Guidelines to Scientific Writing

By

Dr. ir. Mony Jaspers	Mss. Griet Neukermans

June 2007

With input by Paul Nieuwenhuysen

2007-07

This document aims to guide you in the writing up of your graduate thesis and might serve as a basis for publishing your thesis research in a scientific journal. Dr. ir. Edmonde Jaspers used to teach a course on Scientific Reporting in the 2nd year of the Master program in Ecological Marine Management (part of the course Scientific Reporting and Didactics, P. Nieuwenhuysen), but she retired and stopped teaching in 2006. She was so kind to provide her course notes and reference books, and so this document is a combination of both.

I hope these guidelines are helpful to write up your EcoMaMa-thesis.

Griet Neukermans

Project coordinator ICP Master of Ecological Marine Management (EcoMaMa)

PhD student at the laboratory of Plant Biology and Nature Management (APNA)

VUB-APNA-WE

Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels

Belgium

Dr. ir. Edmonde Jaspers

Former director of IZWO (Instituut voor Zeewetenschappelijk Onderzoek, institute for Marine Research)

Table of contents

Table of contents	2

List of Figures	3

List of Tables	3

1	Basic principles in scientific writing	4

2	Format of scientific writing	4

2.1	Graduate thesis	4

2.2	Scientific article	5

3	Structure of your thesis	5

3.1	Title and abstract	5

3.1.1	Title	5

3.1.2	Abstract	6

3.1.3	Keywords	6

3.2	Introduction	6

3.3	Literature review	7

3.4	Materials and methods	7

3.5	Results	8

3.6	Discussion	8

3.7	Conclusions	9

3.8	Acknowledgements	9

3.9	References	9

3.9.1	Referring in the text	9

3.9.2	List of references cited	10

3.10	Appendix/Appendices	11

4	Accessories to the text	11

4.1	Tables	11

4.2	Figures	14

4.2.1	Graphs	14

4.2.2	Flowcharts	16

4.2.3	Photographs	17

4.2.4	Maps	17

Appendices	19

Appendix 1: Verbosity	19

Appendix 2: Example of a thesis cover	21

Appendix 3: Choosing a good title	23

List of Figures

Figure 1. Major parts of a table (Source: Scientific Style and Format. The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers, 1994. The Council of Biology Editors, 6th Edition, 825 pp.)	13

Figure 2. Example of a badly designed and well designed table	14

Figure 3. Absorption spectra of a red algae Palmaria palmata and a green algae Enteromorpha intestinalis	15

Figure 4. Relative abundance of various phyla in sampling station M2 (subtidal area)	16

Figure 5. Polychaete density in station 1, 2, 3 and 4	16

Figure 6. Mangrove species map of Ras Dege mangrove area (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania), indicating regeneration capacity and cutting intensity measured in the sampled 10x10m² plots	18

List of Tables

Table 1. Example of good versus bad titles	6

Table 2. Percentage survival of different organisms undergoing different salinity and temperature treatments	13

Basic principles in scientific writing

ALL scientific writing should follow the 7 C’s-rule, i.e. scientific writing should be:

Clear: Unmistakable, not leading to confusion

Correct: Accurate, free from error

Not prone to interpretation

Not prone to speculation

Complete: Contain all necessary parts and information to be clearly understood

Concise: to the point, devoid of redundant information and words (avoid verbosity, see Appendix 1)

Conform to the requirements set by the university (thesis)/journal (journal publication)/employer/… and to the standard conventions and basic principles in:

Style: units, rules of abbreviations, literature citations etc.

and

Format: shape, size, general make-up of a publication

Consistent: uniform throughout the text in spelling, structure, style, format, layout, typography, etc.

Common sense prevails!

Format of scientific writing

Graduate thesis

There is no minimum or maximum number of pages for your thesis manuscript. Don’t try to fill pages and pages with text and words that have little to do with your thesis research. Instead, be concise and follow the rule of the 7C’s, as explained previously.

Your thesis should have the following organization:

Cover (Example for EcoMaMa-thesis given in Appendix 2)

Blanco sheet

Title page (same as cover but in black and white)

now you start numbering your pages with roman numbers: i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc.

Acknowledgements

Abstract

Table of contents

List of tables

List of figures

List of abbreviations etc.

now you start numbering your pages with Arabic numbers: 1, 2, 3 etc.

Introduction

Literature review (optional)

Materials and Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Recommendation(s)

Literature cited/References

now you stop numbering your pages

Annexes (=plural of Annex)/Appendices (=plural of Appendix)

Index (optional, don’t include an index for a short report of 10-20 pages)

Scientific article

Title

Authors names and affiliations, author for correspondence

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Results

Discussion and Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Most journals handle a specific format and they all have “guidelines for authors” published on their website. See e.g. Author Guidelines on the home page of the Journal of Ecology (http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0022-0477&site=1)

Structure of your thesis

A research paper or thesis is a report of original findings organized into several sections according to a format that reflects the logic of a scientific argument. First the author states the purpose of the investigation, placing the work in a broader scientific context (Introduction). Then the procedure is described (Materials and Methods). Afterwards, the findings are presented (Results), interpreted (Discussion) and summarized (Conclusion).

Title and abstract

Both the title and the abstract are very important parts of your thesis, since these will be read most often by many readers. They serve two purposes for your readers:

to disclose the basic information of your research

to help readers decide whether or not to read the entire paper.

Title

The title should attract attention, but most important, it should be informative and concise. A good title indicates the main point of your study, so use:

The most precise words possible (e.g. appropriate taxonomic information)

Words that lend themselves to indexing the subject (your title is the first source for key words for indexing services)

On the other hand, be sure your title will make sense to someone not familiar with your subject. Provide adequate information, but don’t make your title too long: 8-12 words is a good range.

Table 1. Example of good versus bad titles

Bad title	Good title
Ecological Studies of Some Northern Lakes	Seasonal Algal Succession and Cultural Euthrophication in Three Northern Temperate Lakes
Effect of Hormones and Vitamin B on Gametophyte Development in a Moss	Effect of Hormones and Vitamin B on Gemtophyte Development in the Moss Pylaisiella selwyni
Studies on the Reproductive Biology of Drosophila, Including Sperm Transfer, Sperm Storage, and Sperm Utilization	Sperm Transfer, Storage and Utilization in Drosophila

Advice on how to formulate a good title for your manuscript is given in Appendix 3.

Abstract

The abstract gives the reader a clear idea of the subject studied, it helps him to decide whether or not to read the full thesis/paper and it provides words for indexing (databases, see course P. Nieuwenhuysen).

The abstract is a concise (max. 1 page, condensation of the content of the full report by 95%), complete report of your work that can stand alone without further explanation. It should include:

The objectives/hypothesis of the study and justification for conducting the investigation (What?, When?, Why?)

The basic materials and methods used (How?)

The main results obtained and significant conclusions that can be drawn

The abstract should not include:

A discussion of your results

References

Tabulated data

Any abbreviations, unless they are understood when standing alone (e.g. “DNA”, “pH”, “USA”)

Keywords

Keywords are usually not required for a thesis, but most journals ask the author of a scientific article to include research keywords for indexing and possible readers can easily screen the content of the publication. If you decide to add keywords to your manuscript, put them right below the abstract (on the same page). Three to five keywords is enough. Keywords are the most pertinent informative words pertaining to the research done that did not occur in the abstract.

Introduction

=WHAT?

The introduction sets the stage for your scientific argument. It places the work you have done in a broad theoretical context and provides the reader with enough information to appreciate and understand the relevance your objectives. For example, if your thesis work is carried out in the framework of a larger research project, describe the project and your part in it.

The introduction should

be informative

explain the rationale for the study and your major objectives

clearly identify the subject of your research

state the hypothesis you are investigating or define the problem you are trying to solve

bring the reader up-to-date on what has already been done

provide background information on the research subject

give a concise literature review (unless you have a separate “literature review” section) to orient the reader by summarizing pertinent literature in your field

be written in the present tense

Literature review

In case of a thesis manuscript, a review of the relevant literature can be done in a separate section, but, in case of a scientific article, the literature review is generally included in the introduction. It should be written in the present tense.

The general rule on which tense to use is that you use the past tense when reporting your own findings (Materials and Methods, Results) and the present tense when discussing the published work of others (Introduction, Literature review, Discussion).

How to search for literature: see course Information retrieval, Management and Presentation (P. Nieuwenhuysen, 1st year EcoMaMa)

Materials and methods

= WHERE and HOW?

Your methodology creates the context for evaluating your data. How you took your samples and did your measurements, what controls you used, what variables you did and did not consider, which assumptions you made; all these things play an important role in the interpretation of the results.

This section should

provide information such that your study can be duplicated/repeated by others

describe procedures and methods used, e.g. sampling strategy/frequency/location/date, experimental design, tools and sampling devices used, manipulation of the samples, statistical analysis, complete taxonomic information of the organisms used, data quality assurance etc.

where appropriate, use flowcharts to visualize the processing methods and handling of your materials

be organized logically and orderly

be written in the past tense

If you used a well-known method, name it and refer to the paper in which it is described. If you modified the well-known method, describe how and why you modified it.

Results

=WHAT DID YOU FIND?

This is the most important part of your thesis! The Results section should summarize the data, emphasizing important patterns or trends, and illustrate and support your generalizations with explanatory details, statistics, examples of representative or atypical cases and references to tables and figures. Use the past tense.

Do:

Present your results in a logical and orderly fashion and use the same sequence as in the Materials and Methods section

Be complete, but concise

Make maximal use of tables and figures (see section 4). One good graph can be worth a 1000 words!

Give final and meaningful data only (no raw data), e.g. after statistical processing

Do NOT:

Give the same results twice or more, e.g. in the text, a table and a graph, but chose the most appropriate way for presentation

Omit data that you consider negative (in the sense that they don’t comply to your hypothesis)

Give primary (raw, unprocessed) data

Interpret the data or draw major conclusions; this should be done in the Discussion and Conclusion sections, respectively

Discussion

=WHAT DO ALL THESE RESULTS MEAN?

The Discussion section should

Relate your results to your hypothesis: do your results prove that your hypothesis is correct or not, and how/why?

Interpret the results with emphasis on the problem, question or hypothesis you put forward in the introduction

Relate the data to their causes: i.e. why the data are what they are

Relate your findings to those obtained by other researchers: whether they corroborate your results or whether they don’t and support this with evidence

Be careful with extrapolating your results too broadly: avoid speculation and generalization.

Conclusions

What conclusions can you draw from your findings (these can be enumerated)?

What is their significance with regard to the problem you tried to solve?

State briefly any implications for practical applications or future studies if appropriate

Eventually recommendations (if appropriate)

Many scientific journals do not publish a separate Conclusions section, instead, Discussion and Conclusions are combined, but for a thesis, keep them separated.

Acknowledgements

Briefly (max 1 -1.5 pages) thank people who helped you professionally, namely with:

Sampling

Reviewing your manuscript

Statistical analysis

Lab work (technicians)

Providing access to specific equipment or facilities, not available in your laboratory (e.g. use of an oceanographic research vessel)

Funding your research: mention the source of funding (e.g. This research was financed by a student grant from the National Science Foundation) or mention the project number or code when applicable

If your work was part of a larger project, mention it as well as the financing or sponsoring authority

Only mention people who really contributed to your work.

For the thesis specifically, you should express your gratitude towards the people who guided you (promoter, copromoter) and if you want, you can express your appreciation for the support of your family and friends.

References

Referring in the text

In your manuscript you will refer many times to the published studies of other authors or other sources of information. You should refer to the original source to acknowledge the source of all material that is not your own. In the text refer to the author's name (without initials) and year of publication. When you have multiple references to literature for the same finding in your text, refer in chronological order, then if there are two publications from the same year, use alphabetical order. If reference is made in the text to publications written by more than two authors the name of the first author should be used, followed by “et al.”.

List of references cited

The list of references is an alphabetically ordered list of sources of information you have referred to, mostly manuscripts, scientific publications, but also websites, computer software, online databases etc.

All references cited in the text are to be listed at the end of the report. The manuscript should be carefully checked to ensure that the spellings of authors' names and publication years are exactly the same in the text as in the reference list. Do not type author's and editor's names in capitals.

The indication “et al.” that is used in the text (see previous section) should never be used in the list of references. In this list names of authors and all co-authors must be given in full.

The list of references should be arranged alphabetically by authors' names, and chronologically per author. If an author's name in the list is also mentioned with co-authors, the following order should be used: (1) publications of the single author, arranged according to publication year (2) publications of the same author with one co-author, arranged according to publication year

The following system can be used for arranging references:
a. Journal papers: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of paper. Journal name (given in full or abbreviated using the International List of Periodical Title Word Abbreviations), volume number (issue number): first and last page numbers of the paper.
Example: Elbaz-Poulichet, F., Guan, D.M. and J.M. Martin, 1991. Trace metal behaviour in a highly stratified Mediterranean estuary: the Krka (Yugoslavia). Marine Chemistry, 32: 211-224.

b. Monographs: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of the monograph. Publisher, location of publisher, total number of pages.
Example: Zhdanov, M.S. and G.V. Keller, 1994. The Geoelectrical Methods in Geophysical Exploration. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 346 pp.

c. Edited volume papers: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of paper. Names and initials of the volume editors, title of the edited volume. Publisher, location of publisher, first and last page numbers of the paper.
Example: Thomas, E., 1992. Middle Eocene-late Oligocene bathyal benthic foraminifera (Weddell Sea): faunal changes and implications for ocean circulation. In: D.R. Prothero and W.A. Berggren (Editors), Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York, USA, pp. 245-271.

d. Conference proceedings papers: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of paper. Name of the conference. Publisher, location of publisher, first and last page numbers of the paper.
Example: Smith, M.W., 1988. The significance of climatic change for the permafrost environment. Final Proceedings of the International Conference on Permafrost. Tapir, Trondheim, Norway, pp. 18-23.

e. Unpublished reports, theses etc.: Names and initials of all authors, year. Title of item. All other relevant information needed to identify the item (e.g., technical report, Ph.D. thesis, institute, etc.).
Example: Moustakas, N., 1990. Relationships of morphological and physicochemical properties of Vertisols under Greek climate conditions. Ph.D. Thesis, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece. 241 pp.

Example 2: Maniatis, D., 2005. Retrospective study of the mangroves of the Tanbi Wetland Complex, The Gambia. MSc. Environmental Science and Technology thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium. 124 pp.

f. In the case of publications in any language other than English, the original title is to be retained and the translation in English can be put between straight brackets (i.e. []). Titles of publications in non-Latin alphabets should be transliterated, and a note such as '(in Russian)' or '(in Japanese, with English Abstr.)' should be added at the end of the reference.

g. Computer programs: Author(s) (if available). Date of publication. Title. Type of Medium. Version. Place of publication: publisher. Physical description. Accompanying material. Notes (system requirements).

Example: ERDAS IMAGINE Professional Software. Version 8.6. Leica Geosystems, GIS & Mapping, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. URL http://www.gis.leica-geosystems.com.

Example 2: McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Neel, M.C. and E. Ene. 2002. FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Available at the following web site: www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html

h. CD-ROM: Author(s). Date of publication. Title. Type of medium. Version. Place of Publication: publisher. Physical description. Notes (system requirements).

Example: Holthuis, L.B., 1996. Marine Lobsters of the world. World biodiversity database CD-ROM Series. Windows Version 1.0. New York: ETI/FAO, Springer-Verlag. 1 CD-ROM. IBM compatible PC, 80486 processor, 8MB RAM, Windows 3.1. or 95, VGA colour Monitor, Soundblaster or compatible sound card.

i. Webpages: Title of the root page. Internet address. Short description of contents (e.g. list of databases). Date latest access (day, month, year). Date latest update (day, month, year). Publisher.

Example: VLIZ, Vlaams Instituut voor de Zee vzw/Flanders Marine Institute. URL: http://www.vliz.be. General information on VLIZ, activities, databases, links. Latest access: 3 June 2007. Latest update: 31 May 2007. Publisher: Vlaams Instituut voor de Zee vzw/Flanders Marine Institute, Oostende, Belgium.

To help you compile a list of references you can use citation software such as EndNote.

Appendix/Appendices

The Appendix contains related materials/data that provide additional information but are not essential for understanding the thesis/report. E.g. tables with raw data, intermediate statistical results, figures, photos.

Common for a thesis, but scientific articles rarely have an appendix.

Give only appendices if necessary, not to increase the number of pages of your thesis. In fact, you should not paginate your appendices!

Accessories to the text

Tables

Tables can be used for various kinds of information:

To show precise numerical values

to summarize or emphasize verbal information in compact form

to organize numerical data in an easy and understandable way

A table should be:

clear and easy to read

understandable on its own

orderly and logically organized

in agreement with the rest of the text (i.e. use the same units/symbols etc. as in the text)

Tables consist of 6 major parts (see Figure 1):

Caption above the table with the table number and the title

the title of each table should be unique

without a full stop at the end

Column heads

Each column must have a heading, describing the content of the column, followed by the unit between brackets, if appropriate and first letter capitalized (e.g. “Temperature (°C)”)

Columns are used to display the dependant variables

To save horizontal space, headings should make use of abbreviations, symbols and other short forms (that are explained in the footnotes)

Spanners to gather common elements of adjacent column heads

If the units of adjacent columns are the same, put these in the spanner

A spanner never covers the stub column

Stub

contains the row heads, each starting with a capital letter

often represent the independent variables (e.g. information on experimental conditions)

Fields

Contain the data

Data must be aligned with its column heading

Numbers are aligned on the decimal point (do: 2.19 but don’t do: 2,19) and numbers in the same column carry the same number of decimals

If the numbers contain ± (e.g. 96.6 ± 1.2), align on the ± sign

Empty cells in the field are indicated with a dash (-) or ND (no data, not detectable or not determined, then, explain the abbreviation in a footnote)

Footnotes

To explain symbols, abbreviations used in the table

Give the source of the data

Use superscript lower case letters to direct the reader to the appropriate footnote

Figure 1. Major parts of a table (Source: Scientific Style and Format. The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers, 1994. The Council of Biology Editors, 6th Edition, 825 pp.)

Some tips:

3 full width horizontal lines: (1) to separate the caption from the table, (2) to separate the headings from the fields and (3) to separate the table from the footnotes

The use vertical lines is not recommended

Try to fit a table on 1 page (you can change the page orientation), if it doesn’t work out, continue on the next page and give as caption: “Table 2. Continued” (without title) and repeat the column headings

Center your tables on the page

Tables should be put as closely as possible after being referred to in the text for the first time

A table should be introduced to the reader in one or two sentences and the data should be discussed (call attention to the main points)

Example 1 (completely fictive data):

Table 2. Percentage survival of different organisms undergoing different salinity and temperature treatments

Treatments
Salinity (ppt)	Temperature (°C)
Organism	20	30	40	50	15	20	25	30
Asterias rubens	70.6	80.9	95.6	20.4	45.8	90.4	44.6	21.6
Actinia acticans	60.7	NDa	50.2	33.9	67.9	23.4	24.5	80.6
Rubella vulgaris	59.7	29.4	89.3	99.5	22.4	90.2	32.7	78.5
aNot Determined.

Example 2:

Figure 2. Example of a badly designed and well designed table

Figures

Some considerations:

Captions should be put below the figure

Figures should be self explanatory

Figures should be placed as closely as possible after being referred to in the text for the first time

Use the same abbreviations as used in the text and the tables

Graphs

Are used to represent data for which trends or proportions are important characteristics.

General considerations:

Make efficient use of colours (e.g. in Figure 3, the red line represents the absorption spectrum of the red algae (Palmaria palmata) and the green line represents the absorption spectrum of the green algae (Enteromorpha intestinalis))

Be consistent in the font type used in your graphs (preferably the same as the text)

Use the simplest possible form (pies, bars, lines…) and the most appropriate form (e.g. in Figure 3 a line graph is chosen to represent continuous data)

Line graphs:

To represent trends, continuous data

Limit the number of curves to 3-5 curves and identify the curves clearly with symbols (◊, □, ○)

Plot the independent variable on the X-axis and the dependent variable on the Y-axis

Label all axis carefully and show the units of measure

Use ticks and subticks to divide the axis so that you don’t overload it with numbers

Use whiskers for showing standard deviations of point measurements (see Figure 3)

Figure 3. Absorption spectra of a red algae Palmaria palmata and a green algae Enteromorpha intestinalis

Pie charts:

Are well suited to represent proportions

Example given in Figure 4

Figure 4. Relative abundance of various phyla in sampling station M2 (subtidal area)

Bar graphs:

Can be presented for data collected at even or uneven intervals

Bars should be wider than the spaces between them (see Figure 5)

Use whiskers for showing standard deviations of point measurements (see Figure 5)

Figure 5. Polychaete density in station 1, 2, 3 and 4

Flowcharts

Are visual aids to understand complex concepts or procedures, experimental set-ups etc.

Example:

Excel file containing measurements Geographical coordinates in lat/lon Imported in Access Attribute table of GIS Point shapefile Converted into UTM GIS Point shapefile Unique ID

Photographs

Are used to illustrate the organism under study, the study site, the apparatus used etc.

Maps

Should contain (minimally):

A North arrow

A scale bar

Example:

Figure 6. Mangrove species map of Ras Dege mangrove area (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania), indicating regeneration capacity and cutting intensity measured in the sampled 10x10m² plots

Appendices

Appendix 1: Verbosity

Source: Scientific Style and Format. The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers, 1994. The Council of Biology Editors (now Council of Science Editors), 6th Edition, 825 pp. (ISBN: 0-521-47154-0).

A text with unneeded words and phrases slows the reader, and they should be eliminated. A phrase such as "it is interesting to note that" adds no information and only delays getting to the point of the sentence. Expressions such as "It is reported by Smith that. . :' can be shortened, for example, to "Smith reported that. . .". Many such widely used wordy phrases can be shortened to simpler forms.

[Wordy] a majority of a number of accounted for the fact that along the lines of an innumerable number of an order of magnitude are of the same opinion as a consequence of as far as our own observations are concerned, they show ascertain the location of at the present moment, at this point in time bright green in color by means of caused injuries to completely filled [We] conducted inoculation definitely proved despite the fact that due to the fact that during the course of during the time that fewer in number for the purpose of examining for the reason that future plans give rise to goes under the name of has the capability of if conditions are such that in a satisfactory manner, in an adequate manner in all cases in case in close proximity to in connection with in [my, our] opinion it is not an unjustifiable assumption that inorder to in the course of in the event that in the near future in the vicinity of in view of the fact that is in a position to it has been reported by Jones it is believed that it is often the case that it is possible that the cause is it is this that it is worth pointing out that it would thus appear that lacked the ability to large amounts of large in size large numbers of lenticular in character located in, located near masses are of large size necessitates the inclusion of of such hardness that on account of on behalf of on the basis of on the grounds that original source oval in shape, oval-shaped owing to the fact that past history plants exhibited good growth prior to [in time] referred to as results so far achieved round in shape serves the function of being smaller in size subsequent to take into consideration the fish in question the question as to whether the tests have not as yet the treatment having been performed there can be little doubt that this is through the use of throughout the entire area throughout the whole of the experiment two equal halves was of the opinion that with a view to getting with reference to with regard to with the result that	[Concise] most few, many, several, some because like innumerable, countless,many 10 times agree because of we observed find now bright green by, with injured filled inoculated proved although because, due to during, while while, when fewer to examine because plans cause is called can, is able if, when satisfactorily, adequately always, invariably if near about, concerning [I. We] think . To during, while if soon near because can, may Jones reported [omit] often the cause may be this note that apparently could not much large many lenticular in, near masses are large, large masses needs, requires so hard that because for from, by, because because source oval because, due to history plants grew well before called results so far, results to date round is smaller after consider this fish, these fish whether the tests have not after treatment this probably is by, with [not "via"] throughout the area throughout the experiment halves believed to get about [or omit] about, concerning [or omit] so that

Appendix 2: Example of a thesis cover

See next page.

An informative and concise title in a font of your choice

(optional: photograph or drawing pertaining to the research)

By

Your name

September 2007

Promoter: Co-promoter:	Prof. N. Johnson M. Smith	Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecological Marine Management

Appendix 3: Choosing a good title

Source: Davis, M., 1997. Scientific Papers and Presentations. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA, 296 pp. (Appendix 6: Evolution of a title)

Suppose that the following six titles are meant to describe the same study. Some of them are better than others. None of them may be fitting for a specific manuscript. Your choice will depend on which words are most important and which best describe the study involved. Think in terms of the words and the arrangement of words that will lead a reader to the central points in your study. The publisher may also have certain criteria for titles such as length and the use of scientific names.

Sample titles:

1. Controlling the Bollworm

2. Investigations into the Effects of Several Selected Phenolic Acid Compounds on the Mortality Rate, Developmental Time, and Pupal Weight Gain of the Cotton (Gossipium hirsutum L.) Bollworm (Helicoverpa zea Boddie) in Studies Involving Larvae Fed a Synthetic Diet in the Laboratory

3. The Effects of Selected Phenolic Compounds on the Mortality, Developmental Time, and Pupal Weight of Helicoverpa zea Boddie: Synthetic Diet Studies

4. Benzoic and Cinnamic Acids in Synthetic Diets Retard Development of Helicoverpa zea Larvae

5. Influence of Benzoic and Cinnamic Acids on Mortality or Growth	of Bollworm Larvae

6. Response of Helicoverpa zea Larvae to Benzoic and Cinnamic Acids

Number 1 might serve as a headline for an article in a newsletter for cotton producers, but it contains too little information to describe a scientific study.

Number 2 is too long and the inclusion of all these words cannot be justified. Certainly, the first three and the last three words can be omitted. Then why not "selected" rather than "several selected"? Why not "phenolic acids" rather than "phenolic acid compounds"? Why not "mortality" rather than "mortality rate"? Why not "pupal weight" rather than "pupal weight gain"? And can't we simply say "bollworm larvae" instead of "bollworm in studies involving larvae"? There is probably no need for the scientific name for cotton because we are naming the cotton bollworm and not the cotton plant. Whether the scientific name Helicoverpa zea Boddie appears in a title will depend on the style of the publisher. The authority Boddie might be omitted. Or the scientific names might be used and the common name cotton bollworm might be omitted. These choices would be based on the style of the publisher and the importance of the

words for the audience.

Number 3 is also rather long. We might omit "The effects of" and "the" before "mortality," but we still have a long title and must make some other choices. Can we save the "synthetic diet studies" for the abstract? Some publishers avoid two-part titles with the colon. Can we say "development" rather than "developmental time"? Or can we combine the words "developmental time and pupal weight" into a simple term like "growth"? Again, answers to these questions depend on what we need to best describe the study and which key words will allow the readers to retrieve a publication relevant to their interests.

Number 4 is perhaps short enough but could still be improved with the omission of "in synthetic diets" unless that information is vital to a brief description of the study. This title adds a detail by naming the specific phenolics used. This information may be worth the extra space needed. However, the title breaks a convention in scientific writing by using an active verb "retards" that describes the outcome of the study. Characteristically, popular press uses such verbs in headlines, but the scientific report simply describes results of a research effort and discusses outcomes but allows the reader to decide on any final conclusion that can be drawn from the work. What happens under the controlled conditions of a given experiment may not constitute a universal truth, and the active verb appears to be proclaiming such a truth.

Number 5 is about the same length and is similar to number 4 except that it avoids the active verb and uses the common name of the species rather than the scientific name. The choice of name would depend on which one you and your publisher believe will best communicate the information with your audience. The use of "mortality or growth" is somewhat more specific than "development" in number 4 and may be worthy of the extra two words especially if we can get rid of "in synthetic diets."

Number 6 is less descriptive of the paper's content but conserves words. Here I reserve the mortality and growth for the abstract and generalize with the word Response. Such a title may be the best choice especially for display on a poster or slide.