their long-term benefits are unproven [2,55,128,129]. Acupuncture, yoga, exercise, laser therapy, activity modification, and ergonomic workplace modifications also have been mentioned as non-surgical treatment alternatives [2,9,119,123,128,129,133,134]. Individuals who incorporate yoga into their treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome have a greater improvement in grip strength and reduction in pain than those who split or attempt no treatment [98]. Some people have also found chiropractic adjustments to be helpful.
Surgery is the preferred treatment for people with chronic or severe carpal tunnel syndrome. There are two types of surgery available: open release and endoscopic [121,123,124]. Both types of surgery are generally performed on an outpatient basis under local anesthesia. Open release surgery involves making an incision of up to 2 inches at the base of the palm of the hand and cutting the carpal ligament, which creates a larger carpal tunnel and releases pressure on the median nerve [9,85]. Endoscopic surgery involves making a small, one-half inch incision at the wrist and introducing small camera attached to a tube beneath the carpal ligament. Using the scope as a guide, the ligament is cut, again relieving pressure on the median nerve [9,85]. With the endoscopic surgery, the recovery time is shorter and there is minimal scarring and tenderness. Because this technique allows for quicker return to regular function and is associated with less pain after the surgery, it is often preferred. Release surgery is usually a final treatment, but carpal tunnel syndrome can recur in a minority of people.
Patients with carpal tunnel syndrome in both limbs may require surgical release in both hands. When compared to release surgeries done at different times, simultaneous release has been shown to offer shorter times of disability and substantial cost savings [22]. Even with resolution of the pain and inflammation of carpal tunnel syndrome, there may be other lasting effects. Whichever surgery plan is chosen, it is important to note that individuals will be required to complete physical therapy to restore wrist strength. Rarely, the wrist will be weakened as a result of the ligament having been cut. Some people may have infection, nerve damage, stiffness, and pain at the scar. It may be necessary for some individuals to adjust job duties or even change jobs after recovery from surgery [9].
Although the number of cases of carpal tunnel syndrome among U.S. workers has been declining, the resulting number of reported days away from work remains high [13]. Lost work time and decreased employee productivity have led employers to develop organizational approaches to managing employee health, safety, and productivity, with an emphasis on prevention and returning employees to work as quickly as possible [136,137]. These approaches include ergonomic principles to job and workstation design, the use of ergonomically sound equipment (including ergonomic shears and workspaces), and the use of exercise regimens and safety programs [12,105,106,107,108,125,126,127,135].
The concept of work-related carpal tunnel syndrome, though unproven, has had a significant societal impact in the United States [11]. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has developed a four-point approach designed to reduce and prevent illness and injury resulting from muscle/skeletal disorders in the workplace. OSHA's four-point approach includes [75]:
Guidelines designed to prevent/reduce workplace muscle/skeletal disorders
Enforcement designed to prosecute serious ergonomic violations in the workplace
Outreach and assistance designed to assist businesses with the management of ergonomic issues
A National Advisory Committee on Ergonomics, created to advise OSHA on ergonomic guidelines and identify gaps in research
Major prevention strategies have included performing stretching exercises, taking frequent rest breaks, wearing splints to keep wrists straight, and using correct posture and wrist position [9]. OSHA's research component may be the most important point in its approach to carpal tunnel syndrome, as none of the prevention strategies studied to date have conclusively demonstrated that they prevent carpal tunnel syndrome [123,125].
Ergonomically correct techniques, equipment, and workspaces are all very important in preventing the development of carpal tunnel syndrome. Ergonomics is defined as the study and practice of "fitting" an individual's workplace to their specifications to avoid unnecessary injury. In the early 2000s, OSHA developed an ergonomics standard for all workplaces [100]. This standard was rejected by the Federal government, but standards have since been developed for specific occupations (such as retail grocery stores and nursing homes). Although a specific standard has not yet been developed for the salon and spa industries, all employers have an obligation to ensure that workplaces are free from serious hazards, and this includes hazards associated with ergonomics [101]. As part of overall compliance, OSHA does evaluate ergonomics injuries and will notify or cite employers with high rates of muscle/skeletal disorders, including carpal tunnel syndrome. An important new feature is that OSHA will follow up with some of the companies that receive these letters, checking to evaluate what actions the employers have taken to address ergonomic hazards [101].
The New South Wales Department for Women has developed several tips for decreasing the risk of carpal tunnel among nail technicians. There are suggested practices for both employers and employees to minimize the potential for injury. Nail technicians should [88]:
Vary tasks as much as possible to allow recovery time for muscles
Adjust the height of the chair to ensure that your arms are in a comfortable position and your head is not constantly bent too far forward as you work
Manage bookings to rotate the lengthy, demanding tasks if possible
Store all objects between knee and shoulder height
Avoid swivelling your body while working and try to move your feet in the same direction as you are turning
Do finger stretching exercises and rotation of wrists, shoulders and neck
Employers should also ensure that the environment and equipment provided to employees are ergonomic and support risk-reduction practices. This includes [88]:
Encouraging staff to wear comfortable clothing, including footwear
Ensuring that work stations are at the right height for the relevant tasks, such as manicure tables at the right height and reception desks at a comfortable standing height
Providing height-adjustable chairs with good back support
Choosing to locate materials and equipment in practical and comfortable places rather than focusing solely on what looks good
Whenever possible, nail technicians should remain in a neutral position. The back and neck should be straight, and the elbows, thighs, knees, and feet should be at 90-degree angles, as neutral positions come at 180-degree and 90-degree angles for the body [95]. The back should be straight, the head up, and the wrists flat.
Because nail technicians often work in the customer's comfortable zone rather than their own, it is important to include the client in ensuring ergonomics and comfort. The client should sit as close to the work station as possible, and work should be done within the technicians functional range of motion (without unnecessary stress, stretching, or discomfort) [95].
Among hair stylists and associated professions, carpal tunnel syndrome can occur due to holding hairdressing shears incorrectly, using low-quality shears, holding a strained position (as when blowing hair out), and the repetitive gripping associated with hair cutting, braiding, and wrapping [101]. In many cases hair stylists believe that arm, neck, finger, and wrist pain are just a part of the job and are resistant to changing techniques or tools. But taking steps to eliminate the causes of the pain is important to ensure that long-term, irreversible damage does not occur.
One key point for carpal tunnel syndrome prevention in hair stylists is the selection of a good pair of shears [102]. Each scissor should be custom-fitted to the individuals, taking into account the size and shape of the stylist's hand and fingers. Well-fitted shears will not slide on the hand or put pressure on the tendons and ligaments and will cut smoothly. The size, weight, and comfort of the shears should be assessed. It may be helpful for some stylists to use swivel shears in order to minimize awkward wrist positions.
The European Union has developed a checklist for hair stylists and employers to use to evaluate the safety of the hair salon workplace [104]. The questions related to muscle/skeletal disorders include [104]:
Do clients' and hairdressers' seats and washbasins enable a good working posture for the variety of different tasks carried out by a hairdresser?
Are (sufficient) hairdressers' seats/sitting aids available in the salon?
Does the amount of working space (e.g., around the washbasin and client seat) cause uncomfortable working postures?
Are special child seats or seat enlargers used for children?
Are clients' and hairdressers' seats easily adjustable and do all employees know how to adjust the seats to obtain an upright working posture?
Do scissors meet the ergonomic criteria (do they have a little finger support, are they nickel-free and sharp)?
Do employees work in solid shoes (without heels) that give good support and enable a good working posture?
Is there sufficient variation in the work, enabling the employees to work in different postures?
Do employees take regular breaks (i.e., 5 minutes each hour)?
Do employees complain about the climate (e.g., temperature, fresh air) or smell in the salon?
Is there sufficient light for safe and efficient task performance?
Many massage therapy schools teach body mechanics, in which you learn the proper ways to stand, lean, and use your hands when doing the work [103]. These same techniques may be helpful for estheticians who are involved with skin massage. As with other professions, the use of an ergonomically sound workspace is important. This includes keeping tools and products within comfortable reach, adjusting the height of chairs, and taking adequate rest times between clients.
Chronic pain, debilitation, and the loss of a profession are all possible results of severe carpal tunnel syndrome. In addition, they can all contribute to feelings of sadness, loss, and low self-esteem. Making difficult decisions regarding occupational or leisure activities and losing activities that may have been sources of pleasure and relaxation make individuals with carpal tunnel syndrome at risk for developing depression.
Learning to cope with carpal tunnel syndrome is a vital aspect of recovery [138]. Some people may benefit from obtaining professional health from a therapist or counselor that can teach them relaxation and stress management techniques. In addition, support groups can be a source of comfort and strength for carpal tunnel syndrome sufferers. There are online support groups and forums available to any individual with questions or looking for a community with shared experiences. Any person who experiences thoughts of despair, self-harm, or helplessness should seek immediate medication or psychological help.
Ms. A is a hair stylist, 54 years of age, who has been employed for 20 years in the salon industry. She has missed little work and continues to perform her regular duties, which include spending many hours washing, cutting, and dying hair. Ms. A also spends time each day at her home computer. For the last five months, she has been experiencing chronic pain, tingling, and numbness in her right hand and wrist as well as pain, tingling, and numbness in her neck and shoulders. She is often extremely tired at the end of her work days, and she does not exercise regularly. Ms. A indicates that she is unable to take aspirin or acetaminophen due to a peptic ulcer, and she has had no success alleviating symptoms with other medications. She has a long history of high blood pressure and has recently been diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis. She is scared that if the pain continues to worsen, she will be unable to continue styling hair or working at her current salon.
Comments: Ms. A's gender, age, medical history, and symptoms are positive risk factors for carpal tunnel syndrome. She should see a doctor immediately. The doctor will conduct a physical examination including laboratory tests and imaging to confirm the high blood pressure, rheumatoid arthritis, and carpal tunnel syndrome.
Ms. A makes an appointment to see her doctor. The doctor performs a Phalen's test and finds significant weakness in her right hand. A two-part EDX study is ordered and confirms the initial diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. The doctor injects a single dose of cortisone (a steroid) at the right wrist for temporary relief while Ms. A considers the other treatment options. After the injection, Ms. A has no pain, tingling, or weakness for about 4 weeks. However, after the 4 weeks, she begins to experience symptoms again and feels that her work is suffering. She elects to undergo outpatient endoscopic carpal tunnel release. This requires that Ms. A refrain from using the computer (specifically, no typing or operating the mouse) for one month. Because she must also avoid other repetitive hand use for a minimum of 4 weeks, she will not be working for the one-month recovery period. Three weeks after the surgery is completed, Ms. A has little pain and almost no tingling sensations, and she sees significant improvement in her hand and wrist strength as a result of her physical therapy. She reports being pain-free 6 weeks after the surgery and returns to work. Ms. A has also modified her work procedures to ensure that her carpal tunnel syndrome does not return by scheduling break times between clients, limiting the number of clients she sees each day, and investing in newly fitted shears. After 2 months, Ms. A is working regularly and has been able to cook and play tennis with no related pain. A follow-up examination after one year shows no recurrence of symptoms.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is possibly the most common nerve disorder diagnosed today and is a significant risk for salon and spa professionals. Determining the causes of carpal tunnel syndrome remains an area of ongoing research and may be a combination of genetics, co-existing health conditions, and occupational and personal lifestyle factors. There are many tools and prevention strategies available for salon professionals that can help to prevent carpal tunnel syndrome despite the risk factors associated with working in hair, skin, and nail professions. Making sure that you are using correct techniques and the available tools can ensure that you will have a long career in your chosen profession.
1. American College of Rheumatology. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Available at http://www.rheumatology.org/practice/clinical/ patients/diseases_and_conditions/carpaltunnel.asp. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
2. Fuller DA. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1243192-print. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
3. Bonfiglioli R, Mattioli S, Spagnolo MR, Violante FS. Course of symptoms and median nerve conduction values in workers performing repetitive jobs at risk for carpal tunnel syndrome. Occup Med (Lond). 2006;56(2):115-121.
5. Maghsoudipour M, Moghimi S, Dehghaan F, Rahimpanah A. Association of occupational and nonoccupational risk factors with the prevalence of work-related carpal tunnel syndrome. J Occup Rehabil. 2008;18(2):152-156.
6. Yagev Y, Gringolds M, Karakis I, Carel RS. Carpal tunnel syndrome: under-recognition of occupational risk factors by clinicians. Ind Health. 2007;45(6):820-822.
7. Falkiner S, Myers S. When exactly can carpal tunnel syndrome be considered work-related? ANZ J Surg. 2002;72(3):204-209.
8. Karpitskaya Y, Novak CB, Mackinnon SE. Prevalence of smoking, obesity, diabetes mellitus and thyroid disease in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann Plast Surg. 2002;48(3):269-273.
9. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/carpal_tunnel/detail_carpal_tunnel.htm. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
11. Derebery J. Work-related carpal tunnel syndrome: the facts and the myths. Clin Occup Environ Med. 2006;5(2):353-367.
12. Keir PJ, Bach JM, Hudes M, Rempel DM. Guidelines for wrist posture based on carpal tunnel pressure thresholds. Hum Factors. 2007;49(1):88-99.
13. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Nonfatal Occupational Injuries and Illnesses Requiring Days Away from Work, 2007. Available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/osh2.nr0.htm. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
14. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Number of Nonfatal Occupational Injuries and Illnesses Involving Days Away from Work by Selected Worker and Case Characteristics and Musculoskeletal Disorders, all U.S., Private Industry, 2004. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/iif/home. Last accessed November 20, 2008.
15. Foley M, Silverstein B, Polissar N. The economic burden of carpal tunnel syndrome: long-term earnings of CTS claimants in Washington State. Am J Ind Med. 2007;50(3):155-172.
16. McLean L, Tingley M, Scott RN, Rickards J. Computer terminal work and the benefit of microbreaks. Appl Ergon. 2001;32(3): 225-237.
18. Diaz JH. Carpal tunnel syndrome in female nurse anesthetists versus operating room nurses: prevalence, laterality, and impact of handedness. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(4):975-980.
19. Ratzlaff CR, Gillies JH, Koehoorn MW. Work-related repetitive strain injury and leisure-time physical activity. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;57(3):495-500.
20. American Academy of Family Physicians. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Pain in Your Hands and Wrist. Available at http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/common/pain/disorders/023.html. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
21. Mayo Clinic. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/carpal-tunnel-syndrome/DS00326. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
22. Weber RA, Boyer KM. Consecutive versus simultaneous bilateral carpal tunnel release. Ann Plast Surg. 2005;54(1):15-19.
23. Unal O, Ozçakar L, Cetin A, Kaymak B. Severe bilateral carpal tunnel syndrome in juvenile chronic arthritis. Pediatr Neurol. 2003;29(4):345-348.
24. Mallette P, Zhao M, Zurakowski D, Ring D. Muscle atrophy at diagnosis of carpal and cubital tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2007;32(6):855-858.
25. Rothstein JM, Roy SH, Wolf SL. The Rehabilitation Specialist's Handbook. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA Davis Company; 1998.
26. Feuerstein M, Miller VL, Burrell LM, Berger R. Occupational upper extremity disorders in the federal workforce: prevalence, health care expenditures, and patterns of work disability. J Occup Environ Med. 1998;40(6):546-555.
27. McDiarmid M, Oliver M, Ruser J, Gucer P. Male and female rate differences in carpal tunnel syndrome injuries: personal attributes or job tasks? Environ Res. 2000;83(1):23-32.
28. Nielsen K, Trinkoff A. Applying ergonomics to nurse computer workstations: review and recommendations. Comput Inform Nurs. 2003;21(3):150-157.
29. Palumbo CF, Szabo RM, Olmsted SL. The effects of hypothyroidism and thyroid replacement on the development of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2000;25(4):734-739.
30. Ruess L, O'Connor SC, Cho KH, et al. Carpal tunnel syndrome and cubital tunnel syndrome: work-related musculoskeletal disorders in four symptomatic radiologists. Am J Roentgenol. 2003;181(1):37-42.
31. van Dijk MAJ, Reitsma JB, Fischer JC, Sanders GTB. Indications for requesting laboratory tests for concurrent diseases in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome: a systematic review. Clin Chem. 2003;49(9):1437-1444.
32. Lozano-Calderón NS, Anthony S, Ring D. The quality and strength of evidence for etiology: example of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2008;33(4):525-538.
33. Ettema AM, Amadio PC, Zhao C, et al. Changes in the functional structure of the tenosynovium in idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome: a scanning electron microscope study. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;118(6):1413-1422.
34. Ettema AM, Amadio PC, Zhao C, Wold LE, An KN. A histological and immunohistochemical study of the subsynovial connective tissue in idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(7):1458-1466.
36. Ettema AM, An KN, Zhao C, O'Byrne MM, Amadio PC. Flexor tendon and synovial gliding during simultaneous and single digit flexion in idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome. J Biomech. 2008;41(2):292-298.
37. Osamura N, Zhao C, Zobitz ME, An KN, Amadio PC. Evaluation of the material properties of the subsynovial connective tissue in carpal tunnel syndrome. Clin Biomech. 2007;22(9):999-1003.
38. Rich JT, Bush DC, Lincoski CJ, Harrington TM. Carpal tunnel syndrome due to tophaceous gout. Orthopedics. 2004;27(8):862-863.
39. Balci K, Utku U. Carpal tunnel syndrome and metabolic syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand. 2007;116(2):113-117.
41. Singh R, Gamble G, Cundy T. Lifetime risk of symptomatic carpal tunnel syndrome in type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2005;22(5): 625-630.
42. Garg A, Thiese MS, Hegmann KT, et al. Carpal tunnel syndrome and associated personal factors in a cohort at baseline. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165(Suppl 11S):S134.
43. Geoghegan JM, Clark DI, Bainbridge LC, Smith C, Hubbard R. Risk factors in carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2004;29(4):315-320.
44. Becker J, Nora DB, Gomes I, et al. An evaluation of gender, obesity, age, and diabetes mellitus as risk factors for carpal tunnel syndrome. Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;113(9):1429-1434.
45. Bland JD. The relationship of obesity, age, and carpal tunnel syndrome: more complex than was thought? Muscle Nerv. 2005;32(4):527-532.
46. Cakir M, Samanci N, Balci N, Balci MK. Musculoskeletal manifestations in patients with thyroid disease. Clin Endocrinol. 2003;59(2):162-167.
48. Solomon DH, Katz JN, Bohn R, Mogun H, Avorn J. Nonoccupational risk factors for carpal tunnel syndrome. J Gen Intern Med. 1999;14(5):310-314.
49. Gousheh J, Iranpour A. Association between carpal tunnel syndrome and arteriovenous fistula in hemodialysis patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;116(2):508-513.
50. Namazi H, Majd Z. Carpal tunnel syndrome in patients who are receiving long-term renal hemodialysis. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2007;127(8):725-728.
51. Spencer JD. Amyloidosis as a cause of carpal tunnel syndrome in hemodialysis patients. J Hand Surg. 1988;13(4):402-405.
52. Kusunose K, Okuma C. Carpal tunnel syndrome in hemodialysis patients. Orthop Surg Trauma. 2002;45(11):1135-1141.
53. Makowiec-Dabrowska T, Sińczuk-Walczak H, Jóźwiak ZW, Krawczyk-Adamus P. Work performance as a risk factor for carpal tunnel syndrome. Med Pr. 2007;58(4):361-372.
54. Hammer HB, Hovden IA, Haavardsholm EA, Kvien TK. Ultrasonography shows increased cross-sectional area of the median nerve in patients with arthritis and carpal tunnel syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2006;45(5):584-588.
55. Work Loss Data Institute. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (Acute & Chronic). Corpus Christi, TX: Work Loss Data Institute; 2008. Summary retrieved from National Guideline Clearinghouse at http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=12659. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
56. Turgut F, Cetinahinahin M, Turgut M, Bolukbasi O. The management of carpal tunnel syndrome in pregnancy. J Clin Neurosci. 2001;8(4):332-334.
57. Taber's Online Medical Dictionary. Available at http://www.tabers.com. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
58. Chen CK, Chung CB, Yeh L, et al. Carpal tunnel syndrome caused by tophaceous gout: CT and MR imaging features in 20 patients. Am J Roentgenol. 2000;175(3):655-659.
59. Liu CW, Chen TW, Wang MC, Chen CH, Lee CL, Huang MH. Relationship between carpal tunnel syndrome and wrist angle in computer workers. Koahsiung J Med Sci. 2003;19(12):617-623.
60. Work Loss Data Institute. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Linked to Computer Work, Usual Suspect Says WLDI Report on U.S. Government Survey. 2001. Available at http://www.worklossdata.com/PR_RepCTS.htm. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
61. Gell N, Werner RA, Franzblau A, Ulin SS, Armstrong TJ. A longitudinal study of industrial and clerical workers: incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome and assessment of risk factors. J Occup Rehabil. 2005;15(1):47-55.
62. Armstrong TJ, Castelli WA, Evans FG, Diaz-Perez R. Some histological changes in carpal tunnel contents and their biomechanical implications. J Occup Med. 1984;26(3):197-201.
63. Grabiner MD, Gregor RJ. Revisiting the work-relatedness of carpal tunnel syndrome. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2003;31(3):123-126.
64. Loslever P, Ranaivosoa A. Biomechanical and epidemiological investigation of carpal tunnel syndrome at workplaces with high risk factors. Ergonomics. 1993;36(5):537-555.
65. Silverstein BA, Fine LJ, Armstrong TJ. Occupational factors and carpal tunnel syndrome. Am J Ind Med. 1987;11(3):343-358.
66. Viikari-Juntura E, Silverstein B. Role of physical load factors in carpal tunnel syndrome. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1999;25(3):163-185.
67. Nathan PA, Istvan JA, Meadows KD. A longitudinal study of predictors of research-defined carpal tunnel syndrome in industrial workers: findings at 17 years. J Hand Surg. 2005;30(6):593-598.
68. Werner RA, Franzblau A, Gell N, Ulin SS, Armstrong TJ. A longitudinal study of industrial and clerical workers: predictors of upper extremity tendonitis. J Occup Rehabil. 2005;15(1):37-46.
69. Atcheson SG, Ward JR, Lowe W. Concurrent medical disease in work-related carpal tunnel syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158(14):1506-1512.
70. Boz C, Ozmenoglu M, Altunayoglu V, Velioglu S, Alioglu Z. Individual risk factors for carpal tunnel syndrome: an evaluation of body mass index, wrist index and hand anthropometric measurements. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2004;106(4):294-299.
71. Kouyoumdjian JA, Zanetta DMT, Morita MP. Evaluation of age, body mass index, and wrist index as risk factors for carpal tunnel syndrome severity. Muscle Nerve. 2002;25(1):93-97.
72. Landau ME, Barner KC, Campbell WW. Effect of body mass index on ulnar nerve conduction velocity, ulnar neuropathy at the elbow, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Muscle Nerve. 2005;32(3):360-363.
73. Frankenburg FR, Zanarini MC. Obesity and obesity-related illnesses in borderline patients. J Personal Disord. 2006;20(1):71-80.
74. Kurt S, Kisacik B, Kaplan Y, Yildirim B, Etikan I, Karaer H. Obesity and carpal tunnel syndrome: is there a causal relationship? Eur Neurol. 2008;59(5):253-257.
75. U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Safety and Health Topics: Ergonomics. Available at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
76. Ferry S, Hannaford P, Warskyj M, Lewis M, Croft P. Carpal tunnel syndrome: a nested case-control study of risk factors in women. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;151(6):566-574.
77. Bongers FJM, Schellevis FG, van den Bosch WJHM, van der Zee J. Carpal tunnel syndrome in general practice (1987 and 2001): incidence and the role of occupational and nonoccupational factors. Br J Gen Pract. 2007;57(534):36-39.
78. Kamolz LP, Beck H, Haslik W, et al. Carpal tunnel syndrome: a question of hand and wrist configurations? J Hand Surg. 2004;29(4):321-324.
79. Alford JW, Weiss APC, Akelman E. The familial incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome in patients with unilateral and bilateral disease. Am J Orthop. 2004;33(8):397-400.
80. Bodofsky EB, Campellone JV, Wu KD, Greenberg WM. Age and the severity of carpal tunnel syndrome. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;44(4):195-199.
82. Lee MJ, LaStayo PC. Pronator syndrome and other nerve compressions that mimic carpal tunnel syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004;34(10):601-609.
83. MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Cervical Spondylosis. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/MEDLINEPLUS/ ency/article/000436.htm. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
84. Chow CS, Hung LK, Chiu CP, et al. Is symptomatology useful in distinguishing between carpal tunnel syndrome and cervical spondylosis? Hand Surg. 2005;10(1):1-5.
85. American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Cubital Tunnel Syndrome. Available at http://www.assh.org/Public/HandConditions/Pages/CubitalTunnelSyndrome.aspx. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
86. Myers KA. Utility of the clinical examination for carpal tunnel syndrome. CMAJ. 2000;163(5):605.
87. Lockshin MD. Endocrine origins of rheumatic disease: diagnostic clues to interrelated syndromes. Postgrad Med. 2002;111(4): 87-88, 91-92.
88. Riddell A. Nail Technicians: Tips for Health and Safety. New South Wales Health. Available at http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/resources/publichealth/environment/pdf/nailskit.pdf. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
89. Priganc VW, Henry SM. The relationship among five common carpal tunnel syndrome tests and the severity of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Ther. 2003;16(3):225-236.
90. Edwards A. Phalen's test with carpal compression: testing in diabetics for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. Orthopedics. 2002;25(5):519-520.
91. Hansen PA, Micklesen P, Robinson LR. Clinical utility of the flick maneuver in diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;83(5):363-367.
92. Ahn DS. Hand elevation: a new test for carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann Plast Surg. 2001;46(2):120-124.
93. Amirfeyz R, Gozzard C, Leslie IJ. Hand elevation test for assessment of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2005;30(4):361-364.
94. D'Arcy CA, McGee S. Does this patient have carpal tunnel syndrome? JAMA. 2000;283(23):3110-3117.
95. Hill S. Stop hand pain: stop hand pain before it stops you. Nails Magazine. Available at http://www.nailsmag.com/feature.aspx?fid=707. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
96. Young M. Carpal tunnel syndrome: prescription for relief. Massage and Bodywork. 2001;3. Available at http://www.massagetherapy.com/articles/index.php/article_id/98/Carpal-Tunnel-Syndrome. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
97. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Clinical Guideline on Diagnosis of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Rosemont, IL: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 2007. Summary retrieved from National Guideline Clearinghouse at http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=10849. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
98. Garfinkel MS, Singhal A, Katz WA, Allan DA, Reshetar R, Schumacher HR Jr. Yoga-based intervention for carpal tunnel syndrome. JAMA. 1998(280):1601-1603.
99. Mallouhi A, Pülzl P, Trieb T, Piza H, Bodner G. Predictors of carpal tunnel syndrome: accuracy of gray-scale and color Doppler sonography. Am J Roentgenol. 2006;186(5):1240-1245.
100. United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. OSHA's Ergonomics Standard: The Specifics. http://www.ufcw.org/issues_and_actions/stop_the_pain/where_we_are_at/specifics.cfm. Last accessed May 20, 2010.
101. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Ergonomics: Enforcement. Available at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/faqs.html. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
102. New Zealand Department of Labor. An Evaluation of Health and Safety Management Practices in the Hairdressing Industry. Available at http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/research/hairdressing/hairdressing_05.asp. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
103. Natural Healers. A Massage Therapy Career and Training Overview. Available at http://www.naturalhealers.com/qa/massagecareers.html. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
104. European Union for Safety and Health at Work. E-Facts: Risk Assessment for Hairdressers. Available at http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/e-facts/efact34. Last accessed May 24, 2010.
105. Tittiranonda P, Rempel D, Armstrong T, Burastero S. Effect of four computer keyboards in computer users with upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders. Am J Ind Med. 1999;35(6):647-661.
106. Amick BC III, Habeck RV, Ossmann J, Fossel AH, Keller R, Katz JN. Predictors of successful work role functioning after carpal tunnel release surgery. J Occup Environ Med. 2004;46(5):490-500.
107. Pascarelli EF, Kella JJ. Soft tissue injuries related to use of the computer keyboard: a clinical study of 53 severely injured persons. J Occup Med. 1993;35(5):522-532.
108. Marklin RW, Simoneau GC. Effect of setup configurations of split computer keyboards on wrist angle. Phys Ther. 2001;81(4): 1038-1048.
109. Mogk JP, Keir PJ. Evaluation of the carpal tunnel based on 3-D reconstruction from MRI. J Biomech. 2007;40(10):2222-2229.
110. Keir PJ. Magnetic resonance imaging as a research tool for biomechanical studies of the wrist. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2001;5(3):241-250.
111. Jarvik JG, Comstock BA, Heagerty PJ, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging compared with electrodiagnostic studies in patients with suspected carpal tunnel syndrome: predicting symptoms, function, and surgical benefit at 1 year. J Neurosurg. 2008;108(3):541-550.
112. Martins RS, Siqueira MG, Simplicio H, Agapito D, Medeiros M. Magnetic resonance imaging of idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome: correlation with clinical findings and electrophysiological investigation. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2008;110(1):38-45.
113. Wilder-Smith EP, Seet RCS, Lim ECH. Diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome-clinical criteria and ancillary tests. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2006;2(7):366-374.
114. Lee CH, Kim TK, Yoon ES, Dhong ES. Correlation of high-resolution ultrasonographic findings with the clinical symptoms and electrodiagnostic data in carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann Plast Surg. 2005;54(1):20-23.
115. Weber RA, Schuchmann JA, Albers JH, Ortiz J. A prospective blinded evaluation of nerve conduction velocity versus pressure-specified sensory testing in carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann Plast Surg. 2000;45(3):252-257.
116. Tassler PL, Dellon AL. Correlation of measurements of pressure perception using the pressure-specified sensory device with electrodiagnostic testing. J Occup Environ Med. 1995;37(7):862-866.
117. Norton A. Surgery May Beat Splinting for Carpal Tunnel. Reuters Health. Available at http://redtram.com/go/163598925/. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
118. Scholten RJPM, Mink van der Molen A, Uitdehaag BMJ, Bouter LM, de Vet HCW. Surgical treatment options for carpal tunnel syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(4):CD003905.
119. Marshall SC, Tardif G, Ashworth NL. Local corticosteroid injection for carpal tunnel syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(2):CD001554.
120. Ettema AM, Amadio PC, Cha SS, et al. Surgery versus conservative therapy in carpal tunnel syndrome in people aged 70 years and older. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;118(4):947-960.
121. Verdugo RJ, Salinas RA, Castillo JL, Cea JG. Surgical versus non-surgical treatment for carpal tunnel syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(4):CD001552.
122. Baysal O, Altay Z, Ozcan C, Ertem K, Yologlu S, Kayhan A. Comparison of three conservative treatment protocols in carpal tunnel syndrome. Int J Clin Pract. 2006;60(7):820-828.
123. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Clinical Practice Guideline on the Treatment of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Rosemont, IL: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 2008. Summary retrieved from National Guideline Clearinghouse at http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=13304. Last accessed July 7, 2010.
124. Reed P. The Medical Disability Advisor: Workplace Guidelines for Disability Duration. 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Reed Group; 2001.
125. Lincoln AE, Vernick JS, Ogaitis S, Smith GS, Mitchell CS, Agnew J. Interventions for the primary prevention of work-related carpal tunnel syndrome. Am J Prev Med. 2000;18(4 Suppl):37-50.
126. Lee K, Swanson N, Sauter S, Wickstrom R, Waikar A, Mangum M. A review of physical exercises recommended for VDT operators. Appl Ergon. 1992;23(6):387-408.
127. Jensen C, Borg V, Finsen L, Hansen K, Juul-Kristensen B, Christensen H. Job demands, muscle activity and musculoskeletal symptoms in relation to work with the computer mouse. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1998;24(5):418-424.
128. O'Connor D, Marshall SC, Massy-Westropp N. Non-surgical treatment (other than steroid injection) for carpal tunnel syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(1):CD003219.
129. Piazzini DB, Aprile I, Ferrara PE, Bertolini C, et al. A systematic review of conservative treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21(4):299-314.
130. Ly-Pen D, Andréu JL, de Blas G, Sánchez-Olaso A, Millán I. Surgical decompression versus local steroid injection in carpal tunnel syndrome: a one-year, prospective, randomized, open, controlled clinical trial. Arthritis Rheumat. 2005;52:612-619.
131. Herndon CM, Hutchison RW, Berdine HJ, et al. Management of chronic nonmalignant pain with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Pharmacotherapy. 2008;28(6):788-805.
132. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Forearm, Wrist, and Hand Complaints. Elk Grove Village, IL: American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine; 2004. Summary retrieved from National Guideline Clearinghouse at http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=8545. Last accessed April 22, 2009.
133. Naeser MA, Hahn KA, Lieberman BE, Branco KF. Carpal tunnel syndrome pain treated with low-level laser and microamperes TENS: a controlled study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(7):978-988.
134. Seradge H, Parker W, Baer C, Mayfield K, Schall L. Conservative treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome: an outcome study of adjunct exercises. J Okla State Med Assoc. 2002;95(1):7-14.
135. Keir PJ, Bach JM, Rempel DM. Effects of finger posture on carpal tunnel pressure during wrist motion. J Hand Surg. 1998;23(6):1004-1009.
136. Amick BC III, Habeck RV, Hunt A, et al. Measuring the impact of organizational behaviors on work disability prevention and management. J Occup Rehabil. 2000;10(1):21-38.
137. Gimeno D, Amick BC, Habeck RV, Ossmann J, Katz JN. The role of job strain on return to work after carpal tunnel surgery. Occup Environ Med. 2005;62(11):778-785.
138. Mayo Clinic. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Coping and Support. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/carpal-tunnel-syndrome/DS00326/DSECTION=coping-and-support. Last accessed May 26, 2010.
139. Blumenthal S, Herskovitz S, Verghese J. Carpal tunnel syndrome in older adults. Muscle Nerve. 2006;34(1):78-83.
140. Homan MM, Franzblau A, Werner RA, Albers JW, Armstrong TJ, Bromberg MB. Agreement between symptom surveys, physical examination procedures and electrodiagnostic findings for the carpal tunnel syndrome. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1999;25(2):115-124.
142. Jablecki CK, Andary MT, Floeter MK, et al. Practice parameter. Electrodiagnostic studies in carpal tunnel syndrome: report of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, American Academy of Neurology, and the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Neurology. 2002;58(11):1589-1592.
143. Wong SM, Griffith JF, Hui AC, Lo SK, Fu M, Wong KS. Carpal tunnel syndrome: diagnostic usefulness of sonography. Radiology. 2004;232(1):93-99.
144. Mondelli M, Filippou G, Gallo A, Frediani B. Diagnostic utility of ultrasonography versus nerve conduction studies in mild carpal tunnel syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59(3):357-366.
145. Iannicelli E, Almberger M, Chianta GA, et al. High resolution ultrasonography in the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. Radiol Med (Torino). 2005;110(5-6):623-629.
146. El Miedany YM, Aty SA, Ashour S. Ultrasonography versus nerve conduction study in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome: substantive or complementary tests? Rheumatology (Oxford). 2004;43(7):887-895.
147. Kaymak B, Ozçakar L, Cetin A, Candan Cetin M, Akinci A, Hasçelik Z. A comparison of the benefits of sonography and electrophysiologic measurements as predictors of symptom severity and functional status in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(4):743-748.
148. Yesildag A, Kutluhan S, Sengul N, et al. The role of ultrasonographic measurements of the median nerve in the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. Clin Radiol. 2004;59(10):910-915.
149. Kwon BC, Jung KI, Baek GH. Comparison of sonography and electrodiagnostic testing in the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2008;33(1):65-71.
150. Naranjo A, Ojeda S, Mendoza D, Francisco F, Quevedo JC, Erqusquin C. What is the diagnostic value of ultrasonography compared to physical evaluation in patients with idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome? Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2007;25(6):853-859.
151. Schmelzer RE, Della Rocca GJ, Caplin DA. Endoscopic carpal tunnel release: a review of 753 cases in 486 patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;117(1):177-185.
152. Hobby JL, Venkatesh R, Motkur P. The effect of age and gender upon symptoms and surgical outcomes in carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg. 2005;30(6):599-604.
153. Greenslade JR, Mehta RL, Belward P, Warwick DJ. DASH and Boston Questionnaire assessment of carpal tunnel syndrome outcome: what is the responsiveness of an outcome questionnaire? J Hand Surg. 2004;29(2):159-164.
154. Chung KC, Pillsbury MS, Walters MR, Hayward RA. Reliability and validity testing of the Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire. J Hand Surg. 1998;23(4):575-587.
155. Dias JJ, Bhowal B, Wildin CJ, Thompson JR. Assessing the outcome of disorders of the hand: is the patient evaluation measure reliable, valid, responsive and without bias? J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 2001;83(2):235-240.
156. International Quality of Life Assessment. The SF Questionnaires. Available at http://www.iqola.org/instruments.aspx. Last accessed April 23, 2009.